Engineering Guid e

RAMA CORPORATION
Innovation through Experience

600 W. Esplanade Avenue San Jacinto, CA 92583

Tel: 800.472.5670 u 909.654.7351
Fax: 800.255.4414 u 909.654.3748

e-mail: rama@koan.com

Since

1947

Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION

PAGE

Introduction..........................................................................................3
Power Requirements Formulas...................................................................4
Energy Calculations - Short Method...........................................................5
Energy Calculations - Itemized Method...................................................5-6
Heat Loss Curves....................................................................................7
Watt Density Curves...............................................................................8
Power Requirement Curves.......................................................................8
Ohms Law.............................................................................................9
Wattage Requirement Chart.....................................................................10
Properties of Materials.......................................................................11-13
Material Emissivities............................................................................13
Heater Life Estimation...........................................................................
13
Guidelines for Watt Density & Operation Temperature......................14
Corrosion Resistance of Materials.........................................15-16
Equivalents and Conversions...............................................................17-20
Wire Current Carrying Capacity & Temperature Rating................................. 2 1
Trigonometric Solutions........................................................................
22
Wiring Configurations............................................................................23
Suggested Wiring Practices for Electric Heaters.........................................24
Thermocouple Wire Selection..................................................................24
Temperature and Power Controls.......................................................25-28
Glossary......................................................................................29-31

Introduction

his Engineering section covers the basic

principles of thermal energy applications
as related to electrical resistance type
heaters. The foregoing information will assist an
individual in selecting approximate requirements for various heating systems. It includes
general calculations, engineering data, conversion charts, and suggested wiring practices for
solving heating problems. As an aid to understanding basic electrical terminology, a glossary
is included.
The purpose of this section is for basic electrical
sizing of non-complex systems. For critical
applications, Rama engineers are available to
assist you in selecting components to meet your
electrical heating requirements.

POWER REQUIREMENT FORMULAS

Several conditions must be considered when determining process
heating requirements. Energy required to bring a system up to operating temperature in a desired time (start-up) and the energy
required to maintain the operating temperature must be determined. The total power required (KW) to satisfy the system needs
will be the greater of the two values plus a safety factor.
It is helpful to define the heating system problem
including sketches and statement of requirements.
Some considerations would include:
Operating heat losses from exposed surfaces.
Insulation requirements.
Operating temperatures (beginning and final).
Time to reach temperature.
Environmental factors (i.e. ambient temperature).
Flow rates of process materials and cycle time.
Mechanical and thermal properties of process materials.
Size of container including weight, thermal proper-

When selecting electrical heating systems,

ambient air temperature, environment toxicity
and safety should be considered. Also, a basic
understanding of conduction, convection and
radiation modes of heat transfer is helpful.
As always, Rama design and application engineers are eager to aid you in satisfying your electrical requirements. We are experts in the electrical heating field and try to use off-the-shelf
solutions to supply you a high quality, low cost
product.
This section is designed only as a guide. Rama
has produced this guide in order to assist the
customer in choosing the correct heater for their
application. However, the customer hereby
releases Rama from all liability not specifically
assumed by Rama hereunder. See Ramas Terms
and Conditions for additional information on
liability.

ties, and other medium that will absorb heat energy.

Type of temperature control used.

SHORT & ITEMIZED METHODS

The Short Method can be used as a quick estimate to approximate
energy needs. The Itemized Method includes the properties of conduction, convection and radiation in determining heating properties. The following equations and steps permit calculations to
determine wattage requirements for specific applications.
STEP 1: Calculate the power required to heat your material and
the associated equipment in contact with the material
heated.
STEP 2: Calculate the power required to heat the added material introduced when equipment is operated.
STEP 3: Calculate the power required to melt or vaporize the
material during heat-up and operation time.
STEP 4: Calculate the power lost from surfaces.
STEP 5: Determine the greater energy required between startup power and operating power plus a safety factor.

EQUATIONS: SHORT METHOD

EQUATION 1: For step 1 and Step 2 use the following equation:
Weight
Specific Heat
Temperature
of matl (lb) (BTU/lb - F) Difference (F)
KW =
3412 (BTU/KWH) Time allowed for heat-up time (hr)

EQUATION 2: For step 3 use the following equation:

KW = Wgt. of matl (lb) Heat of fusion and/or vaporization (BTU/lb)
3412 (BTU/KWH) Time allowed for heat-up time (hr)

EQUATION 3: For step 4 use the following equation:

Thermal conductivity
Surface
Temperature
2
KW = of matl and/or insulation area (ft ) Difference (F)
3412 BTU/KWH Thickness of material and/or insulation (in.)

EQUATION 4: For step 5 use the following equation:

Power required for start-up operations:
Total KW = (Step 1 + Step 3, if applicable + 2/3 Step 4) 1.15
Power required for sustained operations:
Total KW = (Step 2 + Step 3, if applicable, + Step 4) 1.15
From these steps, determine the greater power required of the
two calculations to size your heater, a safety contingency of 15%
is included.

EQUATION 3D:

QL4 = A FL te
Q = Heat loss (conduction, convection or radiation)
k = Thermal Conductivity (btu in/ft2 F hour)
A = Surface area associated with heat loss (ft2)
L = Thickness of material (in)
CT = Temperature difference (F)
te = Time of heat loss (hours)
FL = Surface loss factor (W/ft2) (Use as required for
convection, radiation, and combined
convection/radiation)
C = Surface orientation factor: 1.29 (top),
0.63 (bottom), 1.00 (vertical)

EQUATION 3E:

Heat required to raise temperature of material (watthours).

Q1 or Q2 = W Cp CT
3.412

Q = Heat required to raise temperature of material during heat-up

or when added material is introduced.
W = Weight of material (lb)
Cp = Specific heat of material (btu/lb F)
CT = Temperature difference (F)

EQUATION 2: Heat required to vaporize or melt material (watt hours).

Qm = W Hf
3.412

Qv = W Hv
3.412

Q3 = Qm or Qv for start-up
Q4 = Qm or Qv for working cycle
Qm = Heat required to melt material
Qv = Heat required to vaporize material
W = Weight of material (lb)
Hf = Latent heat of fusion (BTU/lb)
Hv = Latent heat of vaporization (BTU/lb)

EQUATION 3A: Heat loss - Conduction (watt-hours).

QL1 = k A CT te
3.412 L

EQUATION 3B: Heat loss - Convection (watt-hours).

QL2 = A FL CSF te

EQUATION 3C:

Heat loss - Radiation (watt-hours).

QL3 = A FL e te

Heat loss - Total.

QL = QL1 + QL2 + QL3

or
QL = QL1 + QL4
if combined convection and radiation losses are used.

EQUATION 4:

Start-up Power (watts).

Ps = [ Q1 + Q3 + 2 (QL )] (1 + SF)
ts
3 te

EQUATIONS: ITEMIZED METHOD

EQUATION 1:

Heat loss - Combined convection and

radiation (watt-hours).

EQUATION 5:

Maintaining Power (watts).

Pm = [Q2 + Q4 + (QL)] (1 + SF)
tc
te

Q1 = Heat required to raise material temperature

during start-up (WH)
Q2 = Heat required to raise material temperature
when added material is introduced (WH)
Q3 = Latent heat of fusion/evaporation during
start-up (WH)
Q4 = Latent heat of fusion/evaporation when added
material is introduced (WH)
QL = Total losses - Conduction, Convection,
Radiation (WH)
ts = Start-up time (hr)
c = Cycle time (hr)
te = Exposure time (hr)
SF = Safety Factory (normally 15%)
When performing calculations using the Itemized Method, often
some of the heat loss factors may be negligible and need not be
taken into consideration. Conduction in many cases is the primary
contribution to heat loss.
After the power requirements have been determined, the appropriate heaters should be selected. The heater temperature will always
be higher than the material process temperature. The maximum
heater temperature allowed is dependent on the heat transfer path
(i.e. hole fit for cartridge heater) and amount of insulation. The
heater allowable watt density (w/in2) as a function of heater surface
temperature should be verified by means of the charts and graphs
shown in this section.

Use Short Method equation #1.

Energy Calculations
Short Method

! Flow Rate = 10 GPM

! Temperature Difference = 150 - 68F
! Density of Water = 62.4 lbs/ft3 (8.34 lbs/gal)
! Specific Heat = 1.0 BTU/lb F
Weight = 10 GPM 8.34 lbs/gal 60 min/hr = 5004 lbs/hr

EXAMPLE #1
It is desired to heat a platen to 350 F in 1 hour. The two halves of
the platen weigh 490 lbs. total and measure 12" 18" 4". The platen
is made of mild steel and covered with 1" of insulation.
w Weight of material = 490 lbs
w Temp. Difference = temp. increase (350 - 70 F)
w Specific heat = 0.12 BTU/lb F for mild steel
w Heat up time = 1 hour
w Thermal Conductivity =
approx. 0.67 BTU in/ft2 F hr for insulation
w Surface Area = 880 in2 (6.11 ft2)
w Insulation thickness = 1"

STEP 1:

Power to heat material (equation #1)

KW = 490 lb. 0.12 (350-70) = 4.825 KW
3412 1 hr.

STEP 2 and STEP 3 are not required due the fact that no material
is being added or is being melted or vaporized.

KW = 5004 1.0 (150-68) = 120.3 KW

3412 1.0

Energy Calculations
Itemized Method

EXAMPLE #4
Estimate radiation heat loss of polished 304 stainless steel at 700F.
Use Itemized Method Equation #3c.
! A = 1 in2 (surface area)
! F = 6.96 W/in2 Black Body Radiation Factor
(see Fig. 2 graph for Oxidize Steel curve use for Black Body)
! e = 0.17 (emissivity correction factor) see table 9
! te = 1 hour exposure time

STEP 4: Power loss from surfaces (alternate - use Figure 1 Heat

Loss Graph) Equation #3.

QL3 = A F e te
Q = 1 6.96 0.17 1 = 1.18 W/in2

KW= 0.67 6.11 ft2 (350-70) = 0.336KW

3412 1"

STEP 5: Determine energy required plus safety factor.

Total KW = (4.825 KW + 2/3 0.336KW) 1.15 = 5.806 KW
The Start-up requirement is the governing power for this system.
There is adequate space to install cartridge heaters in the platen. Six
1/2" diameter 12" long cartridge heaters will be installed in each
platen halve. Each heater will be rated at 220V, 500 watts totaling
6000 watts. The watt density of each heater is approx. 27 watts/in2
which is below the maximum allowable temperature (see Fig. 11
graph). Hole fit should be kept to a minimum, suggesting maximum
total clearance of 0.005".

EXAMPLE #2
How much power is required to melt 100 lbs of aluminum in 1 hour?
Use Short Method Equation #2.
Weight of Material= 100 lbs
Heat of Fusion = 169 BTU/hr
Time = 1 Hr
KW =

100 lbs 169 BTU/hr = 4.953 KW

3412 BTU/KWH 1 hr

EXAMPLE #3
Find power required to heat 10 gallons per minute of water from 68F
to 150F.

EXAMPLE #5
The open tank in figure 1 - 1, is filled with water to within 3 of the
top. It is desired to heat the tank and water to 150F in 1 hour. The
tank size is 50 long x 15 wide x 30 high and holds 88 gallons of
water. The tank weighs 100 lbs and the sides are covered with 2
thick insulation.
Initial Temperature = 60F
Final Temperature = 150F
Heat up Time = 1 hour
Tank Weight = 100 lbs
Water Volume = 88 gallons
Insulation Thickness = 2

WATER
Figure 1-1

As in the Short Method, the 5 steps to calculate power requirements

should be followed. Steps 2 and 3 will be omitted since no material is
being added nor is there a material phase change.

STEP 1A: Heat Requirement Calculation: The power required to heat

the stainless steel tank (Equation 1).
QT=WCPT = 100 lbs .12 BTU/lb - F 90F = 316.53 (WH)
3.412
3.412 (BTU/WH)
Where:
QT = Heat required to raise temperature of material, watt hours.
W = Weight of material, lb = 100 lbs.
CP = Specific heat of material, (BTU/lb F). See Table 7.
T = Temperature change = 150F - 60F = 90F

STEP 1B: The Power required to heat water (Equation 1).

QW = 732.5lbs 1.0 BTU/lbF 90F =19,321.51(WH)
3.412 (BTU/WH.)
Where:
W = Weight of Water =
4.1667 1.25 2.25 = 11.72ft3 62.5 = 732.5lbs.
Density of Water = 62.5 (lb/ft3)
Cp = Specific heat of Water = 1.0 (BTU/lb. F) See table 5.
T= Temperature change = 150F - 60F = 90F

Where:
A = Area of bottom of tank = 4.1667x 1.25 (ft) = 5.208 (ft2)
FL = Heat loss factor from Fig. 2 graph = 100 (W/ft2)
t = Time of heat loss = 1 hr
e

STEP 4D: Total Losses (Equation 3e)

QL = QLWS + QLTY + QLTB = 1125 + 176 + 286 = 1587(WH)
total losses.

STEP 5 : Wattage required to Heat Tank system with 1.15 safety factor
(Equation 4).

STEP 1C: Total power to heat tank and water.

PS =
Q1 = QT + QW
Q1 = 317 (WH) = 19,321 (WH) = 19,638 (WH)

STEP 2: Power required to heat the added material introduced when

equipment is operated. NOT REQUIRED.

STEP 3: Power required to melt or vaporize the material during heat-up

and operation. NOT REQUIRED.

STEP 4A:

Heat Loss Equation. Heat loss from water surface: open

[Q1 +tQ2 + 32 (Qt L)] (1 + SF)

s

PS = 19,638WH + 0WH + 2 1587WH

1hr
3
1hr
Ps = 23,800 Watts

)]

(1 + .15)

ts = start-up time

The maximum recommended heater watt density for water is 60

(W/in2) (see table 10). Therefore it is recommended, in this application, to use three screw-in immersion heaters with three heaters per
assembly at 8,000 watts each or 24,000 watts total. Always round
your wattage up to allow for manufacturing tolerances.

tank top. (Equation 3d).

QLWS = A FL te = 5.208ft 216(W/ft2) 1(hr) = 1125 (WH)
Where:
QLWS = Heat loss from a surface, (watt hours)
A = Surface area associated with heat loss, (ft2)
.1667 1.25 = 5.208 ft2
FL = Heat loss factor, (watts/ft2)
1.5 (w/ft) 1 ft2 = 144in = 216 (w/ft2) (See Fig. 3 graph)
te = Time of heat loss (hours) = 1 hour

STEP 4B: Heat loss from tank (vertical surfaces): Metal Surfaces with

FIGURE 1: Heat loss through various thickness

insulation (K = .67 @ 200F and .81 @ 900F)

2 insulation (Equation 3d)

QLTV = A (ft) FL te
Insulated QLTV = 24.375 (ft2) 7.2 (W/ft2) 1 (hr) = 175.5 (WH)
Where:
A = Vertical surfaces area of tank =
2 {[4.1667 2.25 (ft)] + [1.25 2.25 (ft)]} = 24.375 (ft2)
FL = Heat loss factor for insulated metal surface from
Fig. #1 Graph (Approx. .05w/In2)
te = Time of heat loss = 1hr

STEP 4C: Heat loss from tank - bottom surface (Equation 3d).
QLTB = 5.208 (ft2) x 55 (W/ft2) x 1(hr) = 286.44 (WH)

FIGURE 2: Combined convection and radiation heat loss from uninsulated metal surfaces.
Note: Use oxidized steel curve to approximate black body
radiation.

Heat Loss Curves

FIGURE 3: Heat loss from surface of fluids.

FIGURE 4: Heat transfer from tubular heaters to air by forced convection.

FIGURE 5:

Heat loss from uninsulated steel

cylinders.

FIGURE 6: Heat required to raise water

temperatures.

FIGURE 7: Allowable watt-density, metal sheath heaters in distributed

air velocity at various
temperatures.

FIGURE 8: Temperature variation with change in watt-density and

hole fit, metal sheath heaters in metal plates and molds.

Watt-Density &
Power Requirement
Curves

FIGURE 10:

Recommended maximum watt-density vs. varying ambient air

temperature for metal sheath heaters.

FIGURE 9: Heat-up requirements for air for varying

rise of temperature.

FIGURE 11: High watt-density vs. temperature for metal sheath

heaters in still air (78F).

FIGURE 13: Heat-up time vs. surface temperature for flexible blanket
heaters (with varying watt-densities) suspended in still air.

FIGURE 12: Metal sheath heater temperature at various watt-densities

and air temperatures.

FIGURE 14: Maximum recommended watt-density for flexible rubber heaters

vs. part (or ambient air) temperature for various mounting methods. For applications where watt-density may be higher consult factory.

RAMA CORPORATION
Ohms Law

VOLTS (E)
Volts =

AMPERES (I)

Watts Ohms

Amperes = Volts
Ohms

Volts = Watts
Amperes
Volts = Amperes Ohms

W
I

WR

W
R

VOLTS

Watts
Ohms

AMPS

E
I

OHMS

WATTS

Ohms = Volts
Amperes

EI

IR

W
OHMS (R)

Amperes =

W
E

IR

Amperes = Watts
Volts

E
R

E
W

E
R

WATTS (W)
Watts = Volts 2
Ohms
Watts = Amperes 2 Ohms

Ohms = Volts 2
Watts

Watts = Volts Amperes

Ohms = Watts
Amperes 2

WATT DENSITY CALCULATIONS

BAND HEATERS:
watts/in 2 =
Wattage varies directly as ratio of voltages squared:
W2 = W1

( E2)2E

3 Phase Amperes = Total Watts

Volts 1.732

Wattage
Dia. x 3.1416 Width

CARTRIDGE & TUBULAR HEATERS:

watts/in 2 =

Wattage
Dia. x 3.1416 Heated Length

STRIP HEATERS:
watts/in 2 =

Wattage
Heated Length Width

Wattage Requirement
Charts
Table 1: To Heat Steel
WEIGHT
IN LBS
25
50
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Table 2: To Heat Air

.
TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)

50

.06
.12
.25
.37
.50
.65
.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50

.12
.25
.37
.50
.65
.25
.50
.75
1.00 1.25
.50 1.00 1.50
2.00 2.50
.75 1.50 2.25
3.00 3.75
1.00 2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
1.25 2.50 3.75
5.00 6.25
1.50 3.00 4.50
6.00 7.50
2.00 4.00 6.00
8.00 10.00
2.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.50
3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00
3.50 7.00 10.50 14.00 17.50
4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00
4.50 9.00 13.50 18.00 22.50
5.00 10.50 15.00 20.00 25.00
KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

.75
1.50
3.00
4.50
6.00
7.50
9.00
12.00
15.00
18.00
21.00
24.00
27.00
30.00

100 200 300 400 500 600

Includes 20% safety factor to compensate for heat losses and/or low volume.

FOR STEEL

.
TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)
Ft3/Min.

CFM

50

100

150

200

100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200

1.7
3.3
5.0
6.7
8.3
10.0
11.7
13.3
15.0
16.7
18.3
20.0

3.3
6.7
10.0
13.3
16.7
20.0
23.3
26.7
30.0
33.3
36.7
40.0

5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
55.0
60.0

6.7
8.3
13.3 16.7
20.0 25.0
26.7 33.3
33.3 41.7
40.0 50.0
46.7 58.3
53.3 66.7
60.0 75.0
66.7 83.3
73.3 91.7
80.0 100.0

250

300

350

400

450

10.0
11.7 13.3
15.0
20.0 23.3 26.7
30.0
30.0 35.0 40.0
45.0
40.0 46.7 53.3
60.0
50.0 58.3 66.7
75.0
60.0 70.0 80.0
90.0
70.0 81.7 93.3 105.0
80.0 93.3 106.7 120.0
90.0 105.0 120.0 135.0
100.0 116.7 133.3 150.0
110.0 128.3 146.7 165.0
120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0
KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

FOR AIR

FOR COMPRESSED AIR

* Measured at normal temperature and pressure.

**Measured at greater system inlet temperature and pressure.

KW = CFM** Density** Temperature Rise (F)

228

Table 3: To Heat Water

Table 4: To Heat Oil

.
TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)

FT GAL
.
.
.
/HR /HR 20 40 60
.66
1.3
2
2.7
3.3
4
5.3
6.7
8
9.4
10.7
12
13.4
16.7
20
23.4
26.7
33.7
40
53.4
66.8

5
10
13
20
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500

0.3
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.7
3.3
3.7
4.3
5
5.5
7
8
9
11
13
16
21
27

80

.
.
.
100 120 140

0.5
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.6
1.9
1.1
1.6
2.1
2.7
3.2
3.7
1.6
2.4
3.2
4
4.8
5.6
2.2
3.2
4.3
5.3
6.4
7.5
2.7
4
5.3
6.7
8
9.3
3.2
4.8
6.4
8
9.6 12
4
6.4
8.5 11
13
15
5.4
8
10.7 13
16
19
6.4
9.6 12.8 16
19
22
7.5 11.2 15
19
22
26
8.5 13
17
21
26
30
10
14.5 19
24
29
34
11
16
21
27
32
37
13
20
27
33
40
47
16
24
32
40
48
56
18
28
37
47
56
65
21
32
43
53
64
75
27
40
53
67
80
93
32
47
64
80
96
112
43
64
85
107
128
149
53
80
107
133
160
187
KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

FOR WATER
Quick estimates for other volumes:

KW=

Gal/Hr 8.34 Temperature Rise (F)

3412

GAL/HR=

10

KW 3412
8.34 Temperature Rise (F)

600

16.7
33.3
50.0
66.7
83.3
100.0
116.7
133.3
150.0
166.7
183.3
200.0

20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
140.0
160.0
180.0
200.0
220.0
240.0

Use the maximum anticipated airflow. Table 2 and below equations

assume insulated duct, negligible heat loss, 70 inlet air and 14 PSIA.

KW = CFM* Temperature rise (F)

3000

KW = Kilograms Temp. Rise (C)

5040 Heat-up Time (hrs)

500

3
FT GAL
/HR /HR

.5
1
2
3
4
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75

3.74
7.48
14.96
22.25
29.9
37.4
74.8
112.5
149.6
187
222.5
252
299
336.5
374
412
449
486
524
562

.
TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)

50

0.3
0.5
1
2
2
3
5
7
9
11
13
16
18
20
22
25
27
29
32
34

.
.
.
.
.
100 200 300 400 500
0.5
1
1
3
4
4
9
14
18
22
27
31
36
40
45
49
54
58
62
67

1
2
2
6
8
9
18
28
37
46
56
65
74
84
93
102
112
121
130
140

2
3
4
9
12
15
29
44
58
72
86
100
115
129
144
158
172
186
200
215

2
4
6
12
16
20
40
60
80
100
120
139
158
178
197
217
236
255
275
294

KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

FOR OIL
Quick estimates for other volumes:

KW=

Gallons Temperature Rise (F)

800 Process Start-up Time (hrs)

Add 5% for uninsulated tanks.

3
6
11
16
22
25
52
77
102
127
151
176
201
226
252
276
302
326
350
375

LIQUIDS

Properties of Materials

Table 5

Substance

Specific heat
Btu/lb -F

Acetic Acid, 100%

Acetone
Allyl Alcohol
Ammonia, 100%
Amyl Alcohol
Aniline
Arochlor Oil
Brine-Solium Chloride, 25%
Butyl Alcohol
Butyric Acid
Carbon Tetrachloride
Corn Syrup, Dextrose
Cottonseed Oil
Ether
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Alcohol, 95%
Ethyl Bromide
Ethyl Chloride
Ethyl Lodide
Ethylene Bromide
Ethylene Chloride
Ethylene Glycol
Fatty Acid, Aleic
Fatty Acid, Palmitic
Fatty Acid, Stearic
Formic Acid
Freon 11
Freon 12
Freon 22
Fruit, Fresh (Avg)
Glycerine
Heptane
Hexane
Honey
Hydrochloric Acid 10%
Lard
Linseed Oil
Maple Syrup
Mercury
Methyl Acetate
Methyl Chloroform
Methylene Chloride
Milk 3.5%
Molasses
Nitric Acid, 7%
Nitric Acid, 95%
Nitrobenzene
Olive Oil

.48
.514
.665
1.1
.65
.514
.28
.786
.687
.515
.21
.65
.47
.503
.475
.60
.215
.367
.161
.172
.299
.55
.7
.653
.550
.525
.208
.232
.300
.88
.58
.49
.6
.34
.93
.64
.44
.48
.033
.47
.26
.288
.90
.60
.92
.5
.35
.47

Heat of vaporization
Btu/lb

175
225
293
589
216
198
***
730
254
***
***
***
***
160
183.5
370
108
166.5
81.3
83
139
***
***
***
***
216
***
62
***
***
***
137.1
142.5
***
***
***
***
***
117
176.5
95
142
***
***
918
207
142.2
***

Boiling
point
F

Densityweight
in lbs/ft3

245
65.4
133
49
207
55
-27
47.9
280
55
63
64.3
650
89.7
220
74.1
244
45.3
345
50.4
170
98.5
231
87.8
***
59.2
95
46
180
51.5
***
50.4
101
90.5
54
57
160
113
270
120
240
71.7
387
70.0
547
55.4
520
53.1
721
52.8
213
69.2
74.9
92.1
-21.6
81.8
-41.36 74.53
***
50-60
556
78.7
210
38.2
155
38.2
***
***
221
66.5
***
57.4
552
57.9
***
***
675
845
133
54.8
165
82.7
104
82.6
***
64.2
220
87.4
220
64.7
187
93.5
412
***
570
58

Thermal
conductivity
Btu-in/hr-ft2 F

1.14
1.15
***
3.48
***
1.25
***
2.88
***
***
***
***
1.20
.95
***
1.30
***
***
***
***
***
***
1.10
.996
.936
***
.60
.492
.624
***
1.97
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
59.6
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***

Acetylene
(ethyne)
Air
Ammonia
Argon
Butane
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Monoxide
Chlorine
Ethane
Ethylene
Helium
Hydrogen
Chloride
Hydrogen

Perchlorethylene
.21
90
Petroleum Products:
Asphalt
.42
***
Benzene
.42
170
Fuel Oils:
Fuel Oil #1 (Kerosene)
.47
86
Fuel Oil #2
.44
***
Fuel Oil Medium #3,#4
.425
67
Fuel Oil Heavy #5,#6
.41
***
Gasoline
.53
116
Machine/Lube Oils:
SAE 10-30
.43
***
SAE 40-50
.43
***
Napthalene
.396 103
Paraffin Melted (150F+)
.69
70
Propane (Compressed)
.576
***
Toluene
.42
***
Transformer Oils
.42
***
Phenol (Carbolic Acid)
.56
***
Phosphoric Acid 10%
.93
***
Phosphoric Acid 20%
.85
***
Polyurethane Foam
Components:
Part A Isocyanate
.6
***
Part B Polyoil Resin
.7
***
Potassium (1000F)
.18
893
Propionic Acid
.56
177.8
Propyl Alcohol
.57
295.2
Sea Water
.94
***
Sodium (1000F )
.30 1810
Sodium Hydroxide
(Caustic Soda)
30% Sol
.84
***
50% Sol
.78
***
Soybean Oil
.24-.33
***
Starch
***
***
Sucrose, 40% Sugar Syrup
.66
***
Sucrose, 60% Sugar Syrup
.74
***
Sulfur, Melted (500F)
.24
120
Sulfuric Acid 20%
.84
***
Sulfuric Acid 60%
.52
***
Sulfuric Acid 98%
.35
219
Trichloroethylene
.23
103
Trichloro-Trifluoroethane
.21
63
Turpentine
.42
133
Vegetable Oil
.43
***
Water
1.00
965
Xylene
.411 149.2

Densityweight
in lbs/ft3

Boiling
point
F

Heat of vaporization
Btu/lb

Thermal
conductivity
Btu-in/
hr-ft2 F

250

101.3

***
175

62.3
56

5.04
1.04

440
***
580
***
280

50.5
53.9
55.7
58.9
41-43

1.01
.96
.918
.852
.936

***
***
424
572
-48.1
***
***
346
***
***

55.4
55.4
54.1
56
.13
53.7
56.3
66.6
65.4
69.1

***
***
***
1.68
1.81
1.032
.9
***
***
***

***
***
1400
286
208
***
1638
***
***
***
***
214
218
832
218
282
625
188
118
319
***
212
288

***

77
1.14
74.8
1.32
44.6 260.4
61.8 ***
50.2 ***
64.2 ***
51.2 580
82.9
95.4
57.4
95.4
73.5
80.4
112
71
93.5
114.7
91.3
94.6
54
57.5
62.5
53.8

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
2.88
1.80
.84
***
***
***
4.08
***

distillation range for the material.

Table 6

Thermal
Specific heat at
conductivity
constant pressure
Btu-in/hr-ft2 F
Btu/lb-F *
*

Specific heat
Btu/lb -F

At or near room temperature.

Average value shown boils at various temperatures with the

GASES & VAPORS

Substance

Substance

Density
lbs/ft3 *

Specific gravity relative to

air

.129
.18
.16
.12
.0876
.12
.18
.06
...
.1212
1.10

.35
.24
.523
.124
.395
.199
.248
.115
.386
.40
1.25

.0682
.075
.0448
.1037
.1554
.115
.0727
.1869
.0789
.0733
.0104

.907
1.000
.596
1.379
2.067
1.529
.967
2.486
1.049
.975
.1381

...
.13

.191
3.42

.0954
.0052

1.268
.0695

Substance
Hydrogen
Sulphide
Methane
Methyl Chloride
Natural Gas
Nitric Oxide
Nitrogen
Nitrous Oxide
Oxygen
Propane
Propane
(propylene)
Sulphur Dioxide
Water vapor at
212F

*At 70 & atmospheric pressure (14.7 PSIA) Natural gas values are representative. Specific contents of sampling are required for exact characteristics.

Thermal
conductivity
Btu-in/hr-ft2
F *

Specific heat at
constant pressure
Btu/lb-F *

Density
lbs/ft3 *

Specific
gravity relative to air

.091
.21
...
...
.1656
.19
.1056
.18
...

.243
.593
.24
.56
.231
.247
.221
.217
.393

.0895
.0417
.1342
.0502
.078
.0727
.1151
.0831
.1175

1.19
.554
1.785
.667
1.037
.967
1.53
1.105
1.562

...
.07

.358
.154

.1091
.1703

1.451
2.264

.16

.482

.037

.489

11

METAL & NON-METALLIC SOLIDS

Table 7

Substance

Specific
Heat

Aluminum 2024-T3
.24
Aluminum 1100-0
.24
Antimony
.049
Asbestos Cement
Board
.25
Asphalt
.40
Bakelite Resin, Pure .3-.4
Barium
.068
Beeswax
***
Beryllium
.052
Bismuth
.031
Boron
.309
Brass, Yellow
.096
Brickwork & Masonry .220
Bronze
(75% Cu; 25% Sn)
.082
Cadmium
.055
Calcium
.149
Calcium Chloride
.17
Carbon
.280
Cement, Portland
Loose
.19
Cerafelt Insulation
@ 1000F
25
Ceramic Fiber
.27
Chalk
.215
Chromium
.11
Clay
.224
Coal
.32
Coal Tar
.35-.45
Cobalt
.099
Coke
.265
Concrete, Cinder
.16
Concrete, Stone
.156
Copper
.095
Cork
.50
Cotton (Flax, Hemp) .31
Delrin
.350
Firebrick, Fireclay
.243
Firebrick, Silica
.258
Glass
.20
Gold
.032
Granite
.192
Graphite
.20
Ice
.53
Incoloy 800
.13
Inconel 600
.126
Invar (36%Ni)
.126
Iron, Cast
.12
Iron, Wrought
.12
Isoprene, Rubber
.48
Lead, Solid
.032
Limestone
.217
Lithium
.79
Manganese
.115
Magnesium
.27
Magnesia, 85%
.222
MgO (Compacted)
.209
Mercury
.033
Mica
.21
Molybdenum
.061
Monel 400
.11
Nickel 200
.12
Nichrome
(80% Ni - 20% Cr)
.11

*Density-

*Thermal conThermal expanductivity

sion in/in/F x
Btu/in
10-6
2
hr ft

Heat of
fusion
Btu/lb

Melting
point
F

167
169
69

935
1190
1166

173
169
423

1344
1536
131

12.6
13.1
***

Paper
Paraffin
Pitch (Hard)

***
40
***
***
75
***
23
***
***
***

***
250
***
1562
144
2345
520
4172
1710
***

121
65
74-81
225
60.5
113.5
612
144
529
131

5.2
1.2
***
***
1.67
***
59
***
828
3-7

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
11.2
3-6

75
23.8
140
72
***

1832
610
1564
1422
6700

541
540
96.7
157
138

180
660
912
***
173

***
***
***
***
***

***

***

94

2.04

***

Plastics:
ABS
Acrylic
Cellulose Acetate
Cellulose Acetate
Butyrate
Epoxy
Fluoroplastics
Nylon
Phenolic
Polycarbonate
Polyester
Polyethylene
Polyimides
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polyvinyl Chloride
Acetate

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
115.2
***
***
***
91.1
***
***
***
***
***
***
29.0
***
***
144
***
***
***
***
***
***
11.3
***
59
116
160
***
***
5
***
126
***
133

3
***
***
2822
3160
***
***
2696
***
***
***
1981
***
***
***
2900
3000
2200
1945
***
***
32
2500
2500
2600
2150
2800
***
620
***
367
2268
1202
5070
***
-38
***
4750
2370
2615

***
4-10
112-175
450
90
80
78
554
62-88
100
144
556
13.5
92.4
88.1
137-150
144-162
164
1206
160-175
130
56.0
501
525
506
449
480
58
708
130-175
367
463
109
19
194
844
176
638
551
555

1.22
***
5.76
484
9
11
***
499
***
5.3
9.5
2688
.36
.41
1.6
6.6
7.2
5.4
2028
13-28
1.25
11
97
109
73
396
432
1.0
240
3.6-9
516
80.6
1092
***
20
60.8
3.0
***
151
468

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
9.8
***
***
45.0
***
***
5.0
7.9
***
***
28.3
7.9
5.8
***
6.0
***
***
16.4
***
***
***
14.0
***
7.7
***
18.0
***
6.4
5.8

***

2550

522

104.4

7.3

weight in
lbs/ft3

* At or near room temperature.

Melting
point
F

*Densityweight in
lbs/ft3

.45
.69
***

***
63
300

***
133
83

58.8
55.3
***

.82
1.6
***

***
***

.35
.34
.3-.5

***
***
***

***
***
***

69-76
69-74
76-83

1.32
1.0
1.2-2.3

***
***
***

.3-.4
.25-.3
.28
.3-.5
.35
.3
.2-.35
.54
.27-.31
.46
.32

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***

74
66-88
131-150
67-72
85-124
74-78
66-92
57-60
90
55-57
66

1.2-2.3
1.2-2.4
1.68
1.68
1.02
1.38
4-5
2.3
2.5-6.8
1.72
.7-1.0

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
94.0
***
33-34

.2-.3

***

***

72-99

.84-1.2

***

.035
.26
.058
.17
.26
.26
.059
.44
.40
.45
.162
.057
.295

49
***
26.2
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
38
49.3

3225
***
146
1454
633
***
3570
***
***
***
2570
1760
207

1339
145-155
750
124
132
138
776
76.0
58
78
14.5
665
60

492
6-10
720
***
***
***
636
1.1
1.0
***
***
2904
972

4.9
***
***
***
***
***
***
340
***
***
***
10.8
***

.051
.20
.122
.12
.11
.175
.30
***
.035
.25
.065
.13
.0321

17
***
***
***
***
17
***
90
***
***
26.1
***
79

420
***
2760
2550
2650
246
320
60.0
5425
***
450
3035
6170

558
162
491
494
475
130
105
***
1036
135
454
283
1200

336
17.5-23
456
105.6
150
1.9
***
***
372
1.7
432
111.6
1130

13.1
4.5-5.5
6.7
9.6
6.0
36.0
***
***
3.6
55.0
13.0
4.7
2.5

.040
.028
.3-.5
.45
.57
.066
.096

14
***
***
***
***
108
43.3

500
3075
***
***
***
3350
264

669
1170
79.5
34
50
400
445

180
193.2
.8-20
.9
1.1
145
7.40

***
***
28-100
***
***
3.2
22.1

Substance

Platinum
Porcelain
Potassium
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Nitrate
Quartz
Rhodium
Rubber
Rubber, Synthetic
Silicone Rubber
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Solder
(50%Pb-50%Sn.)
Steatite
Steel Mild
Steel S. 304
Steel S. 430
Sulfur
Sugar
Tallow
Tantalum
Teflon
Tin, Solid
Titanium 99.0%
Tungsten
Type Metal
(85%Pb-13%Sb.)
Uranium
Vinyl
Wood, Pine
Wood, Oak
Zirconium
Zinc

Heat

! To convert to Kg/m 3 multiply by 16.02.

! To convert to Kj/Kg multiply by 2.326.
! To convert to Kj/Kg - C multiply Btu/lb - F by 4.187.
! To convert to W/m - C multiply Btu - in/hr - ft 2 by 0.1442.

12

*Thermal con- Thermal expanducsion in/in/F x

tivity
10Btu/in
hr ft2 F 6

Heat of
fusion
Btu/lb

Specific

Thermal

METALS

Table 8

IN

LIQUID STATE

Specific
Heat

Substance

Btu/lb-F

Aluminum

Bismuth

Cadmium

Gold
Lead
Lithium
Magnesium

Mercury

Potassium
Silver

Sodium

Heat of fusion

Melting point
F

Btu/lb

TemperatureF

Density weight
lbs/ft3

Thermal conductivity
Btu- in
hr ft2 -F

Material Emissivities
Heat Loss Factors

.26
.26
.26
.034
@ 520F
.0354
.0376
.0632
.0632
.0632
.0632
.0355
.038
.037
1.0
1.0
.317
***
.321
.0334
.03279
***
.3245
.1901
.1826
.0692
.0692
.0692
.331
.320
.301

173
***
***

1220.4
***
***

1220
1292
1454

148.6
147.7
***

***
717
842

21.6
***
***
23.8
***
***
***
26.9
10.6
***
284.4
***
148
***
***
5
***
***
***
26.3
***
44.8
***
***
48.7
***
***

520
***
***
609
***
***
***
1945
621
***
354
***
1204
***
***
-38
***
***
***
147
***
1761
***
***
208
***
***

572
752
1112
626
662
680
752
2012
700
932
392
752
1204
1328
1341
32
212
320
392
300
752
1761
1832
2000
212
400
752

626.2
618.7
603.1
500
498.8
***
495
1076
655.5
648.7
31.7
31
98
94.3
***
***
833.6
***
818.8
50.6
46.6
580.6
578.1
574.4
57.9
56.2
53.3

119
107.4
107.4
***
307.7
305
***
***
111.6
107.4
262
***
***
***
***
57
***
81
***
312
277.5
***
***
***
596.5
556.8
493.8

.0556
.0584
.058
***
***
.12
***
.177

17
28
26.1
***
***
43.9
***
***

421
375
449
***
***
787
***
***

***
***
482
768
783
787
932
1112

***
***
***
426.6
***
432
***
425

***
***
***
***
229.3
***
400.6
394.8

Solder
.5 Sn. .5Pb
.6 Sn. .4Pb
Tin

Zinc

MATERIAL EMISSIVITIES /N ON -METALS

Substance

Specific
heat

Table 9

MATERIAL EMISSIVITIES /METALS

Specific
heat

Substance
Aluminum
Blackbody
Brass
Copper
Incoloy 800
Inconel 600
Iron, Cast
Lead, solid
Magnesium
Nickel 200
Nichrome, 80-20
Solder, 50-50
Steel:
mild
stainless 304
stainless 430
Tin
Zinc

Emissivity

Btu/lb-F

Polished
surface

Medium
oxide

Heavy oxide

0.24
***
0.10
0.10
0.12
0.11
0.12
0.03
0.23
0.11
0.11
0.04

0.09
***
0.04
0.04
0.20
0.20
***
***
***
***
***
***

0.11
0.75
0.35
0.03
0.60
0.60
0.80
0.28
***
***
***
***

0.22
1.00
0.60
0.65
0.92
0.92
0.85
***
***
***
***
***

0.12
0.11
0.11
0.056
0.10

0.10
0.17
0.17
***
***

0.75
0.57
0.57
***
0.25

0.85
0.85
0.85
***
***

HEATER LIFE ESTIMATION

The table below shows the estimated life of a heater internal element (i.e. Tophet A, 80 Ni
20 Cr wire) at various temperatures. The life of a heater is a function of maximum temperature and temperature cycling. Higher temperatures means shorter heater life. Life of cartridge heaters with MGO insulation are limited to the wire oxidation rate. Silicone rubber
and mica insulated heaters have life limits associated with the temperature limits of the
insulating materials. (Note: Allowances must be made for heater sheath temperature vs.
heater element temperature.)

Emissivity

Btu/lb-F

Asbestos
Asphalt
Brickwork
Carbon
Glass
Paper
Plastic
Rubber
Silicon Carbide
Textiles
Wood, Oak

0.25
0.40
0.22
0.20
0.20
0.45
0.2-0.5
0.40
0.20-0.23
***
0.57

ELEMENT TEMP. (F)

Most non-metals:
0.90

1500F
1600F
1700F
1800F
1900F
2000F

ESTIMATED LIFE
3-1/2 years
1 year
4 months
1-1/2 months
14 days
7 days

13

Guidelines

for Watt Density &

Operation Temperature

Table 10

Material
to be heated

Acid Solution (Mild)

Acetic
Boric
Carbonic
Chromic
Citric
Fatty Acids
Lactic
Malic
Nitric
Phenol - 2-4
Disulfonic
Phosphoric
Phosphoric
(Aerated)
Proponic
Tannic
Tartaric
Acetaldehyde
Acetone
Air
Alcyl Alcohol
Alkaline Solutions
Aluminum Acetate
Aluminum Potassium
Sulfate
Ammonia Gas
Ammonium Acetate
Amyl Acetate
Amyl Alcohol
Aniline
Asphalt
Barium Hydroxide
Benzene, liquid
Butyl Acetate
Calcium Bisulfate
Calcium Chloride
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Tetrachloride
Caustic Soda 2%
10%
75%
Citrus Juices
Degreasing Solution
Dextrose
Dowtherm A
1 ft. sec. or more
non-flowing
Dowtherm E
Dyes & Pigments
Electroplating Baths
Cadmium
Copper
Dilute Cyanide
Potassium Cyanide
Rochelle Cyanide
Sodium Cyanide
Ethylene Glycol
Formaldehyde
Freon gas
Fuel Oils:
Grade 1 & 2
(distilate)

Max. operating temperature

Max. watt density

(W/in2)

180
257
180
180
180
150
122
122
167

40
40
40
40
23
20
10
10
20

C-20, Quartz
Quartz
***
C-20, Quartz
316 S.S.
316 S.S.
316 S.S.
316 S.S.
Quartz

180
180

40
23

316 S.S.
Quartz

180
180
167/180
180

23
40
23/40
40

Stainless Steel
Copper
Quartz
316 S.S.

180
130
C/F
200
212
122

10
10
***
10
40
10

Copper
Incoloy
Incoloy
Copper
Steel
316 S.S.

212
C/F
167
240
212
350
200-500
212
150
225
400
200
***
160
210
210
180
185
275
212

40
***
23
23
20
23
4-10
40
10
10
20
5-8
23
23
48
25
25
23
23
20

Copper
Steel
Incoloy
Incoloy
Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel
Steel
316 S.S.
Copper
316 S.S.
316 S.S.
Quartz
Incoloy
Incoloy
Incoloy
Incoloy
Incoloy
316 S.S.
Steel
Stainless Steel

750
750
400
212

23
10
12
23

Steel
Steel
Steel
Stainless Steel

180
180
180
180
180
180
300
180
300

40
40
40
40
40
40
30
10
2-5

Stainless Steel
Quartz
316 S.S.
Quartz
Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel
Steel
Stainless Steel
Steel

200

23

Note:

14

Sheath material

Material
to be heated

Fuel Oils cont.

Grade 4 & 5
(residual)
Grades 6 & bunker c
(residual)
Gasoline
Gelatin, Liquid
Solid
Glycerine
Glycerol
Grease, Liquid
Solid
Heat Transfer Oils
Hydrazine
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Sulfide
Linseed Oil
Lubrication Oil
SAE 10, 90-100
SSU @ 130F
SAE 20, 120-185
SSU @ 130F
SAE 30, 185-255
SSU @ 130F
SAE 40, -80
SSU @ 210F
SAE 50, 80-105
SSU @ 210F
Magnesium Chloride
Manganese Sulfate
Methanol gas
Methylchloride
Mineral Oil
Molasses
Naptha
Oil Draw Bath
Oils (see specific type)
Paraffin or Wax
(liquid state)
Perchloroethylene
Potassium Chlorate
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Hydroxide
Soap, liquid
Sodium Acetate
Sodium Cyanide
Sodium Hydride
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Phosphate
Steam, flowing
Sulfur, Molten
Terminols
Toluene
Trichlorethylene
Turpentine
Vegetable Oil &
Shortening
Water (process)

Steel

C-20 designates Carpenter Stainless #20.

C/F = Consult Factory.

Max. operating temperature

Max. watt density

(W/in2)

Sheath material

200

13

Steel

160
300
150
150
500
212
***
***
500
600
212
C/F
C/F
150

8
23
23
5
10
23
23
5
23
15
16
***
***
50

Steel
Steel
Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel
Incoloy
Incoloy
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Stainless Steel
Incoloy
316 S.S.
Steel

250

23

Steel

250

23

Steel

250

23

Steel

250

13

Steel

250
212
212
C/F
180
200
400
100
212
600
400

13
40
40
***
20
23
16
4-5
10
23
24

Steel
C-20, Quartz
Quartz
Stainless Steel
Copper
Steel
Steel
Stainless Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel

150
200
212
212
160
212
212
140
720

16
23
40
40
23
20
40
40
28
(See Caustic
212
40
300
10
500
5-10
700
5
600
10
500
23
600
23
650
15
212
23
150
23
300
20

Steel
Steel
316 S.S.
316 S.S.
Monel
Stainless Steel
Steel
Stainless Steel
Incoloy
Soda)
Quartz
Incoloy
Incoloy
Incoloy
Incoloy
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Stainless Steel

400
212

Stainless Steel
S.S., Incoloy

30
60

Corrosion Resistance
of materials

Aluminum Sulphate
Ammonia Gas, Cold
Hot
Ammonia and Oil
Ammonium Chloride
Ammonium Hydroxide
Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium Sulphate
Amyl Alcohol
Anhydrous Ammonia
Aniline, Aniline Oil
Aniline, Dyes
Anodizing Solution 10%
Chromic Acid 96F
Sulphuric Acid 70F
Sodium Hydroxide Alkaline
Nigrosine Black Dye
Nickel Acetate
Barium Chloride
Barium Hydroxide
Barium Sulphide
Bleaching Solution
1 1/2 lb. Oxalic Acid per
Gallon of H20 at 212F
Bonderizing
Cadmium Plating
Carbolic Acid, Phenol
Carbon Dioxide, Dry
Wet
Carbon Tetrachloride
Castor Oil
Chloroacetic Acid
Cholorine, Dry
Wet
Chromic Acid
Chrome Plating
Citric Acid
Cobalt Acetate 130F
Coconut Oil
Copper Chloride
Copper Cyanide
Copper Plating
Copper Sulphate
Creosote
Deoxidine

C
A
X
A
C
A
C
A
A
A

C
X
X

F
A
F
F
A

C
C
C
C
A

A-347
A-316
C
F
F
A
A A
C
C C
A
A
C
A

A
A
C

F
A
A
A

F
C
C
A
A

A
A
A

A
A

F
F
F
F
A

X
F
X
X
A

F
A
C
C
F

F
F
F
F
A

F A C C
C A A
X X
A

X
X
X
F
A
X
X

A X F
A F
X F
A
X

A
A
A
A
F-304
X-316
A
A A
A

C
A
F
C
A
X
A
X
C

C
A
C
C

X
F
A
A
X
A

RESISTANCE RATINGS:

X
X

X A
X X A
A
F

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
X
C

A
A
A
C
A
X
A
X
A

A
A
F
F

X
C
A

F
F

A
A
A

A
X
F

A
A

A = Good

A
A
A
A
A
A

C
A
A

X A A
A A A
F X F
C F C
A
X X X F
A A A
X F X
X A X
A
A A A
A
C A X

C A X
A
A

Deoxylyle
Diphenyle 300-350
Di Sodium Phosphate
25% 180F
Diversey No. 99
Dowtherm
Ethers
Ethyl Chloride
Ethylene Glycol 300F.
Ferric Chloride
Ferric Sulphate

C = Conditional*

Copper
Lead
Aluminum
Nickel

A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Formaldehyde
Formic Acid
Freon
Fuel Oil
Fuel Oil, Acid
Gasoline, Sour
Gasoline, Refined
Glycerin, Glycerol
Holdens 310A Tempering Bath
Houghtons Mar Tempering Salts
Hydrochloric Acid <150F
>150F
Hydrofluoric Acid, Cold <65%
>65%
Hot <65%
>65%
Hydrogen Peroxide
Iridite 1-Part and 5-Parts
Water @ 200F
Isopropanol
Kerosene
Kolene
Lacquer Solvents
Lard
Linseed Oil
Magnesium Chloride
Magnesium Hydroxide
Magnesium Sulphate
Mercuric Chloride
Mercury
Methyl Alcohol,Methanol
Methyl Chloride
Mineral Oils
Naphthalene
Nickel Chloride
Nickel Plating, Bright
Nickel Plating, Dull
Nickel Sulphate
Nitric Acid, Crude
Concentrated
Diluted
Nitrobenzene

F = Fair

Inoconel/Incoloy

Compound

Cast Iron Ni Resist

Iron & Steel

Copper
Lead
Aluminum
Nickel

Inoconel/Incoloy

Monel

300 Series Stainless

Iron & Steel

Acetic Acid, Crude

Pure
Vapor
150 PSI; 400F
Acetone
Alboloy Process
Alodine 200F

Cast Iron Ni Resist

Compound

Monel

SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH

SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH

300 Series Stainless

Table 11

X
X

X
X

F
X
C
A
C
C
A
A

F
A
C
A
A

A
A
X
F-304
A-316
A
F
C
A
C
A
A
A

A
A
A
X
X

A
A

X
C

A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A

A F XF
C F X
A A
A A
C A
A C A
A A A
F A

C
A
A
C
X
X
X
X
X
X
A

X
X

A A
A
A
X X X
A X X
X C
A

A
C
X
X
X
F
X
C
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
A

C
C
F
A
C
A
F

X
X
C
F
X
F
X

A
A

F
A

F
A
A
C
A

A
F
A
A
X
A
A
A

A
F
A
A
X
A
A
A
A

C
A

F
X
F
C
X
X
F
A

C
C
X
X
F

A
A

C
F
A
F
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A

X
A
A

A
F
X
A
X
X
A
A
A

A A
X X F
X A
C
X X
X
A A
A
A
A A

X
A
A

X
X
X
A

A
C
F
A
A

X = Unsuitable

C
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
F

X
X C X
X A X
X X X

15

Corrosion Resistance
of materials cont.

Oakite No. 20
Oakite No. 23
Oakite No. 24
Oakite No. 30
Oakite No. 32
Oakite No. 33
Oakite No. 36
Oakite No. 51
Oakite No. 90 @ 180F
Oleic Acid
Oxalic Acid
Paraffin
Parkerizing
Perchlorethylene
Permachlor
Petroleum Oils, Crude <500F
>500F
>1000F
Phenol 85%,120F
Phosphoric Acid, Crude
Pure <45%
>45% Cold
Hot
Photo Fixing Bath
Picric Acid Water Solution
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Cyanide
Potassium Dichromate 208F
Potassium Hydroxide
Potassium Sulphate
Prestone 350F
R5 Bright Dip for Copper
Polish @ 180F
Soap Solutions
Sodium Carbonate <20%
Sodium Chloride

A
A
A
A

A
A
X

C
C

A
C

A
A
A
A
A
C
A-347
A
C
A
A
X-304
C-316
A
A
A
A
A-347
F
F

A
A

C
C
X
X
X
C
A
A
C
A
A

A
A
A

A
A

C
X
X

C C A C
X X A X
X X X X
A
X X
C C
X C
X

X
F
F
C

X
F
F
C

C
A
A
X

C
C
A
A

X
A
X

X X X
A C A
X X

X
A

X X A
A A A

A
A
A

Sodium Cyanide
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Hypochlorite
Sodium Nitrate

A
A
X
A

Sodium Peroxide
Sodium Silicate
Sodium Sulphate
Sodium Sulphide
Soybean Oil

C
A
A
A

RESISTANCE RATINGS:

A F-304
A-316
C A-316
A
F
C
X
A F-304
A-316
A
A
A A-316
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
F
A
C
A
A
A
A
F

<500F
500-1000F
>1000F
Stearic Acid
Sulphur
Sulphuric Acid <10% Cold
Hot

A
C
X
C
A
X
X

10-75% Cold

Hot
75-95% Cold
Hot
Fuming

X
C
F
C

X X A A
C X A

A-316
A
A
A

C A

Sulphurous Acid

Tannic Acid
Tar
Tartaric Acid

Tetrachlorethyene
Thermail Granodine
Therminall Fr. 18-1/2 W/in2 @ 640F
Tin Plating
Toluene
Triad Solvent
Trichloroethylene
Turco No. 2623
Turpentine
Urea Ammonia Liquor 48F
Vegetable Oil
Vinegar

A
A

A A
C X X A
A A C A
X A X F

X-Ray Solution
Zinc Chloride
Zinc Plating
Zinc Sulphate

C
A
C

A = Good

F = Fair

C = Conditional*

*Conditional: Performance is dependent upon specific application

conditions such as solution, concentration and temperature.

16

X X X
X F X A
C X X C
F A A A

A X A

Copper
Lead
Aluminum
Nickel

Monel

Inoconel/Incoloy
A
C
X
A
X
C
C

A
A
A
A
A

A
C
X
C
X
C
X

C A A
X C C
X X
A C A
A X
A C C
A C X

A C C

C
C
C
X

X
X
X
X

A
A
A
A

C A C X

X
C
X
C

X
C
X
X

X X A
A
A A C

A A

A
A
C
C
A
C
A

C
C
X
A
C
X

A
A
A
C
A
C
F
F
F-316
X-304
X-304
F-316
X
A
X
F C-304
F-316
C-316
X-304
F
A
C-304
A-316

A
F
A

Water, Acid Mine

Containing Oxidizing Salts
No Oxidizing Salts
Water, Fresh
Distilled, Lab Grade
Return Condensate
Water, Sea Water
Whiskey and Wines

300 Series Stainless

Compound
Steam

A-347
A
A
C
C
A
C

Iron & Steel

SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH

Copper
Lead
Aluminum
Nickel

Inoconel/Incoloy

Monel

300 Series Stainless

Compound

Cast Iron Ni Resist

Iron & Steel

SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH

Cast Iron Ni Resist

Table 11

C A A

A
F-304 A
A-316
C
A X
A
X
A
A
X
A
A
A
A
F
C F-304
A-316
A
C
X

A
A
C
A
A
A

X = Unsuitable

F C

C
C C C C
A
A
A
F
A

A
A

A
A
A A
A
X

A
X
A
C
A

A
X
A
A

A X

Equivalents &
Conversions

Table 12

Conversion Table

Metric System Length

UNIT

1 Btu = 251.996 international calories

METRIC EQUIVALENT U.S. EQUIVALENT

millimeter (mm)
centimeter (cm)
decimeter (dm)
METER (m)
dekameter (dkm)
hectometer (hm)
kilometer (km)

=
0.001 meter
=
0.01 meter
=
0.1 meter
=
1.0 meter
=
10.0 meter
= 100.0 meters
= 1000.0 meters

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

0.03937 inch
0.3937 inch
3.937 inches
39.37 inches
10.93 yards
328.08 feet
0.6214 mile

Multiply no. of... By...

BRITISH
778.3
THERMAL
UNITS

FOOT-POUNDS

Metric system/capacity
Unit

Metric Equivalent

milliliter (ml)
centriliter (cl)
deciliter (dl)
LITER (l)
dekaliter (dkl)
hectoliter (hl)
kiloliter (kl)

U.S. Equivalent

=
0.001 liter
=
0.01 liter
=
0.1 liter
=
1.0 liter
=
10.0 liters
= 100.0 liters
= 1000.0 liters

UNIT

METRIC EQUIVALENT
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Metric system/area
UNIT

CENTARE also (ca)

square meter (m2)
are also (a)
square dekameter (dkm2)
hecatre also (ha)
square hectometer (hm2)
square kilometer (km2)

=
=
=
=

KILOWATT-HOURS

U.S. EQUIVALENT

0.001 gram
0.01 gram
0.1 gram
1.0 gram
10.0 grams
100.0 grams
1000.0 grams

METRIC EQUIVALENT

squared millimeter (mm2)

squared centimeter (cm2)
square decimeter (dm2)

HOURS

WATT-HOURS

Metric system/weight or mass

milligram (mg)
centrigram (cg)
decigram (dg)
GRAM (g)
dekagram (dkg)
hectogram (hg)
kilogram (kg)

HORSEPOWER-

=
0.034 fluid ounce
=
0.338 fluid ounce
=
3.38 fluid ounces
=
1.05 liquid quarts
=
0.284 bushel
=
2.837 bushels
= 264.18 gallons

=
0.0154 grain
=
0.1543 grain
=
1.543 grains
= 15.43 grains
=
0.3527 ounce avoirdupois
=
3.527 ounce avoirdupois
=
2.2 pounds avoirdupois

0.000001 centare
0.0001 centare
0.01 centare
1.0 centare

=
=
=
=

WEIGHT

1in. = 2.54 cm
1ft . = .3048 m
1yd. = .9144 m
1m = 39.37 in

1kg. = 2.205 lb.

0.0247 acre

10,000.0 centares

2.47 acre

HORSEPOWER
1 hp. = .746 kW
1 boiler hp. = 9.8 kW

METRIC EQUIVALENT

Natural gas equivalent

0.386 square mile

U.S. EQUIVALENT

cubic millimeter (mm3)

=
0.001 cubic centimeter =
0.016 minim
cubic centimeter (cc, cm3 ) =
0.001 cubic decimeter =
0.061 cubic inch
3
cubic decimeter (dm )
=
0.001 cubic meter
=
61.023 cubic inches
STERE also (s)
=
1.0 cubic meter
=
1.308 cubic yards
cubic meter (m3)
cubic dekameter (dkm3) =
1000.0 cubic meters
=
1307.943 cubic yards
cubic hectometer (hm3)
=
1000,000.0 cubic meters
= 1,307,942.8 cubic yards
cubic kilometer (km3)
= 1,000,000,000.0 cubic meters
=
0.25 cubic mile

Pressure
UNIT

1 Atmosphere
1kg./cm2
10lb./in2
1 bar
1 meter Hg(0C)
10 in. Hg(32F)
100ft. H2O(60F)

ATM
1*
0.967841
0.68046
0.986923
1.31579
0.33421
2.9469

KG /CM 2

1.033228
1*
0.70307
1.019716
1.35951
0.34532
3.0448

LB /IN 2

14.6959
14.2233
10*
14.5038
19.3368
4.9115
43.308

BAR

1.013250
0.980665*
0.689476
1*
1.333224
0.33864
2.9859

1 inch of Hg (mercury) = 13.6 inch H2O

1in3 = 16.39 cm3

1ft3 = .02832 m3
1ft3 = 62.43 lb. water
1ft3. = 7.5 gal water
1ft3 = 28.32 liters
1 U.S. gal = .1337 ft3
1 U.S. gal = 231 ft3
1 U.S. gal = 8.345 lb water
1 U.S. gal = 3.785 liters

One therm. = 1,000,000 BTU

One ft3. of gas = 1040 BTU (range 10201055)
One therm (rounding off) = 1000 ft3. gas
One MCF = 1,040,000 BTU

Metric system/volume
UNIT

VOLUME

1 in2 = 6.452 cm2

1 ft2 = .0929 m2

0.00155 square inch

0.155 square inch
15.5 square inch
10.76 square feet

100.0 centares

LENGTH

AREA

= 1,000,000.0 cantres

3.929 x 10-4
2.930 x 10-4
.2930
1.285 x 10-3
5.05 x 10-7
3.766 x 10-7
3.766 x 10-4
2545
1.98 x 104
.7457
745.7
3413
2.655 x 106
1.341
1000
3.413
2655
1.341 x 10-3
.001

Conversion Factors

U.S. EQUIVALENT

To Obtain...
Foot-pound
Horsepower-hours
Kilowatt-hours
Watts-hours
British thermal units
Horsepower-hours
Kilowatt-hours
Watt-hours
British thermal units
Foot-pound
Kilowatt-hours
Watt-hours
British thermal units
Foot-pounds
Horsepower-hours
Watt-hours
British thermal units
Foot-pounds
Horsepower-hours
Kilowatt-hours

MM

HG (0C)

760*
735.559
517.149
750.062
1000*
254*
2239.6

Multiply no. of... By...

bar
bar
barrel, 42 US gal.
calorie
Joule
Kilojoule
Kilograms/cm2
IN

To obtain...

.987
100,000
.159
4.184
.00095
3.600
14.2

HG (32F)
29.921
28.959
20.360
29.530
39.370
10*
88.175

FT

atmosphere
pascal
meters3
Joule
BTU
kilowatt-hour
pounds/in2

H2O(60F)

33.934
32.843
23.091
33.490
44.65
11.341
100*

1 PSI = 2.31 inches of H2O

17

Conversion Tables
AMPERAGE CONVERSION TABLE

HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLE

Table 13

Table 14

Volts Single Phase

Watts
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
750
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1250
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1750
1800
1900
2000
2200
2500
2750
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000

120
.83
1.25
1.67
2.08
2.50
2.92
3.33
3.75
4.17
5.00
5.83
6.25
6.67
7.50
8.33
9.17
10.00
10.40
10.80
11.70
12.50
13.30
14.20
14.60
15.00
15.80
16.70
18.30
20.80
23.00
25.00
29.20
33.30
37.50
41.70
50.00
58.30
66.70
75.00
83.30

240
.42
.63
.83
1.04
1.25
1.46
1.67
1.88
2.08
2.50
2.92
3.13
3.33
3.75
4.17
4.58
5.00
5.21
5.42
5.83
6.25
6.67
7.08
7.29
7.50
7.92
8.33
9.17
10.40
11.50
12.50
14.60
16.70
18.80
20.80
25.00
29.20
33.30
37.50
41.70

480
.21
.31
.42
.52
.63
.73
.84
.93
1.04
1.25
1.46
1.56
1.67
1.87
2.10
2.30
2.51
2.61
2.71
2.91
3.12
3.34
3.54
3.65
3.75
3.96
4.17
4.59
5.21
5.73
6.25
7.30
8.33
9.38
10.42
12.50
14.59
16.67
18.75
20.85

Volts 3 Phase
Balanced Load

240
.24
.36
.49
.61
.73
.85
.97
1.10
1.20
1.45
1.70
1.81
1.67
2.17
2.41
2.65
2.90
3.10
3.13
3.38
3.62
3.86
4.10
4.22
4.34
4.58
4.82
5.30
6.10
6.63
7.23
8.45
9.64
10.84
12.10
14.50
16.90
19.30
21.70
24.10

480
.13
.18
.25
.30
.37
.43
.49
.55
.60
.73
.85
.91
.97
1.09
1.21
1.33
1.45
1.55
1.57
1.69
1.82
1.93
2.05
2.10
2.17
2.29
2.41
2.65
3.05
3.32
3.62
4.23
4.82
5.42
6.10
7.25
8.50
9.65
10.85
12.10

Brinell
Watts
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
750
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1250
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1750
1800
1900
2000
2200
2500
2750
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000

Important Metric Prefixes

Prefix

Abbre-via- Meaning
tion

peta
tera
giga
mega

P
T
G
M

x1015
x1012
x109
x106

kilo
deci
certi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto

k
d
c
m

n
p
f

x103
x10-1
x10-2
x10-6
x10-9
x10-12
x10-15

Typical Examples
1 petayear = 101 years
1 terayear = 1012 years
1 gigahertz (radar frequency) = 109 Hz
1 megaton (equivalent TNT strength
of nuclear weapon) = 106 tons
1 kilogram = 1000 g
1 decimeter = 0.1 m
1 centimeter = 0.01 m
x10-3 1 milliampere = 0.001 A
microvolt = 10-6 V
1 nanosecond = 10-9 second
1 picofarad = 10-12 F
1 femtometer (approximate size of
a proton) = 10-15 m

Diameter
3000 Kg.
Load
10 mm. Ball

Rockwell
(Approximate Value)

Tensile
Strength
1000
Shore lb./sq in.

Hardness
No.

2.25

745

65.3

84.1

92.3

91

2.30
2.35
2.40
2.45
2.50
2.55
2.60
2.65
2.70
2.75
2.80
2.85
2.90
2.95
3.00
3.05
3.10
3.15
3.20
3.25
3.30
3.35
3.40
3.45
3.50
3.55
3.60
3.65
3.70
3.75
3.80
3.85
3.90
3.95
4.00
4.05
4.10
4.15
4.20
4.25
4.30
4.35
4.40
4.45
4.50
4.55
4.60
4.65
4.70
4.80
4.90
5.00
5.10
5.20
5.30
5.40
5.50
5.60

712
682
653
627
601
578
555
534
514
495
477
461
444
429
415
401
388
375
363
352
341
331
321
311
302
293
285
277
269
262
255
248
241
235
229
223
217
212
207
201
197
192
187
183
179
174
170
167
163
156
149
143
137
131
126
121
116
111

61.7
60.0
58.7
57.3
56.0
54.7
53.5
52.1
51.0
49.6
48.5
47.1
45.7
44.5
43.1
41.8
40.4
39.1
37.9
36.6
35.5
34.3
33.1
32.1
30.9
29.9
28.8
27.6
26.6
25.4
24.2
22.8
21.7
20.5
(18.8)
(17.5)
(16.0)
(15.2)
(13.8)
(12.7)
(11.5)
(10.0)
(9.0)
(8.0)
(6.4)
(5.4)
(4.4)
(3.3)
(0.9)

82.2
81.2
80.5
79.8
79.1
78.4
77.8
76.9
76.3
75.0
74.9
74.2
73.4
72.8
72.0
71.4
70.6
70.0
69.3
68.7
68.1
67.5
66.9
66.3
65.7
65.3
64.6
64.1
63.6
63.0
62.5
61.8
61.4
60.8

91.0
90.2
89.6
89.0
88.4
87.8
87.2
86.5
85.9
85.3
84.7
84.0
83.4
82.8
82.0
81.4
80.6
80.0
79.3
78.6
78.0
77.3
76.7
76.1
75.5
75.0
74.4
73.7
73.1
72.5
71.7
70.9
70.3
69.7

84
81
79
77
75
73
71
70
68
66
65
63
61
59
58
56
54
52
51
50
48
47
46
45
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34

(110.0)
(109.0)
(108.5)
(108.0)
(107.5)
(107.0)
(106.0)
(105.5)
(104.5)
(104.0)
(103.0)
(102.0)
(101.0)
100.0
99.0
98.2
97.3
96.4
95.5
94.6
93.8
92.8
91.9
90.7
90.0
89.0
87.8
86.8
86.0
85.0
82.9
80.8
78.7
76.4
74.0
72.0
69.8
67.6
65.7

15-N

33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
23
22
21
20
19
18
15

Hardness values are from SAE-ASM-ASTM Committees on Hardness conversions as printed in ASTM E 140, Table 14. Tensile strength values are from Federal Test Methods
Standard No. 151-A - method 241.2 dated January 10, 1961.

18

298
288
274
264
252
242
230
219
212
202
193
184
177
170
163
158
152
147
143
139
135
131
128
125
121
118
114
111
109
104
103
100
99
97
94
92
90
89
88
86
84
83
82
80

Table 15
C
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65

F
-58
-49
-40
-31
-22
-13
-4
-5
14
23
32
41
50
59
68
77
86
95
104
113
112
131
140
149

C
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190

F
167
176
185
194
203
212
221
230
239
248
257
266
275
284
293
302
311
320
329
338
347
356
365
374

TABLE

C
200
205
210
215
220
225
230
235
240
245
250
255
260
265
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
305
310
315

OF EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURES

F
392
401
410
419
428
437
446
455
464
473
482
491
500
509
518
527
536
545
554
563
572
581
590
599

C
325
330
335
340
345
350
355
360
365
370
375
380
385
390
395
400
405
410
415
420
425
430
435
440

F
617
626
635
644
653
662
671
680
689
698
707
716
725
734
743
752
761
770
779
788
797
806
815
824

C
450
455
460
465
470
475
480
485
490
495
500
505
510
515
520
525
530
535
540
545
550
555
560
565

F
842
851
860
869
878
887
896
905
914
923
932
941
950
959
968
977
986
995
1004
1013
1022
1031
1040
1049

C
575
580
585
590
595
600
605
610
615
620
625
630
635
640
645
650
655
660
665
670
675
680
685
690

F
1067
1076
1085
1094
1103
1112
1121
1130
1139
1148
1157
1166
1175
1184
1193
1202
1211
1220
1229
1238
1247
1256
1265
1274

C
700
705
710
715
720
725
730
735
740
745
750
755
760
765
770
775
780
785
790
795
800
805
810
815

F
1292
1301
1310
1319
1328
1337
1346
1355
1364
1373
1382
1391
1400
1409
1418
1427
1436
1445
1454
1463
1472
1481
1490
1499

C
825
830
835
840
845
850
855
860
865
870
875
880
885
890
895
900
905
910
915
920
925
930
935
940

F
1517
1526
1535
1544
1553
1562
1571
1580
1589
1598
1607
1616
1625
1634
1643
1652
1661
1670
1679
1688
1697
1706
1715
1724

Values for interpolation in above

1C = 1.8F
2C = 3.6F
3C = 5.4F

All decimals are exact

Table 16
Applied
Voltage
110
115
120
208
220
230
240
277
380
415
440
460
480
550

4C = 7.2F
5C = 9.0F
6C = 10.8F

PERCENT

7C = 12.6F
8C = 14.4F
9C = 16.2F

1F = 0.55C
2F = 1.11C
3F = 1.66C

4F = 2.22C
5F = 2.77C
6F = 3.33C

7F = 3.88C
8F = 4.44C
9F = 5.00C

OF RATED WATTAGE FOR VARIOUS APPLIED VOLTAGES

Rated Voltage

110
100%
109%
119%

115
120
208
91% 84% 28%
100% 92% 31%
109% 100% 33%
300% 100%
112%
122%
133%

220
25%
27%
30%
89%
100%
109%
119%

230
240
23% 21%
25% 23%
27% 25%
82% 75%
91% 84%
100% 92%
109% 100%
133%

For voltages not shown above, you can calculate the actual wattage
with this formula:
Actual wattage = Rated wattage

Applied voltage2
Rated voltage2

277
16%
17%
19%
56%
63%
69%
75%
100%
188%

380
8.4%
9.0%
10%
30%
34%
37%
40%
53%
100%
119%

415
7%
7.6%
8.4%
25%
28%
31%
33%
45%
84%
100%
112%
123%

440
6.2%
6.7%
7.4%
22%
25%
27%
30%
40%
74%
89%
100%
109%
119%
156%

460
5.7%
6.2%
6.8%
20%
23%
25%
27%
36%
68%
81%
91%
100%
109%
143%

K = C + 273

C = Degrees Celsius

R = F + 460

F = Degrees Fahrenheit

F = 9/5 C + 32
C = (F-332) X 5/9

480 550
5.2% 4%
5.7% 4.3%
6.3% 4.8%
19% 14%
21% 16%
23% 17%
25% 19%
33% 25%
63% 47%
75% 57%
84% 64%
92% 70%
100% 76%
131% 100%

K = Degrees Kelvin
R = Degrees Rankine

19

DECIMAL & MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS

DECIMALS

1
32
1
16

1
64

0.015625
.03125

3
64

.046875
.0625

3
32

1
8
5
32
3
16

5
64

.078125
.09375

7
64
9
64

7
32

1
4

.203125
.21875

15
64

.234375
.2500

9
32
5
16

17
64

.265625
.28125

19
64

.296875
.3125

11
32

3
8

.328125
.34375

23
64

.359375
.3750

13
32
7
16

25
64

.390625
.40625

27
64

.421875
.4375

15
32

1
2

21
64

29
64

.453125
.46875

31
64

1.588

19
32

2.381

5
8

3.572
21
32

3.969
4.366
4.763

11
16

5.159
23
32

5.556
5.953

3
4

6.350
6.747

25
32

7.144
7.541
7.938

13
16

8.334
27
32

8.731
9.128

7
8

9.525
9.922

29
32

10.319
10.716
11.113

15
16

11.509
31
32

11.906

.484375

12.303

.500

12.700
1mm = .03937

20

9
16

1.984

3.175

.1875
13
64

1.191

.1250

.171875

17
32

0.794

2.778

.140625

DECIMALS

0.397

.109375

.15625
11
64

MILLIMETERS

33
64
35
64
37
64
39
64
41
64
43
64
45
64
47
64
49
64
51
64
53
64
55
64
57
64
59
64
61
64
63
64

MILLIMETERS

0.515625

13.097

.53125

13.494

.546875

13.891

.5625

14.288

.578125

14.684

.59375

15.081

.609375

15.478

.6250

15.875

.640625

16.272

.65625

16.669

.671875

17.066

.6875

17.463

.703125

17.859

.71875

18.256

.734375

18.653

.7500

19.050

.765625

19.447

.78125

19.844

.796875

20.241

.8125

20.638

.828125

21.034

.84375

21.431

.859375

21.828

.8750

22.225

.890625

22.622

.90625

23.019

.921875

23.416

.9375

28.813

.953125

24.209

.96875

24.606

.984375

25.003

1.000

25.400

.001 = .0254mm

MM

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

INCHES

.0039
.0079
.0118
.0158
.0197
.0236
.0276
.0315
.0354
.0394
.0787
.1181
.1575
.1969
.2362
.2756
.3150
.3543
.3937
.4331
.4724
.5118
.5512
.5906
.6299
.6693
.7087
.7480
.7874
.8268
.8661
.9055
.9449
.9843
1.0236
1.0630
1.1024
1.1417
1.1811
1.2205
1.2598
1.2992
1.3386
1.3780
1.4173
1.4567
1.4961
1.5354
1.5748
1.6142
1.6535
1.6929
1.7323
1.7717

MM

INCHES

46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
93
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100

1.8110
1.8504
1.8898
1.9291
1.9685
2.0079
2.0472
2.0866
2.1260
2.1654
2.2047
2.2441
2.2835
2.3228
2.3622
2.4016
2.4409
2.4803
2.5197
2.5591
2.5984
2.6378
2.6772
2.7165
2.7559
2.7953
2.8346
2.8740
2.9134
2.9528
2.9921
3.0315
3.0709
3.1102
3.1496
3.1890
3.2283
3.2677
3.3071
3.3465
3.3858
3.4252
3.4646
3.5039
3.5433
3.5827
3.6220
3.6614
3.7008
3.7402
3.7795
3.8189
3.8583
3.8976
3.9370

Table 17
WIRE
GA.

WIRE CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY TABLE

40C Ambient Temperature

150C
TINNED
COPPER

200C
TINNED
COPPER
NPC 2%-10%

250C
NPC
2%-10%

250C
A
NICKEL

250C
NPI

450C
NPC
27%

450C
A
NICKEL

24
22

6.6 amps
9

7.2 amps
9.6

8 amps
10.8

4 amps
5

3.3 amps
4.4

9 amps
12

4.3 amps
5.6

20

13

14

15

18

18

17

18

20

9.4

23

11

16

22

24

26

12

11

30

14

14
12

34
43

36
45

39
54

18
25

16
22

45
56

21
26

10

55

60

73

34

30

75

35

76

83

93

43

39

104

49

6
4
3
2
1

96
120
143
160
186

110
125
152
171
197

117
148
166
191
215

55
69
78
90
101

49
62
69
80
90

138
162
182
210
236

65
76
85
99
110

1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0

215
251
288
332

229
260
297
346

244
273
308
361

114
128
144
169

102
114
129
151

268
300
338
397

126
141
159
186

250
300
350
400
500

365
414
461
495
563

385
436
486
522
593

398
452
503
540
613

187
212
236
254
288

167
190
211
226
257

***
***
***
***
***

***
***
***
***
***

Table 18

WIRE TEMPERATURE RATING

To calculate temperature correction factors for ambient temperatures other than 40C (104F)
multiply the current rating shown above by the factors shown in this table.
Ambient
Temp.C

200C

250C

450C

Ambient
Temp.F

Ambient
Temp.C

200C

41-50

0.97

0.98

.099

106-122

181-200

51-60

0.94

0.95

0.99

124-140

61-70

0.90

0.93

0.96

71-80

0.87

0.90

81-90

0.83

91-100

Ambient
Temp.F

250C

450C

***

0.49

0.78

357-392

201-225

***

0.35

0.74

393-437

142-158

.226-250

***

***

0.69

439-482

0.95

160-176

251-275

***

***

0.65

483-527

0.87

0.93

177-194

276-300

***

***

0.60

528-572

0.72

0.85

0.92

195-212

301-325

***

***

0.55

573-617

101-120

0.71

0.79

0.89

213-248

326-350

***

***

0.49

618-662

121-140

0.61

0.71

0.86

249-284

351-375

***

***

0.42

663-707

141-160

0.50

0.65

0.84

285-320

376-400

***

***

0.34

708-752

161-180

0.35

0.58

0.81

321-356

21

Trigonometric
Solutions
PYTHAGOREAN THEREOM
a + b = c

c a
b

EXAMPLE:
a = 3; b =4; c = 5
3 + 4 = 5
9 + 16 = 25

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
ANGLE A
c

sin A =

tan A =

cot A =

A
b
c

cosec A =

sin A

cos A

= sin A sec A

tan =

cot =

adjacent side

cot A

= cot A sec A

cosec =

cot B =

sec B =

adjacent side
c

hypotenuse

cos A

tan B =

hypotenuse
sec =

opposite side

= tan A cosec A

cos B =

adjacent side

=
sin A

opposite side

sin A

sin B =

hypotenuse

= cos A cosec A

tan A

=
a

cos A

1
=

cos A

tan A

c
sec A =

cos =

tan A

1
=

= sin A cot A

sin A

cot A

hypotenuse

adjacent side

sin A

1
=

opposite side

LINE

c - a

a
c = cos B

a
2

c - b

a
c = sin A

b
c = cos A

b
c = sin B

b
2

a
b = tan A

b
a = tan B

ab
2

22

SOUGHT

b
b

SIDES

ANGLES

AREA
c - a
c - b

c sin A

c cos A

90 - A

c sin A cos A
2

c cos B

c sin B

90- B

c sin B cos B
2

a cot A

a
sin A

90 - A

a tan B

a
cos B

90- B

a tan B
2

b tan A

90 - A

b tan A
2

b cot B

90- B

b cot B
2

a + b

b
cos A
b
sin B

a
c

b
a

a
b

c
a

cosec B =

TRIGONOMETRIC SOLUTIONS FOR RIGHT ANGLE TRIANGLES

GIVEN
Sides
Angles

=
sec A

sin =

cot A

ANGLE B

opposite side
= cos A tan A

=
cosec A

cos A =

cos A

=
c

DEFINITIONS

a cot A
2

c
b

Wiring Configurations
& Diagrams
Line 1

Line 2

Line 1

i (LINE AMPS)

i(Element
AMPS)

Line 2

R1

R2

ELEMENTS

R1

e
E
R2

PARALLEL: One or more elements wired across two line wires.

Element volts equal line volts. Total power is equal to sum of watts in
each element. Line amps equal sum of current of each element.

SERIES: Two or more elements of equal resistance wired together and

across line wires. Element volts equal line volts divided by number of
elements. Total power is equal to sum of watts of elements. Line amps
equal current thru each element.

Line 2
Line 3

Line 1

R
E
Line Volts

DELTA (30): Three elements or groups of elements wired in a

triangle(Delta). Total power is: W = 1.73 x I where E is volts between any
two lines and I is current in any one line. Power in each side of delta is
1/3 of total. Volts across each element is full line volts. Current thru each
elements i = E / R.

STAR or WYE (30): Three elements or groups of elements wired in a

wye (Y). Total power is: W = 1.73 x I, where E is volts between any
two lines and I is current in any one line. Volts across each element
(volts to neutral) is e = E/1.73. Current thru each element is same as
each line wire.

HEATER ELEMENT VALUES (formulas and symbols)

IWIRING
CONFIGURATIONSW
CONFIGURATION

VOLTS (e)

AMPS (i)

Parallel

line volts (E)

line volts (E)

element Ohms (Rn)

Exi

E/ i

Series

line volts (E)

# of elements

line Amps (I)

exi

e/i

line volts (E)

line Amps (I)

1.73

exi

E / i and E/1.73 x I

Delta
Star
(Wye)

e x i and
(E x I)/1.73

line Amps (I)

E /1.73

L3

L3

480 V

480 V

480 V
ELEMENTS

L2

480 V

480 V
Power
source

480 V

480 V
L1

e x i and E/1.73 x I

1/3 WATTAGE
3-PHASE WYE CONNECTION

FULL WATTAGE
3-PHASE DELTA CONNECTION

480 V
Power
source

RESISTANCE (R)

WATTS (W)

480 V
ELEMENTS

L2

480 V
L1

Example of re-connecting from 3-phase delta to 3-phase wye for lower wattage.

These wiring configurations are provided to assist in the wiring of the heating elements in parallel, series & 3-phase (Delta or Wye).

23

SUGGESTED WIRING PRACTICES

FOR

ELECTRIC HEATERS

When selecting wiring for electric heater circuits, it should be recognized that wiring may be operating at temperatures above room ambient. These temperatures may
be the result of conducted heat from heater terminals, radiation from heater surfaces, or due to high ambient temperatures. In high temperature areas, wiring must
employ high-temperature insulation and/or nickel plated copper or high temperature nickel alloy conductors. Outside the heated zone, conventional wiring methods
and materials are generally used. The recommendations which follow are only suggestions for minimum good wiring practice and are not to conflict with the National
Electric Code or local codes.

SELECTING TYPE OF WIRE

The table below lists some of the more common code wire constructions according to their temperature capabilities. A more complete
listing may be found in current issues of the National Electric Code
on good wiring practice. Selection of type of wire will be dependent
upon operating temperature and electric service voltage to be
employed.

Maximum Wire Operating

Temperature

CENTIGRADE FAHRENHEIT

Line Voltages
Up to 300 V
Wire Type

60

140

Use 600 V wire

75

167

Use 600 V wire

90

194

Use 600 V wire

200

392

EXPLOSION-PROOF WIRING
Where hazardous conditions exist, approved explosion-proof terminal and junction boxes should be used. M1 cable or rigid conduit is
mandatory and thread joints should be wrench tight but need not be
sealed (refer to NEC).

Line Voltages
Up to 600 V
Wire Type

Use 600 V wire

Use 600 V wire
HighTemperature Applications
250
482
Use 600 V wire

Construction

T
TW
RHW
THWN
RHH
THHN
FEP
SRG

Thermoplastic over copper

Moisture resistant thermoplastic over copper
Moisture and heat-resist rubber
Moisture and heat-resist thermoplastic over copper
Heat-resistant rubber over copper
Heat-resistant thermoplastic over copper
Teflon over copper
Silicone rubber & glass braid over copper

TGT

Teflon tape with teflon impregnated glass braid over

nickel plated copper
Teflon tape with silicone impregnated impregnated
glass braid over nickel plated copper
Mica tape with silicone impregnated glass braid
over nickel plated copper
Mica tape with teflon impregnated glass braid over
nickel plated copper

TGS
450

842

Use 600 V wire

MGS
MGT

594

1100

Bare manganese nickel

wire or bus bar with
ceramic tube or bead
insulation.

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE SELECTION

FOR

ELECTRIC HEATERS

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE COLOR CODE

Thermocouple wires are color coded (See table below) to aid in their polarity
identification and to avoid cross wiring. J type thermocouples have a useful
temperature range of 32 to 1382F. K type thermocouple temperature range
is from -326 to 2282 F.
(+)

THERMOCOUPLES
Positive (+)
Conductor
J
K
T
E
R

Insulation
Color Coded
White
Yellow
Blue
Purple
Black

(-)

All negative ( - ) conductors have red color coded

insulation.

24

Black

Orange

Alloys
Iron Constantan
Chromel/Alumel
Copper/Constantan
Chromel/Constantan
Platinum/Platinum
(with 13% Rodium)
Platinum/Platinum
(with10% Rodium)
Nicrosil/Nisil

Temperature
&
Power Controls
MECHANICAL RELAY CONTROL OUTPUT WIRING(SINGLE PHASE)
Sensor
TC

-+

N.O.

Noise
Suppression
Heater

COM
Line 2
Line 1

Line 1
VAC
Power

Fuse
Line 2

Operation Of The Mechanical Relay Control Output Wiring

The normally open (N.O.) and common (COM) contacts of the mechanical relay operates as switch contacts.
When a temperature controller calls for heat, the contacts will close and there will be continuity.
Note:
The specified current rating for mechanical relays is at 120/240VAC and can be rated differently at other voltages.

SOLID STATE SWITCH CONTROL OUTPUT WIRING (SINGLE PHASE)

Load power thru an external contractor

Controller

Single Phase
Solid State Contactor
Q01

Switched DC

Fuse

L1

L1

L2

L2

VAC
Power

QCD
T1
T2
Heater
Load

Operation Of The Solid State Switch Control Output Wiring

When a heating control calls for temperature rise, the switched DC output (a transistor) turns ON, developing voltage across
the output terminal, which turns ON the solid state contactor and then the load.

25

Temperature
&
Power Controls cont.
3-PPHASE DELTA & STAR (WYE) OUTPUT WIRING
Load power thru external contractor
Operation of 3-Phase Control Output Wiring
The controller and 3-phase contactor should be wired for the desired
delta or wye configurations. The controller can normally operate at
120/240 vac single-phase with an output signal of 4-2mA. When the
heater control calls for temperature rise, the output signal to the controller will send a 4-20mA output signal to the contactor causing it to
close thus making power continuity.

3-phase
contactor
L1

L1

L2

L2

T1

L3

Vac
power

Controller
Internal
Power
Source

Limit
T1
4-20mA
--

T2

T2

Delta

Inductors

Heater load
L1

L1

L2

L2

T1

L3

Vac
power

Controller
Limit

Internal
Power
Source

T1
4-20mA
--

T2

T2

Wye

Inductors

Heater load

26

Application Guide
for Power Controls
POWER CONTROLS
There are four standard power controls: electromechanical relays, mercury displacement relays, solid state relays and silicon control rectifiers (SCRs). The first two use magnetic devices to activate power switching. The other two use solid state electronics to switch the
power.

ELECTROMECHANICAL CONTACTOR

Normally
Closed
Contact
N.C.

Contacts

The electromechanical contactor, or mechanical relay

is an electrical and mechanical device with moving
parts. When power is
applied to the relay solenoid, contact closure is created through movement of
the relays common contact.

Normally open contacts

(N.O.)
Common
Contact

Field Coil

MERCURY DISPLACEMENT RELAY (MDR)

Mercury Displacement Relays

have completely encapsulated
contacts that rely on mechanical
movement to function. The contacts do not wear, due to the
mercury within the capsule.
Mercury does not pit and burn
like metal. Mercury displacement
relays emit a barely audible noise
when switching.

In-put
electrode

Plunger

Field Coil
Liquid
Mercury
Out-put
Electrode

The Mercury Displacement Relay utilizes the best features of both the electromechanical
relay and the solid state relay. The primary advantages of the electromechanical relay is its
ability to switch considerable amounts of power at a low cost, coupled with the long life
characteristics of a solid state relay. While the electromechanical relay costs less, the MDR
will provide the long life desired. The Mercury Displacement Relay is rated to operate at full
load for up to fifteen million cycles, giving it extended life comparable to solid state relays.

27

SOLID STATE RELAY (SSR)

AC Output
Solid state relays have no moving parts and consequently, no
mechanical failures. Solid state
switches are resistant to shock
and vibration. The absence of
moving parts also makes them
noise-free. The most important
factor affecting its life is the
ambient operating temperature.
Failure to dissipate the heat
generated by the solid state
relay will quickly destroy it.
Location and heat sinking must
be adequate.

A typical solid state relay accepts a time proportioned or ON/OFF signal from a PID controller.
Solid state relays switch near zero volts, which
is zero-cross firing.
Solid state relays have disadvantages which
include the inability to provide a positive circuit
break, the initial cost, and their failure when subjected to overrated conditions. The failure
modes include burnout of the switch if the system heater shorts out, reduction in switching
capabilities as the ambient temperature rise,
and susceptibility to failure caused by line transients and inductive loads.
Solid state relay life can be extended by a great
degree with proper fusing for overload conditions and increasing the heat sinking for high
ambient temperatures.
DC Input

SILICONE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

The silicone rectifier is a solid state switching device that can switch up to a 1200 Amp load.

Most power controls can accept

two types of input signals: time
proportioned (or ON/OFF) and
process signals(either 4-20 mA or
1-5VDC) from any temperature
control. SCRs accepting time
proportioned (or ON/OFF) signals
are called power contactors.

28

SCRs accepting process signals ( 420mA or 1-5VDC ) are called power

controls. They control the power by
two methods of firing, phase angle
and zero cross (burst) firing. The primary advantages of SCR power controls are lack of moving parts, long
life, improved controllability, very
large current handling capability, and
input signal flexibility.

Glossary
AC -- An electric current that reversed Celsius -- Formerly know as centigrade. DIN -- Deutsche Industrial Norm. A set
its direction of flow at regularly recurring A temperature scale with waters ice point
intervals.
at 0C and its boiling point at 100C at
standard atmospheric pressure. The forAlumel -- An aluminum nickel alloy mula for conversion to the Fahrenheit
used in the negative leg of a Type K scale is: F = (1.8 x C) + 32
thermocouple. This a trademark of the
Hoskins Manufacture Company.
Chromel -- A chromium-nickel alloy
which makes up the positive leg of Type K
Ambient Temperature -- The tem- and E thermocouples. This is a registered
perature of air or other medium sur- trademark of the Hoskins Manufacturing
rounding the components of thermal company.
system. Pertaining to instruments, it is
the temperature they are exposed to Conduction -- The mode of heat transinside the control panel.
fer within a substance or by solids in
direct contact with each other when a
Ampere (amp, current) -- A unit that temperature difference exists.
defines the rate of charge flow in a circuit. Amp units are equal to one Constantan -- A copper-nickel alloy
coulomb per second.
used as the negative lead in Type E, J,
and T thermocouples.
Annealing -- The process of heating a
material just below its heat distortion Convection -- The mode of heat transpoint to relieve stresses.
fer associated with conduction in which
heat is transferred from a higher temperaANSI -- The American National ture region in a liquid to a lower temperature region as a result of movement of
Standard Institute.
masses of the fluid.
ASME -- The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
C - UL -- Underwriters Laboratory testing
certification covering CSA (Canadian
ASTM -- The American Society for Standard Association).
Testing and Materials.
CSA -- Canadian Standard Association.
Atmospheric pressure -- The pressure exerted by the atmosphere. DC (Direct Current) -- An electrical curStandard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 rent flowing in one direction.
psia ( 1 atmosphere) at sea level and
60F.
Delta -- An electrical network where
loads are connected directly between the
AWG -- American Wire Gauge stan- three phases.
dards.
Density -- Mass per unit volume of a
BTU -- British Thermal Unit. A unit of substance usually expressed in lbs/ft3 or
energy defined as the amount of heat grams/cm3. Also known as specific
require to raise 1 lb of water form 32F weight. Density remains nearly constant
at standard atmospheric pressure. for solids and most liquids under ordinary
OneBTU is equal to 0.293 watt-hours. conditions of temperature and pressure.
One kilowatt-hour is equal to 3412 Gas density changes with temperature
and its reference is taken of standard conBTUs.
dition of 60F/15C and standard atmosCalibration -- The act of adjusting an pheric pressure.
instrument to a know value. This value
may be a physical traceable to an inter- Dielectric -- A material with low electrinational standard.
cal conductivity, commonly called an electrical insulator.

of technical/scientific and dimensional

standards developed by an organization
in Germany. Many DIN standards have
worldwide recognition.

Emissivity -- The ratio of radiation

emitted form a surface compared to a
blackbody at the same temperature with
similar spectral and directional conditions (See infrared and radiation.)

Energy -- Power per unit of time. In

the USA, energy is measured in BTU or
kWH.

Fahrenheit -- The temperature scale

defined with an ice point for water at
32F and a boiling point of 212F at
standard atmospheric pressure. The
formula for conversion to Celsius is:
C = 5/9 (F - 32)
Ground -- An electrical line having the
same electrical potential as the surrounding earth. Grounding an electrical
system is usually employed to protect
people and equipment from shocks due
to malfunctions. Also referred as safety
ground.

Ground Junction -- A type of thermocouple probe construction where the

hot, or measuring junction, is an integral
part of the sheath material. No electrical
isolation is provided on a grounded
junction.

Heat -- Energy transferred between

substances as a result of a temperature
difference between them.

Heat Sink -- A finned piece of metal

(usually aluminum) used to dissipate
heat generated by a solid state relay or
SSR.

Heat Transfer -- The process of heat

energy flowing from one body of higher
temperature of one of lower temperature.

Hertz(Hz) -- Frequency, measured in

cycles per second.

29

Hi-Pot Test -- A test which applies a

Mega -- A prefix meaning million. The

high voltage to a conductor to assure symbol is M.
the integrity of the surrounding insulation.
MgO -- The chemical symbol for magnesium oxide which is a good conductor of
Hydroscopic -- Describes a materi- heat and a good electrical insulator.

Relay, Electromechanical -- A
power switching device that completes
or interrupts a circuit by physically moving electrical contacts into contact with
each other. Also called relay.

al that absorbs moisture.

Relay, Mercury Displacement -- A

Milliamp (mA) -- One thousandth of an power switching device using mercury,

ID -- Abbreviation for inside diameter.

ampere.

when displaced by a plunger, to complete the electric circuit across contacts.

Infrared -- An area in the electromag- Microvolt (V) -- One millionth of a volt.

netic spectrum range from 1 to 1000
Relay, Solid State -- A solid state
microns. Heat is transferred in this Millivolt (mV) -- One thousandth of a switching device that completes or
range.
interrupts an electric circuit with no
volt.
moving parts (see SSR.)
Kelvin (K) -- an absolute temperature NEMA -- The National Electrical
scale. Zero Kelvin is absolute zero -- Manufacturers Association.
Resistance -- Opposition to the flow
the temperature where all molecular
of electric current measured in ohms.
activity stops. No degree symbol () is NPT -- The National Pipe Thread
used with the Kelvin scale. (0C = standards.
RTD -- Resistive Temperature
273.15 K, 100 = 373.15 K)
Detector. A temperature sensor whose
OD -- Abbreviation for outside diameter. resistance increases with increasing
temperature in a known manner.
Kilowatt (KW) -- Electrical unit of
power equal to 1000 watts or 3412 PID -- Proportional, Integral, Derivative. A Platinum is the most commonly used in
BTUs per hour when the power factor control mode with three functions. RTD material.
equals 1.0.
Proportional action dampens the system
response, integral corrects for droop, SCFM -- Standard volumetric flow rate
Kilowatt Hour (KWH) -- Electrical unit derivative seeks to prevent overshoot and in cubic feet per minute. Normally used
for gases and vapors, this value is evalof energy, or work, expended by one undershoot.
uated at standard condition of
kilowatt in one hour. Also expressed as
1000 watt hours.
Polarity -- The electrical quality of hav- 60F/15C and standard atmospheric
ing two opposite poles, one positive and pressure.
Laminar Flow -- A condition where one negative. Polarity determines the
the plastic resin moves in continuos direction in which a current tends to flow. SCR -- Silicon Controlled Rectifier. A
parallel paths.
solid state device, or thyristor, having
Positive Temperature Coefficient -- no moving parts, that when used in
Linearity -- The deviation in response A resistance increase occurring with a pairs, controls AC voltages within one
from an expected or theoretical straight temperature increase (see RTD or cycle. SCRs control voltage from a
power source to the load by burst (zero
line value for instruments and transduc- Thermistor).
cross) or phase angle firing.
ers.
Pressure -- Force per unit area, usually
Load -- The electrical demand expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) Sensor -- A device which detects the
(expressed in power [watts], current
temperature, pressure or other physical
[amps] or resistance [ohms]) of a Pressure Drop -- The difference in property of a controlled media, and proprocess.
pressure between any two points of a sys- vides an output signal to an automatic
controller or switching mechanism.
tem or component.
Mass Flow Rate -- the amount of a
substance flowing per unit of time past PSIA -- Pounds per square inch Set Point -- The desired value proa given cross-section area within a con- absolute. Pressure expressed in terms of grammed into a control.
duit.
its actual or absolute value with reference
to a perfect vacuum.
SI system of units -- A system of
measurement adopted by the Eleventh
Maximum Operating Temperature -- PSIA = PSIG + 14.7 psi (1 atmosphere)
General Conference of Weights and
The highest temperature at which a
device can operate safely, or with PSIG -- Pounds per square inch gauge. Measures in 1960 and derived from the
expected normal service life.
Pressure expressed in therms of a value metric system. This system is called Le
Systems International dUnites (abbreviread directly from installed gauges.
ated SI)
Maximum Power Rating -- The PSIG = PSIA - 14.7 psi ( 1 atmosphere)
maximum operating power a device can
handle without danger or a shortened Radiation -- The process of emitting
operating life.
radiant energy in the form of waves or
particles (see Emissivity and Infrared).

30

Soft Start -- A method of using phase Thermocouple -- A temperature sens-

Ungrounded Junction -- A form of

angle control to gradually increase the

output power over a period of several
seconds. Used for heaters with a low
electrical resistance when cold or for
limiting in-rush current to inductive
loads.

thermocouple probe construction where

the measuring junction is fully enclosed
in a protective sheath, and is electrically
isolated form the sheath.

ing device constructed by joining tow

dissimilar metals. This junction produces
an electrical voltage in proportion to the
difference in temperature between the
hot junction and the lead wire connection to the sensing device (cold junction).

Specific Gravity (sp.gr.) -- Density,

compared to the density of water, which Thermocouple Junction -- The point
is given the arbitrary value of 1 to 0C in a thermocouple where the tow dissim(see Density).
ilar metals, or legs, are joined. In a typical thermocouple circuit, there is a meaSpecific Heat -- The term used to suring junction and a reference junction.
express the capacity of a substance to
gain or lose heat energy as its tempera- Thermoplastic Materials -- Become
ture changes. It is expressed in units of soft and moldable when heated and
BTU/lb -F or Joules/grams - C. change back to solids when allowed to
Specific heat varies in most materials cool. Thermoplastic materials that are
with changes in temperature and mater- flexible even when cool are know as
ial state.
elastomer or TPEs. Although the heating/cooling cycle can be repeated, recySSR -- Solid State Relay. A solid state cling reduces mechanical properties and
switching device that switches current appearance.
ON and OFF. It has no moving parts.
Thermostat -- An electro-mechanical
Swaging -- A sheathed electrical ele- device which opens or closes a contact
ment manufacturing process when the at a specified temperature. The most
element sheath is hammered in a die to common forms of thermostat are bulb
reduce its diameter and compact its and capillary and bi-metal strip.
insulation.
Thermowell -- A closed end tube
Temperature -- The hotness or cold- designed to protect temperature sensors
ness of a body measured on a definitive from hostile environments.
scale (normally degrees Fahrenheit,
Celsius, Rankine or Kelvin).
Transducer -- A device which receives
a signal in one form and retransmit it in
Thermal Conductivity -- A property another form, i.e. a thermocouple transwhich indicates a materials ability to forms heat energy input into a voltage
transfer heat. The higher a materials output.
thermal conductivity, the quicker it will
transfer heat energy. Its expressed in Turbulent Flow -- A condition where
BTU/hr - ft. -F or watts/meter - C. This the plastic resin particles move in ranvalue changes with temperature in most dom paths, rather than in a continuous
materials and must be evaluated for the parallel paths.
condition given.
UL -- Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Thermal Expansion -- A size 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, Illinois,
increase in a material resulting from a 60062-2096, USA. An independent testrise in temperature. Its expressed as ing laboratory that establishes commerthe number of inches/inch/F or cen- cial and industrial standards. It also tests
and certifies products against those
timeters/cm/C per reference length.
standards.
Thermistor -- A contraction for
Thermally Sensitive Transistor. Its a
UL components recognition.
temperature sensing device composed
of semiconductor material which
exhibits a large change in resistance for
a small change in temperature.
C-UL (CSA equivalent)
Thermistors usually have negative temcomponents recognition.
perature coefficients.

Viscosity -- The fluid property which

determines the amount of its resistance
to sheering forces (flow). High viscosity
indicates a tendency for fluid to flow or
move slowly. The viscosity for fluids
decrease as their temperatures
increase. Heating gases will increase
their absolute viscosity.

Volt Amperes -- Represented by the

symbol VA. A measurement of apparent power. The product of voltage and
current in a reactive circuit.
V (voltage) X I (current) =
VA (volt-amperes)
The unit volt-ampere is used instead of
watts, since the term watt is reserved
for real power.

Volt/Voltage (V) -- The unit of electromotive force (EMF), the difference in

electrical potential between two points
in a circuit, Its the push or pressure
behind current flow through a circuit.
One volt is the difference in potential
required to move one coulomb of
charge between two points in a circuit
consuming one joule of energy.
Expressed another way, one volt (V) is
equal to one ampere of current (I) flowing through one ohm of resistance
(R), or V = IR.

Watt (W) -- A measurement of real

power. The product of voltage and current in a resistive circuit.
V (voltage) I (current) =
P (power in watts)

Watt Density -- The power produced

in watts per unit surface area of heater .
It indicates the potential for a surface to
transmit heat energy and is expressed
in W/in2. Ratings for heating elements
and surface heat loss factors are
expressed using this value.
Wye -- An electrical connection when
one end of three loads is connected
together and the other end to one each
of the three phases of a power supply.

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C E L E B R AT I N G 5 0

YEARS OF EXCELLENCE

RAMA CORPORATION is the source for all of your industrial heating

element and hot runner system needs. Please ask for our product bulletins
with your next order.
!RAMAROD cartridge heater, with extensive stock for off-theshelf deliveries
!RAMA COILED NOZZLE heaters, replacement stock and custom
manufactured
!TUBULAR and IMMERSION heaters
!RAMAFLEX - flexible blanket heaters

!HOT RUNNER SYSTEM: engineered for the customer

!Complete R&D facilities
!SPECIAL PRODUCTS development facilities
!ASSEMBLY & MACHINING available

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