CONTENTS 1_Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics LL Elid. 12 Density, Specific Weight and Specific Volume 2 13. Specific Gravity 7 1A Viscosity 7 15 Vapour Pressure 11 16 Specific Heats 13 17 Pressure 15 18 Head 17 19 Hydraulic Gradient 17 1.10. Types of Fluid Flow 18 LIL Reynolds Number 20 112 Froude Number 24 113 Buler's Equation of Motion 25 114 Cominuity Equation 26 LIS Bemoulli's Equation 26 116 Gas Laws 27 117 Compressi lity Factor 29 2. Hydraulic Design Considerations 3-86 Determination of Pipe Size 31 Determination of Pressure Losses 39 ‘Thrusts in a Pipeline 55 ‘Water Hammer in Pipelines 56 Design of Gas Pipelines 58 Measurement of Flow in Pipes 62 27 Transportation of Solid Materials Through Pipelines 84 BREERE 3. Metallurgy of Piping Materials 87-96 31 Selecton of Material 87 32 Physical Propetics of Pipe Materials 87 33 Won-Carbon Diagram 91 34 Alloying Bement in Steet 92 AS Recommended Piping Materials 95 4. Pipes and Pipe Fittings 97 - 180 4 Standards and Specifications 97 42 Steel Pipes 98avi Contents 43 44 45 46 ar 48 ‘Steet Pipe Fittings 111 Cast Iron Pipes 114 Cast Iron Fittings 119 Jointing of Cast tron Pipes 125 ‘Tubes of Other Materials 167 Design of Flanges and Flanged Joints 169 5. Pipe Supports 181-218 su 32 33 34 35 56 37 58 9 5.10 Load on Structural Supports 181 ‘Supporting Structures of Pipelines 183, Pipe Supports — Design Considerations 184 Platforms and Ladders 186 Foundation 187 Supporting Span of Overhead Pipelines 187 ‘Stiffening Ribs 190, ‘Span of Refractory Lined Pipes for Hot and Dirty Gases 192 Pipe Clamping and Supporting Devices 193 Flexible Hanger Supports 206, 6 Valves and Allied Fittings 219 - 239, 6 62 63 6a 6s 65 67 Valves 219 Functions of Valves 219 Valve Materials and Methods of Construction 220 Pressure Drop in Valves 221 Valle Size 221 ‘Types of Valves 221 Valve Finings 228 7. Piping Fabrication 240 = 258 wu 2 3B 24 78 18 ” 78 19 710 mm m2 Drawings 240 Codes and Seandasds 240 Piping Fabrication 240 ‘Welding Joints in Pipelines 241 ‘Welding Processes Used in Piping Fabrication 242 Preparation of Pipe Edges 245 Welding Electrodes 245 Heat Treatment of Weld Joints 249 Inspection of Weld Joints 251 Requirements of Weld Test 254 Repaie of Defective Weld Joints 255 Acceptance Standards 225 Copyrighted materContents xxii 8. Expansion Effects and Compensating Methods 256 - 287 ReECee 87 88 89 Piping Systems 256 Pipe Expansion 256 ‘Methods of Compensation 257 ‘Thermal Force Calculations 259 Permissible Equivalent Stresses Caused By Additional Extemal Loads 263 Expansion Devices 264 Caleulation of Anchor Force Using a Bellow 277 Bellow Material and Life 281 Use of Hinged Compensators 283 9, Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems 288 - 321 ou 92 93 oa 9s 96 ‘The Kellogg Method 288 ‘Method of Analysis 288 Computer Aided Design (CAD) for Calculations of Forees and Moments: (Using Programmes in FORTRAN Language in B-6800 Burroughs Computer) 304 ‘Maltiplane Pipelines With Two Fixed Ends 307 General Flow Chat for Computer Programming (in FORTRAN - 1V) 314 Programme for Piping Flexibility Analysis 315 10, Thermal Insulation 222 M8 104 02 3 os 105 108 Ww? 10s. too Back Ground 322 Functions of Thermal Insulators 322 Modes of Heat Transfer 323 Insulating Materials 333, ‘Temperature Drop in a Pipeline 336 Application of Insulation 337 Calculation of Condensate 339 Steam Trap 343 Desuperheaters 348, 11, Design of Tubular Components of Water Tube Boilers M9 360 a n2 Design Calculations of Wall Thickness and Working Pressure 349 ‘Stress Calculations of Heavy-walled Branch Connections 354 12, Water Supply Piping BL = 394 I 122 3 4 Rs 126 127 12s Determination of Wall Thickness 361 Laying of Pipelines 371 ‘Water Distribution Systems 374 Network Analysis 375 Use of Darey Formula in Network Analysis 377 Use of Fanning Equation in Network Analysis 384 Computer Programme for Network Analysis (for use in FORTRAN IV) 385 Determination of Diameters in a Pipe Network 393 Copyrighted materContents 13. Corrosion-erosion in Pipelines 134 132. BS IB BS. Be 1? 138, Corrosion Control — A Critical Task 395 Corrosion Process 395, Corrosion Reaction 39% ‘Types of Corrosion 397 Anti-Conosive Protective Coatings 401 Cathodic Protection of Pipelines 405, Abrasion 41 Fluid and Cavitation Erosion 414 14, CPVE Piping (An Anti-Corrosive Piping System) 141 142 133, a4 145. 146 147 148, 149. 1410 141 M42 ‘What is CPVC? 415 ient Features of CPVC Pipings and Fitlings 415 Physical Properties of CPVC Thermoplastic Material 416 Chemical Resistance 417 Design Properties of Pipe 418 ieneral Specification 424 Fluid Handling Characteristics 425 ‘Thermal Expansion, Compensation and Thermal Stresses 432 ‘Valves and Allied Fitings 435 Jointing System 435 Laying of Pipelines 437 Testing of Piping System 438 18. Pipework Maintenance 15 152 153. 154 Iss. 156 Maintenance-key to Trouble-free Service 439 Repair Techniques 439 Cleaning of Pipe Internal Surface 442 Maintenance Information 443 Maintenance Tools 443 Preventive Maintenance 443 Bibliography Appendices Index 395 = 414 41s - $ material Copyright1 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 11 FLUIDS Fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing. As such when a certain mass of fluid is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries, it exerts forces against the boundary sur- faces. The forces so exerted always actin the direction normal tothe surface in contact. Fluid does not offer any resistance to distortion of its form: it deforms under the slightest pressure. Fluids are generally classified as liquids and gases. Some classifications include vapour also as ‘lass of fluid. Typical examples ofthe three classes of fluids are water (liquid), air (gas) and steam (vapour). Liquid isa fuid which occupies a definite volume independent ofthe size or shape ofthe vessel in which itis contained. Liquids are highly resistant to compression, Water, the most common liquid, is generally regarded as an incompressible uid for common engineering analysis (except where very accurate work is required or high pressure is involved). Gas isa fiuid which tends to expand t fill any container in which itis contained. Ithas no definite ‘volume or shape. It takes the shape and volume of the container into which it is introduced. Gas is highly compressible and large quantities of itcan be compressed to occupy a small volume, ‘A perfect gas obeys two conditions: (1) It obeys the gas law p = p RT or pV = mRT where R is @ ‘constant called the gas constant, the value of which is constant forthe gas concerned and V is the volume occupied by the mass m of the gas at pressure p. The greek letter p (pronounced as “tho") stands for the density.of the gas. The absolute temperature T is given by T° (abs) = 273 + 1°C. (2) The ratio of the two specific heats ofa perfect gas, namely, specific heat at constant pressure (C;) 104 speci het comment vole (C;), tacoma, Tat hn spect het aio (Oreck leer ‘Gamma’ or k= scons ‘No gas is perfect in realty. However, most gases obey the gas laws if they are at temperatures ‘and pressures weil away both from the liquid phase and from dissociation. For example, air at ‘normal temperature and pressure behaves closely in accordance withthe gas laws or the equation of state,2 Handbook of Piping Design “The gascous state of a liquid is called its vapour, By adding heat energy, appropriate to the pressure and temperature condition, all liquids will become vapour. Depending upon the quantity Of the heat energy added, part or all of the Tiquid wit! become vapour. If all the liquid becomes ‘vapour, that vapour is called saturated vapour. If still more heat energy is added, the temperature of the vapour will increase, even though its pressure may remain constant. Such vapour which exists ata temperature above its saturation temperature is called superheated vapour. A highly super- heated vapour at low pressure is often found obeying gas laws with sufficient accuracy for many ‘engineering calculations 1.2 DENSITY, SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC VOLUME, Density ofa fluid isthe mass which it possesses per unit volume, [tis usually denoted by the Greek letter p (Rho). Mass, m Density: P= Vojume, V aay Density is generally expressed in gem ‘The density ofa uid decreases with increase in temperature. Liquids, being incompressible, are negligibly affected by pressure changes. But the density of a gas or vapour changes appreciably with change in pressure. Density increases with increase in pressure, Specific weight of a fluid isthe weight it possesses per unit volume. It is denoted by the symbol W or (Greek letter pronounced as “Gamma"), Generally, in engineering calculations specific weight is used instcad of density. Density p and the specific weight 7 are related as follows: a2 where, is acceleration due to gravity. From equation 1.2 itis clea that specific weight depends on gravitational acceleration and den- sity. Since gravitational acceleration varies from place to place, specific weight also varies from place to place. Further as stated earlier, density changes with temperature and pressure, and hence specific weight also changes with temperature and pressure, Specific weight is expressed in kg/m Specific volume of a uid isthe volume of the fluid per ‘unit weight. ILis the reciprocal of specific weight and expressed in m’ /kg, It is generally denoted bby V and is commonly used in problems involving gas laws. 1.2.1 Density of Gases and Vapours Density of a gas p under operating conditions is gencrally expressed relative to the density of air p, at normal conditions. For a gaseous medium, gna ® = Constant ad where, P= Pressure ia Nin = 0.102 kph?)Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 3 Table 1.1. Density of important substances Material Density ‘Material Density Kgmicm?) (emiem? “Aluminium (pure) 270 Fat 092-094 Asbestos 210-280 Glass 2402.60 Brass 840-870 Gold 1933 Bronze 870-890 ke 092 Brown coal 1201.50 Leather 087-100 Cast iron 730-770 Marble 250-280 ‘Cement 0x2 ~ 195 Paper 07 =1.10 Cork 022-026 Quarte 266 Copper 880-892 Rubber Las Diamond 350~3.60 Sand 263 Doralumin 270 Silver 940-1053 Bronite 1.80. Wrought ion 1807.50 (by Liquids Liquid Density (gmiem?)| °C Density gmicm’) | °C ‘Alcokal 079) 0 103 20 Benzene 088, 20 36 0 Bemzole 090 0 068072 15 Castor ot 097 - os7—ons — Glycerine 126 ° 189 i (Lubricating) 91-092 20 102 091-093 20 100 (©) Gases (Specific weigh Gas Specific weight Gas ‘Specific weight °C apd 7é00n digi’) CC and 760mm) Utgim ‘Ait 129 Generator a8 | Lis Acetylene 17 Hydrogen 009 ‘Ammonia 076 Hydrogen sulphide 134 Benzol vapour 347 Methane on Blast furnace gas 127 Nitrogen 125 Crsbon monoxide 125 Nitrous oxide 198 Carbon dioxide 198 Oxygen 13. Coke oven gx8 050 Sulphur dionide 293 Chlorine gas 328 Water gas 069 Bthylene gas 126 Water vapour on T = Temperature in °K (=273 + °C) p = Density in kg/m? R = Gas constant in Nevkg’K M = Molecular weight4 Handbook of Piping Design ‘Table 12 Specie weight yof steam (@) Saturated steam Pressure Saturation tem- (kg/m?) Pressure Saturation tem 1 Ggiem*abs.) perature °C) giomabs.) perature ("C)_tkemy 1 HO 058 5 289.17 3873 5 ASL 20 80 293.82 4168 10 19.08 505 8s 29786 44.69 1s 197.36 745 90 301.92 4178 20 211.38 934 9s 308.80 50.93 25 2290 1226 100 308.53 3417 30 232.76 1471 no 31658 60.90 35 21a 119 120 35 68.17 40 249.18 1971 130 329.30 7608 45 256.23 22 140 335.09 8453, 50 262.70 488 150 340.56 381 55 268.68 733 10 345.74 10395 co 274.29 3026 170 350.6 18.23 65 279.53 180 355.35 12798 70 2e4a8 200 366.08 160.77 ©) Superheated steam Pressure (bain?) at Kégiomabs.)| 200 250 300 350 400 450 00 c c c c "c Pa © 10 45 421 380347 320 297 277 15 738 644 5785.26 448 aay 20 > 87% 781 7.08 649 600 559 2s - 112399 898 817 758 701 30 - 1383 12061083987 9.10 Bas 35 - 166214291276 13.60 10.87 939 40 - 1964 = 166114741338 1226 1135 4s - - 19m 1676 ISIS 386 50 ~ - 2541883169414 1431 3s - - 217209587873 15.80 © - - 2697-42065 BO 17 6s - - 29102837 Ss OAT 1883 0 - - 307-7749 IR 20437 80 - - 4010 «3254 RAT 2565 23.48 0 - - - 3776 3261 9.202685 100 - - - 340 49132842987 120 - - - S643 4617 ads 3850 10 - - - 27 S643 aR SZ ABB 160 - - - 9597 = 803 S74 S088. 180 - - - - 8137 6640 58.07 200 - - - ~ 9109-7645 65.96Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics $ Considering the density ofa gas at two different conditions, the following relation can be derived: aa ven temperature and pressure, equation 1.3 indicates that pR = constant. By Avogadro's hypothesis, unit volume of all pure gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. Since density is proportional to the mass of an individual molecule, the [product of R and the molecular weight M is constant forall perfect gases. This product MR is known as the universal gas constant, ‘Considering temperature and pressure conditions as normal and indicating this normal condition ‘withthe subscript, equation 1.4 can be re-written as: Pr, Pra as) Considering the normal pressure in mm. Hg, 203P P P= pasa = 03592 9,7 4.6) ‘Considering the normal pressure in kg/cm? abs. a7 Example 1.1 Find the specific weight of a gas at 100 mm water column (WC) pressure and 12°C with a specific ‘weight ratio of 0.51 Ugfemabs. = 10,000 mm WC =735.6 mum Hg Solution, Using specific weight in place of density equation 1.6 can be written as: ? ‘Y= 0.3592 y, Tt ¥, for a gas = y, for air multiplied by specific weight ratio, that is, y, = 1.293 0.51 = 0.659 kg/m* a P= 100mm WC = 5 *100= 7.356 mm Hg. 160+ 7.356 ‘Therefore, = 0.3592 x0.659« 07S = 0.637 kg/m? 1.2.2 Density of Wet Gases In the case of a gas containing water vapour, the weight per unit volume of the wet gas under oper- ating conditions can be found out by applying a correction factor to the weight per unit volume of the dry gas al operating condition, as shown below:6 Handbook of Piping Design where, % = density of dry gas in kg/m? P = total pressure of gas in mm Hg ¢ = relative humidity in percentage 0.389217 ~$Fo) , 7 as) Pp = partial pressure of water vapour at operating temperature T = operating temperature (absolute) Yo = weight of water vapour that will saturate In? of wet gas. ‘The behaviour of a mixture of gases is governed by Dalion’s law which states that when two or ‘more gases whichdo not react chemically withone another and enclosedina vessel,the ioral pressure ‘exerted by the mixture of gases willbe equal 10 the sum ofthe partal pressures which each gas would ‘exert if present alone in the space. From this law the following relation can be derived: Volume of water v ‘Volume of mixture Partial pressure of water vapour “Total pressure ‘Table 1.3 Partial presure of water vapour 7, and weight of water vapour y to saturate In of wet gas a diferent temperatures Temp. Po » Tomp. Po » c (mum Ha) tegin’) < (mn Hs.) (gin?) ° 46 0.0048 20 175 0171 2 53 0.0055 25 BS 0.0220 ‘ 64 0.0063 30 318 0.0301 6 70 o.0071 32 352 0.0335 8 at 0.0082 ™ 393 09373, 10 93 0.0083, 35 46 omnes 1 99 0.0088 36 wa coud 2 106 0106 38 97 0.0460 B 2 oon2 0 561 0.0508 “4 us oon 2 os ons6s 15, 127 0127 “4 682 0.0623 6 BS 0135, 45 ns 0.0658 0 144 0.013 46 755 0.0687 18 154 oo1s2 48 a6 075s 19 163 oot6t so 923 0.0830 Example 1.2 Find the density of a wet gas at 30°C whose total pressure P is 800 mm Hg. ‘The partial pressure of ‘water vapour al the above temperature is 31.8 mm Hg, The density of dry gas may be considered as 04 gh’.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.30. Handbook of Piping Design 1.08 0.90 0 100 100 200 300 PRESSURE abs oe Fig. 19 Compressibliy factor curve for oxygen.