'

' "

~ :12
0 6= 1

} N = {1, 2, 3 . . .
.
} Z = { . . . 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .
.


14
Q = . . . 6, 12
5 , 7, 9 , . . .

.
)n Q|n = ab , (a, b Z



R = , . . . , , 5, 1, 0, 2, , . . . ,
.
:
F :
) (+ )( ,
:
~ ' :2 1
: a, b F :
a + b F ) ,
(.
~ ' :2
: a, b F = a + b
.b + a
~ ' :3
: (a + b) + c = a +
.(b + c) : a, b, c F

p Zp Zp = .
} {0, 1, 2 . . . p 1 p )
(.
) :ch (F
n > 0
) ch (F
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1 Z5 5 .0
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1F .0 ,
.ch (F ) = 0
.ch (Zp ) = p :
:
n

.(ab) = an bn .1
.an am = an+m .2

n
n
. ab = abn .3
= anm .4

) .(an

:
F . K .F
F ) K K
.(F K ) ,(F
K ) .F .(F

~ ' :4
) ( : F
, ,0 ,a + 0 = a
.a F

~ ' :5
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A :
) Amn (F m n.

~ ' :1
: a, b F
a b F .
~ ' :2
: a, b F .ab = ba
~ ' :3
: : a, b, c F
).a (b c

= (a b) c

~ ' :4
) ( : F
, ,1 a 1 = a .a F
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~ 11 ' ':
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2' ' .

a1n
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.
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a12
a22

.
.
.

.
.
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am2

a11
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A= .
..
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aij i .j
A = [aij ]mn :
:
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(.
) AB , !(
A ) B (
.AB ,
:
1 i m :1 j k
n
X
Ait Btj
t=1

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: AB BA.
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,.A (B C) = (A B) C :
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.3 :
) : ( .
,
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: .
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.
, ":

A + B = B + A ) .A, B Mmn (F

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C A, B, C
) .Mmn (F

:
) Mmn (F :0

A + O = O ) .A Mmn (F

3
2

2
0

4
5
3
0

3
1
0
0

2
0
0
0

1
0

0
0

) A Mmn (F
) A Mmn (F .A+(A) = O :

)
( ) x2 , x4 " "
( ..x1, x3
:

t (A + B) = t A + t B A, B
) .Mmn (F

.1
.

(t + s) A = t A + s A ) A Mmn (F
.t, s F

.2 ) (
:
, )
(Zp q (q k :
k , .
) , )
(b (.

~ :

,O A = O

,1 A = A

. 1 A = A

.s (t A) = (s t) A

:

b1
b2

= ..
.
bm

x1
a1n
x2
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. .
. .
.
.
amn
xm

a12
a22

.
.
.

.
.
.

am2

a11
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..
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.
.
.
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a1n
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.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.

amn

am2

a11
a21

..
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am1

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.
b ,
.
, .
,
:
:

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) " "(.
2

) .3( :
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.

:
b .
) , (.
:


) ,
( . .

)
+ .(0
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.
:

1 2 5 0
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.

1 2 5 0
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0 0 0 0
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.
:
,
.
:
B ,A
..A ` B :
:
.
m = n .An (F ) :
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....
.

:

:

,
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
) .I ,(In
) A3 (F
.I3
.I4
:
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A ) B
( A B = I B A = I
: A1 .AA1 = A1 A = I :
A
.A D = I
?
:
)(
:

0
0
1

0
1
0

1
0
0

a3
a6
a9

a2
a5
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.

( ,:

1 0 0
2 1 0
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3 0 0
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(A) :, .A
) E = (I) :" "(.
) E A = (A) : :
E A
E .A
:


,1:
1 (A) = A .1 ( (A)) = A
:
1

1
R

R
c

R
(c 6= 0) .1
i
i
i
c i
Ri Rj
Ri Rj
.2
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cRi + Rj Rj
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, ,
A1 "
:3
.
)
,A I : "
A .(I
:
A :
I = Ek Ek1 E2 E1 A
:
1

= E11 E21 Ek1

A1 = Ek E2 E1
) A Mmn (F :
A = C B ) B Mmn (F ) C Mm (F
.
B = Ek E1
A
A = E11 E21 Ek1 B
|
{z
}
) A = (Ek E2 E1

a1
a4
a7

a .

,
....
3

3 : )( .1
) ,(1 .

 ' "

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:
) A Mmn (F
At " ) ) At Mnm (F (.
:



1 4
1 2 3
= .At = 2 5 ,A
4 5 6
3 6
t
: 1 i n .Aij = Aji :1 j m
:
A, B Mmn (F ) : : F

t

At

)(1

=A

)(2

)(3

( A) = At

)(4

(A B) = A B

A) A I .3 .(I

(A B) = B A

A x .
.4 ,b F n = b
A x
.5 b F n = b
.

A Mn (F ) :
)(5
)(6

) A Mn (F :

A .2 .

:
A .1.

:
) ) A Mn (F ( .
A x A.
=
0 4
:
A
) ) A Mn (F ( . x = b
,b F n A.

1

A x .
=
.6 0

t
= A1

t
A1 At = I

At

A x .
.7 ,b F n = b

:
.At = A :
:
.At = A :
:

1 2 3
2 4 5
3 5 8
:

0
4 5
) 4 0 7
5 7 0
(.

:
:
F n n.
) F (n n.

:
, ....
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:

a11 a12 a1n

.
.
0 a22 . . .
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
0 ann
Aij = 0 .1 j < i n
: :
:
Aij = 0 .1 i < j n

:
n
)n(n1
n
Q
Q
2
)) det (A) = (1 aii

aii

x
) ,A Mmn (F = :

b1
x1

... ,b = ... :
bm
xn
= b

A x:

x1

1 2 6 0
2
3 4 1 2 x2 = 4
x3
9 0 8 5
1
x4
:
A , b F n:
A x A
= b
1
.
c = A b :
4

i=1

i=1

.(5

:
) A Mn (F . ) A0 = (A
:A
.1 (c 6= 0) cRi Ri : :
).det (A0 ) = c det (A
.2 Ri Rj :.det (A0 ) = det (A) :
.3 cRi +Rj Rj :.det (A0 ) = det (A) :
4 .2
)5 (

 ' "

'

:
= n) .det (c A) = cn det (A) .1
(.
.2 det (A) = :
) .0
.(ch (F ) 6= 2
.3
.det (A) = 0 :
.4 det (A) 6= 0 0"
.
.5 ) A, B Mn (F
.det (B) = 0det (A) = 0

" :
A ,:
Aj jA
b.
) det (Aj
= xj.j = 1, . . . , n :
)det (A

A , det (A) 6= 0

.6
) E = (
cRi Ri :
Ri Rj :
cRi + Rj Rj :
:

) (.

. :

det (E) = 1

.det (A B) = det (A) det (B) .1

det (At ) = det (A) .2
, ...
.det (A + B) 6= det (A) + det (B) .3
1
.4
)det (A

:
.1 : V ,F
1 , . . . , n .V

= det A1

) ,A Mn (F:
ij ,A mij (A) :
A i
j .A )(n 1
).(n 1
ij A ) cij (A "
i+j
.cij (A) = (1) mij (A) :
A , :

)c11 (A) cn1 (A

.
.
..
..
.
.

.
.
.
.

cof (A) =

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
)c1n (A) cnn (A
A ) adj (A ":
t
).adj (A) = cof (A
A ,:

1
) adj (A
)det (A

)( "
V t1 1 + . . . + tn n :
.t1 , . . . , tn F
)( V
1 , . . . , n t1 , . . . , tn
,F . = t1 1 + . . . + tn n
"" ,
,
.0
.2 } K = {1 , . . . , n
,V ) sp (K
:
)sp (K
=
} sp {1 , . . . , n
=
} .{t1 1 + . . . + tn n |t1 , . . . , tn F
" sp {1 , 2 , 3 } = sp {1 , 2 , 3 } :

.
.3 sp (K) = V K .V
.4 K , ,
V V
. F (n) :
F [X]n .F [X] :

= A1

 ' "

'

.5 : K
t1 , . . . , tn F
. t1 1 + . . . + tn n = 0
" )
( t1 1 + . . . + tn n = 0
) t1 = t2 = = tn = 0 ,
(.

.19 : V .F
V : V:
. dim V
:
)( .dim F n = dim F (n) = n
)( .dim F [X]n = n + 1
)( .dim Mmn (F ) = m n

.6 }) K = { . (1
K . = 0
K :" . 6= 0

.20 ,dim V = n:

.7 K , K"
K
.K
.8
.
.9 "
.
.10 K L K" L" , :
L" K".
K .11 "
:

)( V n
.
)( n V
.
)( V n
" ) (.
)( n " ,V
) V (.
.21 , dim V = n
} K = {1 , . . . , n ,V,
:
)( K .V

)( K".

)( K".

)( V K
} K { ".

)( K .V

.12 : : V ,F
} B = {1 , . . . , n .V
B V:

.22 : A :A
A
=x
0
) (.
.23 ) A Mn (F :

)( B .V
)( A.

)( B".

)( A " .F n
.13 :

)( A .F n

)( B .V

)( A .F n

)( B .V

)( A "

)( B
".
)( B V
V
.B
.14
V .V
.15 V .V
.16 V = {0} :
) ( .
.17 F .
.18 V .F :
V .
6

)( A

)(n

)(n

.F

.F

)( A

)(n

.F

:
:A
det (A) = 0
) .
( A . .
det (A) 6= 0
) .
( A ..

 ' "

'

)( ) A Mn (F .0 rank (A) n
, A rank (A) = n.

:
.1 :
) A Mmn (F.
m] A xn ,
= 0 :
[.
:
} S = {c F n |A c = 0
S F n . S .F n
.2 :
)( ri (A) F (n) :A .1 i m
.dim m
)( cj (A) F n :A .1 j n
.dim n
)( A
.At ,
.
)( } .sp {1 ...i ...n } = sp {1 ...c i ...n
.0 6= c F
} sp{1 , . . . , i , . . . , j , . . . , n
)(
} = sp{1 , . . . , j , . . . , i , . . . , n
} sp{1 , . . . , i , . . . , j , . . . , n
)(
} = sp{1 , . . . , i , . . . , j + c i , . . . , n
:
,A
.
.3 A Mmn ,
.A
.4 : ) ( A :
) ( .A rank (A) :
) .r (A) : , ,
(.
)( ,A
A
.
)( ,A
At
.
)( ) (
,A ) A ,(At
.
.5:A Mmn (F ) :
)( ).0 rank (A) min (n, m
)( .A = O rank (A) = 0

)( :A Mmn (F ) , B Mnk (F ) :
.rank (A B) rank (A) .i
.rank (A B) rank (B) .ii
A " ,
AB ".
: AB
" , A ".
)( ) B Mn (F = )rank (AB
).rank (A
)( ) C Mn (F = )rank (CA
).rank (A

"


 1 x0 x20 xn0


 1 x1 x21 xn1


 ..
.
.
.
 .
.
.
.
 .
.
.
.
.
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 1 xn x2 xn
n
n
n + 1 .n
x
) x , ,
( ) n n
, n + 1(.
y ) .
(.
...
:
T = {(0, 2) , (1, 3) , (2, 4)} :
:
a + bx + cx2 :

a b x0 c x20
y0
a b x1 c x21 = y1
a b x2 c x22
y2
:

a b0 c0
2
a 0 0 2
a b c 3 =a b 1 c 12 = 3
a b 2 c 22
a 2b 4c 4
4

) (:
a
=2
+c = 3
= 2 +b
2 +2b +4c = 4
...

" '

)( rank (A) = m A" )

.(m n
)( rank (A) = n A" )
.(n m
)( ) rank (A )
( " .A
7

T xi 6= xj : i 6= j
:
0 i n :
n
Q
) (x xj
= )Li (x
) j=0,j6=i (xi xj
n + 1 n + 1 ) .(n

 ' "

'

:
)p (x) = y0 L0 (x) + y1 L1 (x) + . . . + yn Ln (x
)
(:
) (x x1 ) (x x2
)(x 1) (x 2
= )L0 (x
=
=
) (x0 x1 ) (x0 x2
)(0 1) (0 2
1 2 3
x x+1
2
2
) (x x0 ) (x x2
)(x) (x 2
= )L1 (x
=
=
) (x1 x0 ) (x1 x2
)(1 0) (1 2
x2 + 2x
) (x x0 ) (x x1
)(x) (x 1
= )L2 (x
=
=
) (x2 x0 ) (x2 x1
)(2 0) (2 1
1 2 1
x x
2
2

)
y (.

:

F
) (
" , :
= t1 1 + + tn n
, , :
)(1, 3, 4) = t1 (1, 2, 6) + t2 (3, 2, 0) + t3 (5, 0, 1
) (1, 3, 4) = (t1 + 3t2 + 5t3 ) + (2t1 + 2t2 ) + (6t1 + t3
,
:

1 3 5 1
3 2 0 3
5 0 1 4
/ ,
, .


(a, b, c) :
)(1, 3, 4

1 3 5 a
3 2 0 b ,
5 0 1 c
, )
, (:
a 2c = 0
,a = 2c c = 12
a : ,
.a, b R a, b, 12 a :
) (
.(a, b, c) a, b, c R

A
:
:

1 2 0 1 3
2 1 1 1 1
3 3 1 0 4

8

,A x
= 0
:

1 2 0 1
3 0
0 3 1 3 5 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
,
:
x5 = 3t
x4 = s
x3 = 3r
x3 + 3x4 + 5x5
= x2
= r s 5t
3
x1 = 2x2 x4 x5 = 2r + s + 7t
Ax
=
0
:



2r
+
s
+
7t

5t

r,
s,
t

R
S = 3r



3t
:S

7
1
2
5
1
1

+ s 0 + t 0
3
r

0
1
0
3
0
0
.S
" " .S
.dim S = 3

A
:

1 1 2
1
3 1
1
1
1 3 3 1
:

1 1 2
1
0 4 5 2
0 0
0
0
:
}).dim A = 2 ,B = {(1, 1, 2, 1) , (0, 4, 5, 2
...

.At , :

1 3 1
0 1 1

0 0 0

0 0 0
0
1
B 0 = 3 , 1 )

1
1
, , " .(A
.dim B 0 = 2

 ' "

'

:
http://www.letach.net

) .(http://comp.kef.li :

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