REDENTIN EASTER PLAY Soviet Literature, No. 6 (1951); H. Levin, ‘What is Realism?, in Comparative Literature, 3 (1951). RH. Redentin Easter Play, named after a monastery near Wismar in Mecklenburg, performed about 1465, probably in Wismar, ‘The play—one of the best specimens of medieval drama—is not a complete cycle but deals mainly with the episode of the Imights by the sepulchre and ends with a devils’ play; it is therefore actually a drama ‘on the adversaries of Christ’, It is dis- tinguished by vivid humour and individual characterization; the sinners who are dragged down to hell are gildsmen, but Satan, wailing, recoils from the good Priest. Ed. C. Schréder (1893); R. Froning, Das Drama des Mittelalters (Kiirschners Dt. Nat. Lit, 14, 1892); W. Krogmann (1937, with complete biblio.); Eng. tr. with good’ intro. ALE. Zucker (N.Y, 1941). (3, Rosenhagen, ‘Das Redentiner Osterspiel im Zusammenhang mit dem geistlichen Schauspiel seiner Zeit”, in Niederdt. debs, St (1926). Rederijker (from the French rhetoriqueur), ¢ Name given to,amateurs of, or active Participants in, Dutch literature in so. called ‘kamers van thetorike’ or Chambers of Rhetoric. These societies, whose origin 4s still not « mpletely clear, originated, undoubtedly inspired by French examples, fideo in the southern Netherlands and ‘ater extended to the north, almost Sielusively in the province of Hollant ‘The Chambers were organized like guilds, the members were middle-cl lk their point the love of poetry ak, lant Poem on a ‘stock? ie, ari repeated at the end of identical line, forming at the same ti each strophe and t ime the theme) and the allegorical play (generall cue they also wrote ballads, rend, tous); ls, ments (farces) and tafelapelen i: esoatie~ x wD. imitation of the chivalrous ‘ot J they liked to organize competit; : ions (refyei Jeesten, haagspelen, landjutcton) Cree rizes were given, Raat fiery as the landjuneet of iggrst English?” cseribed with admiration by at Their gyeMbsseador Richard clout ideag_—8°¢Ptibility to the new religious “More than to the new artistic ideas [474] of them of the renaissance—brought many or under suspicion and eventually 108 bere After 1600 the Chambers were evel" e, on the decline and, with the cpa ral in very few, their literary and cutis fluence was over. ‘The MOM (pH. Chambers were those at Brug ne Geest and De Drie Santinnen); ‘ soot! at Ghent (which celebrated Hi at anniversary in 1948), the Mare Tro Brussels, De Violieren at ae Fetal moet Blycleen at Haarlem ond O°. famots (q.v.) at Amsterdam. — The eee Rederijker was Matthijs de CA sanding wrote an ars poetica. The SN pichelit creations of the Rederijkers Wl? Gf Ante (see Everyman), the ret of, Come Bijns and the esbattements ; Everaert, ‘peaeri G. D. J. Schotel, Gesch. 4. oN, a Nederland (and ed., 2 voles, °K deri ws Duyse, De Rederijkkamers, y, Rally i yols, tg00-o2); J. J. Mak, if (1944). fone i 28. ea dondilla, Spanish st0n7®. “Rhy! eee of 4 8-syllable line, yyw. scheme: abba. Eure famous Reynard, the most ante) p90 animal epic or story (see EAA py ard stories are Pree’ ne 10, medion Lots animal yy ont Nin century Ecbasis Captivi (45%) ntti dus of Ghent’s rath-century, “poet The subject matter of te ocal ales partly of classical, partly Opal head The same goes for the the vernacular, esPect is of 27.cing 1s Roman de Renart, & 229° copinttes 8 (altogether 30,000. verses), op the ell the late rath century, 0 Wty the “main character, | Ye ious acclimatized in the feudal rich, 88 50 ‘The Roman de Renart yeas out by Chaucer, became vias of Fi England, is the eee as romances, suc! a ty Renart and. Rutebou! SiiaG More important, it provid a Dutch poet with the & an animal epic in the 17 word. In jeer " on faultily nickname wi Heer cat con antec PY a half centuries later, WAS, ° the on OO ole Reinhart Fuchs, the 6! By Vat) Veh dupe of the fox’s ruses. val eno" Reinaerde, the only ™° ay fect ie Oy to gain immortality, Benavioe* imal Deed, OP i Saar i aan ataine oo the main character, 4{4751 RHETORIC Rein; aaa ander’, bis epic, which originated in is ustaiie? 2200) at least in its first version, Doots Wggestded as the work of two Aiko the lem and Aemout. The first, (Madock) wee of a lost Celtic romance emout,’ A c8edly completed the work of y A ccording to a later theory, de Se Chee NOU is identical with Pierre the Rog the Poet of one of the branches Willen took the de Renart, from which he poenn ie Subject matter of his epic. Present fer gey only have acquired its 13th cent » however, in the course of the Beat uence yg & further proof of the Seslations 7ot the Reinaert ate the Latin Feet 1267 and aes Vulpes, made, be- Roralizing “441273 by Balduinus, and the tein eae extended 14th-century Bi source of atts Historie or Reinaert I, pacend a later adaptations. ‘These Btoups:'(a) may be divided into two Jfision, “?,fltose derived from the verse intingie van a and commentated by R48, which etMes, printed at Antwerp an} Low Gena fs turn was the source of ws in ong 7M Version (Libeck, 1498) G25 of Gagt the High German transl lsiveg. CO°the’s Reinecke Pucles (2) those amined from Sue emeke Fuchs; (2) those C2078 others he Prose version which Whig’ English the source of William of hs moregyat anslation of 1481. and BngigdPbooks yijgearted a whole tradition hase ont tanslaton various French and 1 oF Regtions like The most delectable Yee Grinm, yaad the fox (x67%)- osergman tie Mthart Puchs (1834); B. Martin, Bageationy. fenart (3 vols, 1883-87) and Biches einvich gfe 2k (2887); G. 893825) LU. Se gees , Glichexares, Reinhart Peat Le agiStdte, Les Sources du R. de R. dw Mie Grandi R. de R. (1914); A. ins, eller, Vv “aiken des Reinehe Fuchs (1920); Ny euaets crig ele Vos Reinaerde (3rd ed, Misrig © dan 5 °4-)—Biblio. by R. Roemans in Willems (1934); J. ¥- wal i HR, Baden antes, eter der oe nd. BoA. Reinardus Vulpes, acres jy a tmPbell (1859); P. de lrley \(faistorée (1936); Caxion’s tr. ion (4°89), of which a modern free verse by F. 8. Ellis 7 17M. ic, saerig £m the a i the Greek pijrap, ‘a ai host Of sponse is often defined GytingetY hag ing Well, bur in practice begs Th Whitin” extended to include gen} tepan totic 28. Since the time of the forbs Gated ai, it8 narzower sense has aided fey Gate of oratory which of bach pda fatee eroups: politcal od «the guneictic, treating not only the OF dey, dect-matter livery ¢ r, structure an TY in each case. Oratory was fostered by the sophists in Greece, but the classical style of such speakers as Demosthenes gave way before the more florid ‘Asian’ oratory whose influence was particularly strong upon Cicero in Rome. ‘There, too, the art was studied seriously; it was systematically treated by Quintilian in his Institutes of Oratory which exerted a strong influence upon the renaissance and the 18th and early roth centuries. In its wider sense rhetoric has been regarded as the art of using language, taking as its province all forms of composition in words, prose or verse, fiction or non-fiction. Aristotle seems to be thinking of it in this manner when in the Poetics he refers the reader to teachers of rhetoric in order to learn how to use words in general to express his thoughts, as distinct from organizing both thinking and expression jnfo the particular form of a poem, tragedy, comedy or epic. The Romans, too, regarded rhetoric as the art of com- posing all kinds of literature, with always ‘as their ideal, that suiting of style to spirit which is counselled equally by Aristotle tnd Horace. As taught from the early days right down to the rgth century, oral and written composition was analysed into five processes, each treated systematically by thetoric. ‘Invention’, more narrowly the thinking out of arguments, is in a wider sense the use of the imagination in creative writing. Next comes ‘elocution’, the process of achieving style by a choice of words, individually and in combination, to embody the exact quality of the thought sry emotion of which the writer or speaker fecomes aware in his mind. So long as Ttorature as well as oratory was still created in an oral tradition the use of voice Ghd gesture in communication was of antstandingimportance. ‘This was treated fn thetoric under the heading of ‘action’ or ‘pronunciation’ and in antiquity and ‘the renaissance, in the 18th century and possibly in the middle ages was not far Prmoved in aim and technique from the geting used in plays, As the end of @locution is to express the spirit in which the speaker or writer conceives of his subject, so that of pronunciation is to icate that same spirit by translating cotombodying it in sound and movement; Gnd some writers on the subject consider this fourth clement of rhetoric to be essential to the creating and preserving of form of literature, Last decorum in every, Sete rhetoric treated ‘memory’: this is more obviously needed by the orator, yet it is ope cgsential to all writing, even though its weaknesses can be made good with notes.RHETORICA AD HERENNIUM = [476] \ These five elements of composition were taught systematically, by theoretical ex- planation, by practical analysis and ‘imita- tion’ of the work of others. During the middle ages and renaissance, rhetoric as a member of the ‘trivium’ was regarded as a key subject of education, exercising and strengthening reason itself. In the 16th century the movement inspired by Talaeus sought to hand invention and disposition to the teachers of logic, leaving elocution and pronunciation to those of rhetoric, As a result many renaissance treatises con. tain accounts of the various figures only and seem inadequate to modern eyes; but in practice the other processes were still acquired through logic and from the reading and criticizing of texts, an essential part of schooling. Rhetoric conceived on much the same lines was held a necessary Part of the education of all civilized men from the renaissance to the 19th century During this period numerous treatments of the subject have been produced, : notably in the renaissance by the Jesuits, then tegarded as among the greatest of authorities. For the whole period rhetoric dealt. systematically with oratory as well as with critical and imagin: The 18th between what England called the ‘the senate, the pulpit and the bar’ the subject was taught at school, unis and dissenting academies, century politicians trained all the branches, includin; oratory of and versity Famous 18th- themselves in g delivery, as longer persed, ization has diverted ticians away from the classical tdi oe Baie searches n° development of romantic, coat ye iid hardening personal idion eed taste into critical standards, moon), Of the older tradition of erticen he Oss apart of shetotic; and it soniye that the subject has come na ho regarded i its true perspective once more, ns pynaitary by EM. Cope, ed. J B74) 5 iéclah & anid, Borecauc, Les déclamat : Te ions eb d @aprds Sénique le bere : Os) iin Ancient Rhetoric and eae HE Blain 1 edieval Rhetoric and Poot 1928); ***etres on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres ie rhetoric and Boetit 2 vols, 1783) ; D. L. Clarks, Rhetoric and, is the Renaissance (1922) ; E. R. oa off); paische Literatur wid tat. AMiteelalir Wie E, Faral, Les Arts Poétique du XH¢ et uF siécle (1924); C. Halm, phe rators Minores (1863); R. Jeb, The Atte Uris (1876); B. LL,” Joseph, 'Hlisabellan roa (1951); B. Norden, Die antike ROied (1898) ; Quintilian, cae eG and tr, H. E, Butler (1922); T. Wa%) Art of Rhetoric, ed. G. H. Mair (999% By the name Rhetorica ad Herennium pot iven te k on rhetoric in. 0 eas Badan snl Herennius (otherwise unlsnoW2) sj! ing Cato’s De Re Rustica, the 427% [ath is the oldest complete prose WOF* fro and the first Latin manual The sources are Greek, but te2P0r of tt and examples are Latin, \Ccro's I terial ears als po eel acral opens te tnion 2g The work, attributed in MAC olor Gicero and by some modem 2 jn Cornificius, enjoyed high © r middle ages. ca NG Best ed. by F. Marx (2nd °0 fas Werner, Zur Frage nach dem } Herenniusrhetorihe (1906)- ae oY Rhyme, a variant spelling & of Bite rhythm) of rime (an adopt us): Yor rime, which is from Latin 1) I ‘ generally, especially in P7; Butea! “metrical composition‘ oe usually and specifically £6 I soot ae or consonance of the, fn ished in metrical lines (strictly distitt assonance, but sometimes C 4 it); see Prosopy. _see 3 ee £7 5S Che a stanza of 7 3 Bare a ts cl Oe Hoccleve, Lydgate, Hentyeriee, fh and by Shakespeare in in he patie, Ui rhythms “08 ) Rhythm (French 17 aot a mus, Gr, pubpds ich ge Iegeured securrene? ert nlf and thesis; metrical mover” of Mitty mined by ‘the combinatittg neta short or of stressed Tine; Bont syllables ina metric ge of Fok measured flow of, i sy Falling or descending Yr fn trochaic or dactylic kind, “ic, ing of the iambic or am@P*"" ic oO, Riding Rhyme, the heer, bu, ey, fnetre vot Chaucer’s Coad ue which were told on 2 Pi! back.laa Ri fe me puche (French, ‘rich rhyme’), oH pv ving formal identity of words eae " be of different meaning, eg. Canterbury ocears in the Prologue to the The iefall n Ths hooly lisful martir for to seke (seek), em. fehe (Sekyet Bolpen when that they were Tn Fren Polysyijanch Practice the te: lies t ound AP'S Words of which not only the Bes e final syllables but also the reilleloareyprscnant are the same, eg. orvelloy Gin contrast, e.g. oreille/ C.T.O. @lural_ of of réma, ‘lay, ballad’), Yerey peers in alliterative Mert At°tical or Subjects of the tales were often derive qn sthical, and in carly forms ved ftom French romances. C.T.O. Spee, Og cetmens elgie Gy vole plelondis Rimur, ed. W. A. o Preceding ae Selandic 6 lo, theltOup of alian term for a metrical line HE Ourse of AMES Tepeated at intervals in cg. da of g ROCMS the refrain of a ballads tetally in tRoNnet (Sonetto con la coda), vagy Hendaeae ng form OF a septenarius with RS? yllables. The word is also bs sical term, C.T.O. mance, go TO. anglais Peatish ballad metre, consists ling ome With a continuous vowel Ra, ng from even line to even beget E.M.W. de contd by Guikt Roses French romance, ragged py ume de Lorris c. 1235, and digg {aay ean Chopinel de Meung ¢- Yor R noha ie two parts, although very. Brege Cringe Tacter, were treated as one 2, ven middle ages and exerted a ‘ose (1900); mod. TMs, She, pty (and ed. x . eR The aiygke Re de la Ros Gus Rf ity of Love (1936); G. Paré, et 1a scolastique courtoise (1041). FW. Rech 7. Pe ugnttsa Literature, Reeto-Romanic 184, Ce zelareg 2 independent Romance iteon® Old ye © the dialects of northern thee ‘Rises a atch and to Old Provengal- ant St Ps ang CUP of dialects still spoken Woke Gotthard 22 the Friulian plain from Getia, thro, Thee’, Ltieste ; formerly it was Riko, te, SHOUt the Roman province o} conO-R, cies Switzerland, the wo Manig OE and Tirol. ‘The mn itten pooPles neyer achieved @ orice form of their language an ture, partly because of 0) ROMANSCH LITERATURE Germanic immigration into the valley of the upper Adige and its tributaries; further because bad lateral communications led in the early middle ages to the division of the country into four: Grisons, Val di Sole- Val di Non, the valleys of the Dolomites, Friuli. Of these regions the middle two (Val di Sole-Val di Non and the Dolomite valleys) are extremely isolated and have only an oral ‘literature’—folk-tales, fairy- tales and folk-songs (which are not without original traits), apart from a few pieces of occasional verse. Friuli has had an unbroken literary tradition since the 14th century, which in kind recalls the rich dialect literatures of Italy. Beside folk-tales and folk-songs it has numerous occasional poems cele- brating important historical occasions and local events; they generally include senti- mental or humorous elements. ‘Through- out the centuries down to our own day Jove poems, political songs, delightful satires on contemporary personages and events, elegies, religious poems, were composed by notaries, officers, priests and the nobility. ‘There are some very good translations of the great Italian and Latin’ Classics: of Ariosto in the r6th and x7th centuries, of Virgil by Zuan Scf Busiz (2660-1743). In the roth century there are Some attractive short comedies (by G. E. Lazzarini and F. Leitenberg, for example). ‘The most important Friulian poet is Pjeri Zorut of Cividale. He was followed by Carlo Favetti of Gorizia, a patriotic poet whose work shows, as so often in Friuli, 2 marked Italian influence on form and Content, Friulian literature still flourishes, fut it labours under great difficulties, for Friulian gave way to Italian as the official Janguage of church, school and admini- eration some centuries ago. "Therefore the most important works of Romansch literature come from the Romansch-speaking part of the Grisons (hich—by population—is one-tenth of the Size of Friuli, Here Romansch has, since the 16th century (though in four different standard written forms), found its way into the church, local government and the law Courts, and finally into the schools. Both literary language and literature are the fruits of hardly-won political independ- ence, the struggle for which reached its climax in the victory of Calven (1499) over the Austrian army and the conquest of the YValtelline (1512). ‘The first Romansch poem (the very first monument of Romansch is a 12th-century interlinear yersion of a sermon) is approximately a political and warlike lay, the Chianzun dallaROMANTICISM [478] uerra dagl chiasté da. Miis (704 lines, 1527), s Giveeyedt Tt was followed im- mediately by the Latin lyrics of humanists, the first Latin translation of the Odyssey and the national epic Reteis (1549) of Simon Lemnius Margadant, also in Latin. From as early as 1534 there are dramas, biblical and secular, in large numbers: a consequence of the Reformation, the wars of religion, awakening intellectual activity and quickening contact with the outside world. Of roughly the same date is the first translation of the New Testament (1560) by Bifrun, of the Psalms (1562) by Chiampel, then of the whole Bible by Vulpius and Dorta (1679). From the 16th century on we encounter Political and religious songs, first singly, then complete anthologies and a wealth of devotional literature and religious polemics, as well as verse chronicles, descriptions of foreign travels and prose narratives. In the toth century partly under the influence of European romantic literature there is a tich development of the love-iyrie and of x ison with the lyrics of the great literatures, « Other genres are repre- sented. The historical Poems of Muoth have the confident vigour of the ballad and offer both passages of dramatic intensity and notable scenes. In the field ct Prose inspitat yn viathis,_ and Nay derive ‘thas Village ign 70% observation of peasant and Yilage life; but increasingly writers are the renee) the turmoil within the ecu of the individual and his struggle to come to terms with hostile external forces, re crane, tense and fg . ‘-g. Vonmoos, Gi: Girun) are more Teady to reflect aT interpret human we, 'S with humanit, and humour. Finally, the Popular drama with its allusions to 1 tipsy in the more general Burger’, 0, drama rama arising from the conte tt common to human kind, 4 issues uring most of this’ period, 4 Trcidle ages and into the sth ones oats, AB uninterrupted ats ae Srelopment of folksong folk-tale and Siry-tale, ‘The work of collecting ang “8g is, in the main, by now completed 1ieloerafia retoromontscha, 8d, a, Zeniontscha (1938). —Rhatoromane d= BA Moe et 1. Ulinch (eee om Rimes iedines (1885); G. ay 5 Ractoro= ‘Stories e chianties ladines Coe ns (13 manische Chrestomatie, ed. C. Derm rata vols, 1896-1016); Annalas da IC of, Retorumantscha (1886 ff); Ig he eae La Musa lading, antotagia poeta,‘ p Lansel (rro-18); Musa rumani a 30). storomartel pee aso Geschichte der rato as Literatur, in Grobers Grundriss, O04 dr Philol, 1H (1901); ‘Ta, Gartner, Het oooh rétoromanischen Sprache und Literati P.M, Carnot, Jn Lande der ra ret0ror (934); RR’ Bezzola, Literature (ah toandta’, fa Provglad Wopstezeny 29450 R. R. Bezzola, ‘ Raetoromanis he Mp Las Confoederatio Helvetica, Tas Piguet The Rhacio-Romans (1937 ‘Littérat a in Suisse rétoromanche’, in Littialler di $. Suite (2938); M. F. Maxbiele, (38) Modern Romansh Poetry in the Pager” Same, ‘TRransLations: Engadiner ‘igri, ed. ¢ lung verdeutschter romanischer 107 me Bundi (1920); Engadiner, Mave is Bundi (i905); La Bolg, as oO ie autres contes, tr. E. Pigs an Ra, &rischuna, Erzdhlungen aus 5 RAY ischen, ed, R, R. Bezzola (1943) ie d (rome anf Romanticism. The word och 10M derived from the Ok Yigg in) th? Vat (escrire), meaning (to ine oO tongue instead of Latin. works Wg referred to imaginative ‘d medlt the vernacular, French verse epics. fed wi cally romanticism is contre ething Po Rene cist (q.v.) and denotes som cl adventurous and form 4 Enlil 108, it was used in French am event peo! a the 17th century, ae a Oy, depicted in a romances asa ott} distinguished between 7ething {6M att derogatory. sense) a8 SOME rates) nt strange, distant and kee mes Tomantique by which W®9 roca, % thing tender, gentle, ee rs oe oy melancholy. aed a hoe ee 4 used in Englis! ance ceatory, aravelled back 0 pO seau’s Réveries, 1776-79) antisel pon ae Planted to Germany a5 77 Toots. ond Sed translations of English ite sty Soe ticism developed a ae of the tude to life at the end 0” early in the roth centurie® moved The European for erat pee 308° 98 gre, in almost all count job BS ‘pre- ic? currents ei breakdown of aristocrat of te rhe moods an’ $ mnildie claeses, The a Gover, Si restraint are whittle aman, emotional side of ‘pis 228 in0 stressed, Seen from ¢ mantic Bave birth to the 1[e791 with pag snGh works, as Thomson's Seasons 43), Gray's ae. 's Night Thoughts (1742- Sinks novels (eth 742 ©) and Richaré- isplay oy 01749 £1); while Macpherson’s ian Cam ancient Celtic past_in his More genettiOns (1760 fl.) and Percy's there wae ute Reliques (1765) showed that kin oS © Rational literature much more Satie Bopha feeling than ancient 1 the gothic novel (originati With, fae Castle of Ges "of 1760) Sonjured ‘y ‘canny, terrifying atmosphere Past, Ther, a misty though fascinating idale of ‘eval of Shakespeare in the He Newly awakenttty (Garrick) signified is Tighe ening sense for genius in Honed in Ie ngtich Young had_cham- Nbestion (aasty Conjectures on Original R88 the cena 59)» _ In France, Rousseau English 1< °f Pre-romanticism, adding te pote *™atonalism the fervour of lerot wang former and educationalist. Sat sentime the wake of Richardson contBieres tal comedy; Bernardin de © media et Virginie (1787) Geneva romance in popular ‘any Herder and the Hi x aera (av) ter Fren rules, angie tic ‘evolution seemed to i BI Classica] Of emotional currents, of piling goal Style was resumed, sterile Buy “ope, ane the western countries ero the erat Productive in Germany. fhe oro ae ‘onal forces which the vol, the maineleased became after all More; This new nting® of the romantic H Figitspired Pole Began in Germany Weal, “they the subjective idealism ache Dh Schlep mantic school with n Toder, "peel a8 its leader, and Pcl, igck, Schelling, Novalis Siacin © teict® Chief exponents, (tiegel® force jn iS" Of poetry as the 98) 1 Brongn life. ‘Romantic poetry’, along nce4_ in the Athendune Slden? eg ny fre, is atte } alone see Be the Md reg itfinite, because it alone ever Poeiy PBRizes as its only law egierany Vanish nse tolerates no law’. exitic TY forme between the arts and arte fence NS values. are. reversed, Tigh = licentious living ate argo tts Rd expan ony throws its spell Ranft sigemantic ins all its contradictions. in, afimulegre WaVe in England, rising Quah noe otely with that in Ger~ i Wholly independent from Mi longiate pM onty Pree rt@Ous; though it had an bee p8tts gy et in William Blake’s ene Loriz ®t its crest were Words- Mads and Coleridge’s Oring 1, » Wordsworth’s theory of > ROMANTICISM. diction and Coleridge's theory of imagina- tion, In French literature, the exponents of early romanticism were exiles; the pre- dominant figure, Chateaubriand, whose writings expressed the yearnings of the romantic soul tortured by the turbulent events of the time, analysed the mal du siécle (Weltschmerz) in prose full of beauty and music, and heightened the cult of medievalism. Mme de Staél was mainly responsible for the spread of romanticism throughout Europe. As early as 1801 she had dis- cerned two currents in the history of literature, that of the south (clear in out- Tine, bright and gay) and that of the north (melancholy, impregnated with mystery, shrouded in the haze of a misty landscape), and she advocated the adaptation of the latter by the French. Her two sojourns, jn Germany (1803 and 1807) and her close association with A. W. Schlegel reinforced her visions, and in De J’Allemagne (London, 1813) she concisely depicted the contrast between the classical and the romantic. This book fomented the ‘ro- mantic debate’; it also ushered in the second wave of romanticism which was in. general less universalistic and pan- theistic than the first, externals playing a larger part than introspection. ‘The main feature of the late romantic movement is concentration on the national inheritance— Scott and Carlyle in England; Hugo, de Mosset, Lamartine and de Vigny in France; Kleist, Arndt, the Arnims, Bren- seein Germany; Leopardi and Manzoni in Italy; Lermontov and Pushkin in Russia; Mickiewicz. in Poland; Cooper in the United States. A second character fiuie is its preoccupation with scholarship, perhaps its finest legacy apart from the Persiderable body of poetry it left. Friedrich Schlegel’s initiation of com- parative philology, his brother's researches pete European literatures of the middle ages and the renaissance and of oriental Iiteratures, were followed by historical research in all fields all over Europe on an entirely new basis of critical examination of sources, The scientific meddlings of the romanticists led, however, to different fesults. Unaware of the true nature of Uicotricity discovered at the end of the x8th Century, Mesmerism and similar pseudo- Scientihe phenomena led to a probing of unknown forces of the soul and engendered ei reference for the weird, the violent and aBelly perverse in human nature which Syas coupled with an extreme individualism wal on bxclusive cult for the beautiful in ane eotic, colourful and sensual features.ROMANY LITERATURE Southey coined the term ‘Satanic School’ for this attitude; his attack on the ‘immoral writers . . . men of diseased hearts and depraved ‘imagination’ (Vision of Judg- ment) aimed primarily at the great triad of self-exiled English poets—Byron, Shelley and Keats. In Germany Kleist and E. 'T. A. Hofmann show signs of “Satan- ism’, in France the later Hugo, de Musset and certainly George Sand. The origi- nator of the Satanic School wasthe Marquis de Sade (Justine, his first roman noir, appeared in 1791) and it is this extreme aspect of romanticism which led Goethe (notwithstanding his admiration for Byron) to the simplified definition that ‘the classical is the healthy, the romantic the morbid’ (to Eckermann, 2 April, 1829), The satanic side of romanticism lived on in the later Pre-Raphaclites and was se. inforced by operas and ‘Wagner's Nietzsche's vitalist philosophy. Surreal tentialism (qq.v.) are other ism and exist links with romanticism, ‘The contrast between Tomanti he mand classicism ha: is s often been denied in view Heinse), ‘edrich Schlegel implemented by Leopardi ea ly. postulated its style. es limitless diversi ; i . 3 chon for its enrichment of she eto mind as well as for ne Geena: P. Van ‘Tis romantique (and ed. tudes bhi excesses, ghem, L, 'Bre romantique. 2 liuérature européenie b declins @ romantic aze (x93): : He decline and fall of the romans a tes i Gnd ed. Geil? 7omantic agony, tz, A. [930s avison THante: W.L. Phelps, The beeinn ie Ertsh ro aaitic movement (18yq)e GE entry (roe erelish romanticism sy js, Smee 303) Ma Re and Agro [480] ); M. sais (3920)4 igin of French romanticism (3920) Brora Hone du romantiont AF i vols, 1920); 1. A, Peers, History of Me BOIS, movement in Spain (2 vOls, 1939-4}, bi Romanticism in America Gassehsg cd, Walzeh Tomantische Schule (18705 Sth el, "S59 1928); R, Hush, Die Romani ath ; R. Benz, Die aN oeihiid cas penn Beewegins Oo: ot Turory: R. Wellek, aoe ie “Romanticism” in literary histo tive Literature (1949) Wao mmanti the value ofthe terms classical and BO applied to literature’, in, Colletta. ya be (1925); P. Moreau, Le classicisme yee tiques "(aoga)s J. Petersen, DG aos. Stimmung der deutschen Romani Neary a Robertson, The genesis of romatyation eet 18th century (1923), The re Des an and romantic (1924); ‘gin Versi s) Klassik und Romantik. re ed. 1949). Bs cops i Romany Literature. the is Wares people, one Of at of It nomad races from the north-Ws go. and in their wanderings og possess re they carried as their only ™2 Tojars ltt language and a_ scale. ue te explained how deep are P™) dian ef ist i age of the Pt cntey exist in the languagt Gypsi th of their race. When the fh cent’! a fo western Europe in the 154 op lives a were mere vagrants and. they she hand to mouth, accordin®, “nem oat ic offeree eit Sh chroniclers. Music sink thé jth possibilities for increasitt 4 wi because it could be_asso7 Shamanism. ‘The GyPsih derings from village £0 0 the traditional songs, Pi che people and sang and 00 in fav own exotic way in order 1° they the people. For this r¢ erels PY ey gnly won fame as mine ys ts ‘povesitori’ or story-te) 9 OF I called in Rumania. a ir wan’ Oe iy they gather in their eet ies Mol Rader thee they have. GWent ie colporteurs du folklore. Thing tp fall use of their story tet sil the moment when they, 7, skill emt What better example of igs ¢ i story that they were EayP to wander through the “Pe i te expiation for the SIMS 7 cies VE desta thus fulfilling the PrOP vere Pine Peas of Ezekiel, or that ay forest i ants of the ame Christ SqueP for oe nails that cruci! in consediyd if rot ors that fell upon them 1) 1 wi ad a Bn wane through ee 20 sie pe ae, thelr pe mouth to mouth, from[481] RUMANIAN LITERATURE thapsodi ‘ poe feshion. In certain countries ee played an important part as Is the stori inspit mos jes and songs inspired a as creat Bypsified Titerature, qhict® Sy, by th y the aficionados, that is to Phiaserp rose Who admired the Gypsy This (ages Ptonunciation and way of life. here the PE8ee above all in Andalusia, the ancien, GYPSies, became absorbed by Sime way gcivlzation of Tarshish, in the 2nd the Jos, eit Sister races the Moors Bt the end of 1 8S BPsified poetry arose ste of Blanch, Sth century among the the bungghe nee ie. those who followed peanish G and were devotees of the In Hungary ay dancing and singing style. ca music "an thalogous vogue of gypsi- the of the 18; story-telling arose at the is re th century. In Russia, too, MPPvisationg SETS Owing to their mezed an En, in music and poetry, ett of maortant part in the develop- it a the Works and literature, as we can ov, of Tolstoy, Pushkin and as A sats Hee Cyne, 189% Owing to the activities Teh wae Lore Society in Liverpool, od, Gypey ied by the Romany Rye Collected Over all over the world Bends. gg 's, Thapsodic songs, stories oe anonymous Romany Set oe a fhe pioneer, but ny; ftom, ati, whose collection of alge e spirit Turkish Gypsies has the tekegPUblisheg Of tent life, , H. Wlislocki amp lovn By ta, Picturesque stories Gein Tey, him during his Gypsy i Bosroy, SY Vania, pene, Boney Zinealt (2 vols, 1841); F- Gam); Catia xg, ns, et de leur musique en 799): H. CoA. Colocci, Gli Zingari Dpersilyae, Wlistocg ee? Gypsy Folk Tales ae Dightitchen Be Marchen und Sagen der (it Bee of Zieumer (4886) ; J. Sampson, 190); 4h OR the Bpbsies of Wales (1926) and ang); w. Brow, Heath: A Gypsy Anthology Cig, Ruma Stage eee Song (New York tag): Deel (ios ggele Lesa [uneasy Lgggvl- Yass’ Don Gypsy [Andalusia Ro, 4B. “8S, 4 Book of Soa dat W.St. all Trig CANTAR DE (carly 13th Eeotine fragment of a lange the Cn eeste. is: the Spanish Naas ‘hanson de Roland (q.V-)- ere are traces of the 1a dialect, Ry, Mae dorreng Gh Tres poetas primitives Weg. tar te Roncesvaltes, “tidade sur Te oe esta (1951), E.M.W. vg teed ly pycval French verse-form, ‘uillaume de Machaut, Eustache Deschamps and Charles d’Or- Iéans. Originally intended to be sung, a typical rondeau consists of 3 stanzas totalling 12 to 14 lines built on 2 recurring rhymes. The opening line (sometimes the first twvo lines) is repeated at the end of the second stanza and again at the end of the poem, thus: a'btba aba‘(bt) abbaa‘(b?). ‘The number of lines may vary, as may the thyme-scheme, provided the two basic repetitions are retained. ‘This form is sometimes currently called a rondel to distinguish it from a variation, commoner in the x6th and 17th centuries and revived jn the xoth, in which the first words only of line T are repeated in the body of the poem (usually after line 8) and again at the end. English rondeaux have been written by Andrew Lang and others. See BALLADE. GB. Rumanian Literature springs from the unwritten popular literature handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. One of the best examples of it fe the still popular ballad, Miorija, which js a drama concentrated in a few verses. "The first Rumanian manuscript, a trans- lation of the Gospels, appeared in the 15th century, but it was not until the latter half of the 16th that Deacon Coresi printed the first Rumanian books, which were All religious. Soon after, however, a Rumanian version of the Alexandria (Life ‘of Alexander the Great), translated from either Serbian or Greek, was printed. "The earliest chronicles date from the xgth century but it was not until the 17th tote Moldavian historiographers such as Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin and Dimitrie Cickemir, apprenticed in Polish and Ttalian Schools, produced chronicles of literary worth. i Oat the beginning of the 19th century the cons of many boyars were sent to study in fiance and Italy, and a number of young ‘Transylvanian Rumanian peasants went to study in Vienna and Rome. All these young people brought back new enthusi- ¥ic ideas which provoked a national literary movement that enabled the Ru- gnanians to escape from the Slav, German ‘and Greek influences and to assert their Latin heritage. " ‘A continual coming and going of travellers, students and agents | began between the Rumanian principalities and the western Latin countries. The works Of western (mostly French) classicists and romanticists began to pour in a steady ‘stream into the Rumanian countries, The jnfluence—not always @ happy one—ofRUODLIEB [482] these two schools on the writers of that iod is very obvious. c Bitar une: th iste when Charles of Hohenzollern came to oceupy the throne of the United Princi- palities was accompanied by a literary Tenascence. The newly created Academy of Letters founded reviews in which rival Principles were discussed. The literary society Junimea, founded in Tassy in 1863, and Convorbitele Literate (‘Literary ‘Talks’), Junimea’s official organ, in which, many well-known writers made their debut, created the most important literary trend in the Rumanian cultural Movement, ‘The next landmark in Rumanian litera- ture was the publication in Bucharest, in 1901, of the review Seminitorul (“The Sower’). Its object was to develop and encourage a literature ‘true to the Ruman- ian soul and race’, ‘This could only be a literature which found its inspiration in the life, customs and beliefs of the Peasantry, The staunchest upholder of that move. ment was N. Iorga who became the editor of Semanitorul after ‘Viahufa and Cosbuc, In 1906 a new review Viafa Roméneasca, Published in Iassy by P. Bujorand C. Stere, maugurated the Poporanist movement Which like Seminatorul sponsored a Peasant literature but, unlike the earlier Teview, barred traditionalism and the chauvinistic inspiration of the past, After the first world war Mihail Ralea, who had studied and graduated at the Sor- bonne, took over Viata Roméneasca and proned® athe review ‘pledged itself 1s Promote the triple Principle of European. ism, democracy and rationals AY BIEN Cechichse dex rummét, Shp mm (1892-94); N, Torga, Istoria Htevaturié bier: estt (6 vols, 1925); G, Pascu, Istoria Uteraturii romine din secolul xpyt (1926-29); Guseatin, “Despre Wieratana 1926 (930); - Densusianu, Literatura Romd, i XIX (3 vols, literaturti —roméne Hstoria Titeraturii romano motes ;N. lorga, Istoria literaturss Yomanest eoniged 2 vols, 1934); E. Lovineseu, Astoria literati, Minne contemporana (5 vols’ 1939); Munteano, Modern Rumanic it 4 Cargill Epsietsma (1939). Guster, Literatura populara yo BEER! MG Hosa “Papers nthe domaine Bile, and Literature (1920); A, Rally, ner, er aehie franco-roumaine (1930);'B, Kaw? Apts tOCiel lttéraive “Suninees (i908). Ny as EY, Dinfluence des vonantiques fran’ M, Gehettie roumaine (1909). "mes, Rumdnische Chrestomathie @ Bie vols, 1891); N. orga and 8. Coal Fillet, logie de ta littérature roumaine (192 (ro7528) Anthologie des podtes d aujourd hii AIS Ay, nance) Ruodlieb, the first European "5 py Written in Leonine hexameters, re a young German noble, probably. put of Tegernsee. ‘The Latin is soi ‘barbarous’, with many pan eA The (fragmentary) story, 8 OTcope i folk-tale, is slight, a ‘on the a to a young noble at court, Of) last at home, “All the more strikl® copl) characters (particularly Yous inane and the scenes (at court 19 ite! aM village street). They are nyentio® ond awe litte 10, literary com ntl Picture of civilized behevio® adent informal, is invaluable to 1° pe 2 later Arthurian make belie had no influence and re till the 19th century. on EJ. E. Raby, Sec. Lat, re ed. F. Seiler (1882); see LEONA, 29 Alt,, 9 (1883) and Zs. £. where also a facsimile); ¢ Winterfeld, Dt. Dicht. d. lat. ee thous? ais? Russian Literature. 0 of graphically a large POTHT oy belongs to Europe, much 13nd air nent took place in an histOF7T spec climate differing in sever? that of the European she fe with, Christianity (which oor late as 988) came to her Mie but from zee her? Pattern was bound to ave ontis moral make-up, indeed he 8 tion, Moreover the baP' ceived Pe yiol her centre in Kiev, a the gi “Ot pel religious scriptures fro™ 5 used fis converted Balkan Slavs, Cyrillic Latin but their own, (Ohare based largely on the ene SI oy ns in the roth century (yan etic for were less differentiated "i, tone’ Present, the old-Macedo ch adopted by the Russian een i standable to the Russians °° spe identical with their OW." 1908 Liturgical ‘Church Slave 2 used by them —with YB hoses og RY —also for literary Fae spol “he. definitely replaced by 1° pee, only after the reforms © jus one A semi-foreign langue red in literary medium hat! Se ae be, aod! drawbacks which could dul “ol some extent, only bye on ths of elements taken[483] RUSSIAN LITERATURE, Speech, 1 Pee ores, parallel with the written of tute, Which was mostly in the hands usta ees» there grew up among the lore, Tee's & tich oral poetry and folk fe gGPie bling (a.v.),spirieal Songs Fides, sayings and proverbs are in oat’ finest in Europe. Rigya it Of het Byzantine orientation the ith the pussia had considerable contacts tnd, hogcstof Europe. ‘These came to an Shy whey AB the middle of the 33th a isn: e Tatar invasion erected forsome again between east and west it off tO Years. Asa result Russia was Mi its pet {he, Fenaissance humanism, fon of catgut Of learning, its secularia~ Peel al freedoms which by eee cad A econ h became part an her lige stem heritage. And even Rug, leratii Ussia, ypoettion from the Tatar yoke, ‘ih cd WH0se centre had meanwhile been mated gS", could not but, feel ittinug m western Europe. ‘This le conti Uta wingeetued until Peter the Great aftsian OY into Europe”. tuge CTisinal qettke Proper, with its great see! a whofemtibution to world-litera- ig. Pd halp op coincides roughly with the haptitinly “yya"® ‘St Petersburg period’, Sontag ea ae century. Yet the 4p, but; ¢ importance of that ee Ution lite 88ainse thes, GUY appreciated only begs ey, back; ¥ y ‘ ground of Russia’s eng ation from its early Kievan SWAY! Prnuen® Present Soviet phase. ite tien OD: ro frat in (Cp, "Hl CENTURY TO 1240. Sharh? was ay ‘urch-Slayonic’, Kievan WPorteg a Telia ove all in the service of dbo ,e 2: Having started with P0ok Porronk it soon Nd even ‘an imported Por Ped magna f8similated much of the Y trani@l and began to produce rig the “pytations and’ compilations actly fp Some of tine but also original iied BA Tovey “Bich were on a surprise figs thag’ls, The oldest MS. pre~ legion rage, the Ostromir Gospel Uotks Bnds, 50°87. To sermons, homie agg! ang ©Xellene YPh2 and hagiographie need, wd expioint Laterié, describing the gk Wet to gts Of Russian saints, was agtibeg ldly nagntion a few writings of 2 bigtg {9 the pute Thus the Chronicle typtters the T_Onk Nestor (c. 1080) is Ug? Gof tig gst delightful “medieval Dy gambax®, Kind, whereas the Lay of a5. #8. thy (Slovo o polku Igoree, " = best poetic monumient ly? of 80 her credit. ‘The ist inggdimir “Monomalch “testing autobiography of who reigned from 1113 till 1125, spoke 6 languages and combined the virtues of a wise ruler and a true Christian warrior, An outstanding achievement is also the naively sincere and pious Pilgrimage of Prior Daniel to the Holy Land (1106-08). Other works too testify to the vitality of nascent Russian literature and culture; yet Kiev's geographic position and the mutual jealousies of the princes were against it, Nomadic invasions hampered the trade along the river Dnieper to the Black Sea and Constantinople. Finally, jn 1240, Kiev was sacked by the Tatars who in a short time became masters of all the Russian territory except a few regions in the north. *TaTAR PERIOD: 1240-1480.—Since the ‘Tatars wete chiefly out for tribute, they used the subservient Russian princes as their agents and did not much interfere with Russian institutions and ways of life. In spite of this the Tatar period re- mained rather barren in literature. It produced the Story of Evpaty Kolovrat (an account of Russian heroism during the ‘Tatar invasion), some excellent sermons and lives of a few native saints, yet its best-known achievement is Zadonshchina, a rsth-eentuty description of the first Tatar ‘reat at Kulikovo in 1380. Its author, the priest Sophronia from Ryazan, must have been familiar with the Lay of Igor's Campaign, which be tried to emulate, but he -r poetic level. Among remained on a lowe! the important works of the late Tatar phase the Fourney beyond the Three Seas br466-72) by Afanasy Nikitin, a merchant from Tver, isa simple, businesslike account of his adventures in Persia and above all in India—one of the earliest records of that euntry in any European literature. ‘A significant fact of the Tatar period was the ascendancy of the Moscow princes who tried to unify the nation while still Wiger the Tatars. Moscow, the new political centre of the Russians, wat Pectainly better protected (by its woods and rivers) than Kiev, the city of the steppes. Finally in 1480 Ivan IIT liberated Russia from ‘the Tatars and inaugurated the Moscow period proper. ‘Moscow PERiop: 1480-1702.—One of the principal features of that period was the gathering’ and consolidation of | the Russian lands, even by the most ruthless eehods when necessary. ‘This process Fras supported by the Russian church which now indulged in a kind of splendid isola- tion from the Christianity of the west. The more so because after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks Moscow beganRUSSIAN LITERATURE herself as the ‘third Rome’ and Snead her lock with diffidence, pride and fear at the ‘heretical’ Europe. ‘The intolerant conservative spiit thus generated was hardly propitious to free literary productivity. Among the typical achievements of that period are all sorts of miscellanics, chronicles, the voluminous Chetyi-Minei (a didactic saints’ calendar compiled by the Metropolitan Makary) and the Domostrdy (‘Home-builder’), a collec- tion of ‘patriarchal’ rules as to’ how one should keep one’s family ‘and house in order. Religious polemics were much in evidence. Nor did one shrink from official distortions of history in order to glorify the supremacy of Muscovy and her rulers whose genealogy had been faked for this purpose. Two works rather critical of both were written, however, by two refugees who had escaped beyond her borders: one (by Prince Kurbsky) in Lithuania, and the other (by Kotoshithin) in Sweden. Finally in the first half of the 17th century three valuable memoirs were written. ‘The memoirs concerned deal with the troubled times’ which, after the death of Ivan the Terrible and the assassination Of his rightful heir Dmitry, brought Russia co the verge of ruin. The chaos wrought by the “false Dmitry’, the invading Poles ancl the rebellious Peasants, was recorded from personal reminiscences and with various degrees of excellence by A. Palitsyn, Prince Ivan Katyzév and 1, ‘Timofeyev. Tose’, Most amazing book of the hace Moscow period was the autobiography of [each hpriest Awalum (67e8). te leader of the dissenters who seeiecd the Fiwal reforms of patriarch Niko, rom its vivid style and langun reveals the indomitable eng te Work ill at the hei, grand sidcle, Russian liters eet Of her just emerging from the middle ages; and even this was due mainly to those western influences which Moscow could ayy avoid, since her commercial relations with Europe were now on the inoreare’ Belated renaissance motifs, the Spe, Gemum or the much earlier” cum Romancrum etc., penetrated into Muscovy aitinly via Poland and the Ukraine, ang When’ in 654 the Ukraine had rebelled ea the Polish suzerainty, after Which atBe Portion of it was added to Russia, [484] i ing of a cultur’ ie in became something of a cut ee te theological college i Pens of lar was responsible for several Dist jn mark, One of them was the monk Etta: Pélotsky—a prolific versifier over his pocms the syllabic metre Te i from the Poles. (In the sy1la0i Oo ms 's only the stressed syllables, 17. o whereas the number of the pst does not matter.) In I note °C existed by that time a whol (ie. foreign) quarter. One of rr, the Lutheran pastor Gregorh °°. a, te in 1662 the first Russian pratt tsar’s summer residence, skoye, near Moscow. All U™ oe and westernizing nine an ie however, a much quicker pact Cr peel came to a head in the refo! ‘new capi ied Great, the founder of the Ret gp Petersburg and of the St eter" of Russia’s history and cultut Sr Pererspurc Panne iy Un wi Endowed with an essen ve atthe mind, Peter was concernetl ores Sing the scientific and techni nuals We, it country. All sorts of m: te there Mock translated or compiled, ue in tT Of independent efforts 109/709 Pos? as the self-taught econo ¢ the | i for instance, or in, that O* 17 city git matic’ Russian historion se chev. Since practical ee the Sy be the use of spoken Ruel alte’ Slavonic idiom, which 1" was retreating for quite a W on relegated to ae a replaced the somewhst ¥ Slavonic characters DY, 12. ww ch ue “civic alae ee to cats beginnings, In ia western literatures, Rust through an apprentices ing wellnigh until the beg! oct, century, iting x 3H ‘The first two poets WO print yy, spolien Russian eT poms Pt : i P pecan wr te ee its Old syllabic metre, Lome ce with the more suitable ton eee He number of accented £2 we over an able scientist, “Risia fort marian, Lomonosov’s, | fj (757) was in fact fr attempt to systems! ae Janguage as a itera eed is still allowed for a limi ote Slavonic expressions tragedies, he everywhere Coe influences during # OPS ust ne 1(485) RUSSIAN LITERATURE French acs, ey reached their climax lay, Kenyan ge OF Catherine TI, Sumazo- ie teach and Ozerov wrote pseudo- Manners egies The satirical comedy of Cultivate ites Molixe’s pattern) was more qr ove All by Denis Fonvizin and herself qyPerfcially—by the empress Poetry was © summit of pseudo-classic Ohe of ther etched by Gaviiil Derzhavin, pishkin, Tneat, Russian poets before lovikoy pen, Sttitical journalism Nikolay After the prccte, Prominent, But when Rent" of thact Revolution the ‘enlighten- Novikop, ke, Sout suddenly evaporated, thor of he Alexander Radishchev (the fom Petersae g Teelly_ indicting Journey Mong the e722 Moscow, 1790), was ae Hct St martyrs in Russian letters. itt looked ‘gyi, Potty 18th-century 8 slow oe t° Western models; but 88 made, 1erocess._ A Icind of Jandmark mePtincipal ugh, by Nikolay Karamzin, ML trend Goresentative of the ‘se ic hg voteller dn, Russia. A poet, critic, wattle of a pistorian, Karamzin wrote fe se¥e on Byes Traveller (1790 ff.) iy Sted, hg wterne’s Sentimental Journey. Sto, aa een tis greatest triumph orig, perusal op Benteel’ and. tearful bur oe OF a al of which would be an Ni e least, eae, reader, Last langues efor in completed Lomo- neg ee of the, making the colloquial Roreg, despite SentTY, the sole literary Shin gtehaionnyse yee, OPPosition of the te ogy, On led group led by admiral thar Bh contest Whole the beginning of ‘omist® era op Wes Hot devoid of proofs fiction, to an onere apprenticeship was ee fot Derypctd. Alter the dynamic mtg BE as ‘avin new poets of promise Relangt Konsrandant, such as the neo- Heth ePoly porattin Batyushkov and the Senge Mom Rantic Vasily Zhukowsky, rr DiS into gaeiPed to turn the Russian iter Ble poctig Of the most melodious fof they pang, instruments, In this Hose gl ‘ed the way to that golden iy Meg, ’Presgin POCtY which found its aogier Seman the genius of Pushkin. opt a gat diet 'Gvich Pushkin was bor Doge patel. thirty-eight years later URE ang Vet beasDite of such a brief span the tan indegame the greatest Russian Bute Hteratuce the central figure of Yt Pean jeer, He not only mastered att aygOMbing ay technique, but knew ain” Produc, it with a true Russian i Gpttd pe Works which were both Any jaropean. Nor was he fro, ma “Influences wherever they iS case Parny, Chénier, Byron, Shakespeare, Scott were only creative stimuli and, as it were, short-cuts towards his own artistic self-expression. And he was by no means an isolated figure. Apart from such older men as Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, the great fable writer Krylov, the virile’ Davydov and the talented religious poet Glinka, there were Pusbkin’s actual contemporaries: Baratynsky, Delvig, Vyazemsky, Yazykov, the spirited civic poet Ryleyev—to be followed by Lermon- tov, Tyutchev and others at a time when the’ age of poetry was already receding before a mighty wave of prose. For meanwhile Russian prose was groping for a path of its own which was by no means easy. Neither Karamzin’s excessive gentility nor the picaresque crudeness of Vasily Narézhny, let alone the ing romanticism of A, Bestizhev- Marlinsky, brought anything new or truly original. It was only when. Pushkin and Nikolay Gogol, each in his own way, directed Russian prose towards its peculiar national channels that a change took place. "To the work of these two men the im- portant analytical novel, A Hero of our Time, by the poct Mikhail Lermontov, as well as the influence of the critic Vissarion Belinsky, should be added. | ‘The crisp, unaffected simplicity of Pushkin’s farsatives prevailed over the agitated ‘sym- phonic” prose of Gogol. (Yet the influ eee of Gogol’s style is noticeable in Dostoyevsky and, more recently, in Andrey Bely.) On the other hand, Gogol’s intensely negative attitude towards Jife as it is (an attitude especially noticeable ja, Dead Souls) was, partly owing to Relinsky, adopted by the majority of Russian authors. In his rejection of literature for mere ‘amusement’, with its artificial plots and escapist propensities, Belinsky insisted that works of fiction Jeuld depict and interpret ‘nature’, i.e. teal life, while exposing its unsavoury features in the name of a better and wworthier existence. His theory of the TMatural school’ (q.v.) helped to shape that monumental realism of Russia which Prentually culminated in the works of ‘Turgenev, Goncharoy, Pisemsky, Dostoy- evsky, ‘Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, the Sramatist Alexander Ostrovsky and many ers. oe Lae of its wealth and depth of characters, its anti-philistine attitude to- Srards life, its psychological insight as well as its open or latent ‘yexation of the spirit’, Russian fiction began to draw the attention ‘of the world and even to influence— especially from 1880 onwards—muchRUSSIAN LITERATURE [486] older literatures, And in so far as it was bent on interpreting all the aspects of man and life, it could not but reflect also the mental fermentation of that ‘intelligentsia period’ which after Pushin’s death had replaced the former gentry-leadership in Russian culture and came to an end only in 1917. The ‘superfluous man’ of the "40s; the feverish polemics of the *6os; the populist vogue of the *70s; the “Chekhovian’ despondence of the ’80s; Gorky’s defiance from the mid-’90s on” wards ; the complex character of the Russian symbolism between 1900 and toro~—all this came out in Russian literature during those decades of its triumph. ‘The more so because, owing to the absence of a tres Press, literature had to assimilate (prefer, ably in terms of art) a number of elements outside the belles-lettres. which loomed particular! the one of Europe and and the west, The long-drawn polemics between the ‘Westerners’ and those Slavophils who Would have nothing to do with ‘corrupt? Europe penetrated into Russian fiction and pon into poetry. ‘This was not a political but Primarily a cultural or even a spiritual Problem, Was Russia only a backward ‘Yet the problem ly large was still Russia, of Russia -< juch was the core of ea lemma, Despite Peter the Great, or ethaps because of him, the modi ethos besause of e modified ides Gren tees (Lutgenev's athens ans een dren, for example, on Ih °s The Possessed and The Brome eeY'® The 0 1 hers Karamazov) without taking into account this which kept haunting the Rent ae ‘ussian intel- es to haunt— els—the whole ligentsia and now continu uunder new names and lat world, Tn Chetthov's Works the age of Russian Pathetic sunset followed by another age of eae re Aye oF such talented poete Fedor Putchev, Yakov Polontke Alexey K. the *gact 85 at its lowest in 03. Tn neWever, a change inspired MW Gestbetistheciies ence eee Bae 6 were laire, Verlaine, Rimbaud, Male Rut the names to swear by. | Yet iO. ex these ‘decadent’ foreign i red interest eventually affected by a renewed Tr is Dostoyevsky as well as_in the rhage esoteric philosophy of Vladimir er jase In consequence the early meee “it Valery dominated by Konstantin Balma? 5, st Bryusov and Fédor Sologub, 1 pre seded by the Russian symbre® jndet whose leaders, Alexander wy, aimed, ‘i Bely and Vyacheslav Ivancy ‘oto Hy fuming artistic creation itso sf of mystical theurgy capable of ie the consciousness of man a and Parallel to this current %isced By nistic to it, Maxim Gorky. 1, em early romantic stage Be gnanieg inst realism and was joined by femande of writers—most of whom O° signi ie literature should be socidly fash In 1905 there was 2 pony expect in 18 i irit a * pus a the flece ar the evolution per all sore wake tiredness and a ravine ‘of Mi literary opiates on the PET was dU illusioned intellectuals. ‘sods those years that eon ized dec a Ail skilful purveyor of populate” a coo enjoyed a tremendous Tooke £08 2 poe however, preferred to polist Foe ses in the ivory towers of SY" condi: de which, at its best, reuned 5. Sie to the level of the genera i f sym mystical vagueness of sym 4 towards ror2a double Heat" pe Ml of concreteness and cl : ene ‘acmeists" whose TeadeT yy the jo Gumilay, and the othe imi Joe furutst group headed BY, food yet kovsky. " Somewhat apart $10) ant poct Nikolay KIvuve™ 17 by 3 ar, was joie, ae alt first world wan, was Lrvey Bate excellent village bard—SeTE7 Tg Sovrer Puntoy Feo psed en sa clysma of r917 ani in i made an all-round change JO i se tu well, In the general fu" almost entirely stop petg poet 5, there was an epi fous Bao fis in the cafés and at ate be & oi was during those days judith co! Mayakovsky emerged * * oivodl2y, ve the revolution’ and S008 or le Posterlike genre of plat 88 a 50 called agitka, which peo jcteho propugeddasriedium” even io aesthetically spurious. ey Est oe pa was aroused also by SC vas Pi vit Arcadian peasant utr eal a Mayas te i son"[487] of th P 1925 i ammitied suicide: Esenin in topical aay Navakovsky in 1930. Less telent O24 More reserved was the original own a eot®s Pasternak who became revolution, 2PPreciated only after the elusive pind has remained a somewhat . Once the ary Poet ever since. Io its Be civ war was over, prose came luting ‘h again and was at its best Policy) perieg, MEP (New Economic Latives yy tod. Its notable early represen- ie, youn’ the so-called fellow-travellers, indigo’ Whites with the intelligentsia Sen eae ‘had accepted the new régime Quite a few glist not share its ideology. set8pion ee Oe were members of the Pech insisted ws SFOuP (921-243 av.) din, Dinetc on the freedom of art Chenko wort’ Leonoy, 'Tynyanoy, Zosh- Mainly yet? among them. ‘They dealt Ta ina real; wevolution and the civil “aturous sce, ‘panned but with an Sitime wen ic attitude behind it. gee life fon Saag Sseriptions of the new eomorous sang often in a delightfully ipcl®s for exautitical vein: by Zosh: Sogilly by Tyee; by Karayey and aeDhical” gi, MEd Petrov. Also the ig’Ch ably 708d modernized historical fey pBue. te by Tynyanovy, had rs een 1922 and 1929 the ‘S| enjoyed considerable ant for the Nith excellent results. Remi of thers: ablished older authors, —Buni : Zara, She tage’ abroga, time there, actually ing (te with @t @ considerable émigré bing Meue, ite centres in Berlin, Paris New thejy j,, Others remained in Russia, them ditoest €© adape themselves to the So, Veresayen {make creative use of oma c%: Serafimovich, Pante- atts “Teenage, Alexey N. Tolstoys Hef tith the ac’ Were among those who atte 1ofty paige eine which found its 8 yPPObieme tn Maxim Gorky. One we to ter or zised after the revolution Teetin,° Shaped 5 literature and culture eta Voie #8 @ purely proletarian Rough SolurieueFOUs advocates of a Pro- BY ang Burg ede their claims loudly 1 denn Lenin 2s Lunacharsky, Trot- SS vated tg himself were sufficiently gositble "je the need of assimilating Wise? Tigaglements of the | former dient future ee for the sake of @ es le agin the furare, hae to WeVer, ae of the first five-year the oBtbue oe too were calle: 0 te to its success. er E cent, proletarians a new RUSSIAN LITERATURE chance. As a result literature became ‘committed’ to prefabricated themes and to a black-and-white approach to life which was hardly likely to produce works of permanent value. Finally in 1932 the authors, whether proletarian or not, were asked to join the newly constituted General Union of Soviet Writers and to accept ‘socialist realism’ as the guiding principle of their art. Formulated by Gorky, socialist realism. became from then on the dominant—in fact, the only—current in Soviet literature. ‘At first glance it seems to share some characteristics with Belinsky’s old ‘natural school’: above all the idea that literature should be socially significant and con- structive. On the other hand, 2 votary of socialist realism—even when intensely critical of the life he sees—has a definite ideological panacea for all evils at his disposal, from which he must not deviate. Officially he has no right to be a sceptic, Jet alone a pessimist. Yet injunctions and “social commands’ kept changing accord- ing to circumstances. ‘The advent of Hitler, for instance, caused a sudden rise of Soviet patriotism which formed a rather unexpected contrast to the former inter- hational trend. ‘The patriotic note be- came at once conspicuous in literature, particularly in the historical novel as Tepresented by Borodin, Kostylev, Alexey Ni Tolstoy, V. Yan and others. Even the qutoeratic tyrant Ivan the Terrible had to be represented as a great patriot and statesman. Te was of course not Marxism but patriotism that made the Russians endure Peiheroically all the ordeals of the second srorld war to the success of which literature, too, contributed what it could. Snappy Seportage, propaganda sketches, pictures df German atrocities, paeans to the ex- ploits of Russian soldiers and partisans Berved their purpose well. Ilya Bhren- burg, Konstantin Simonov, the rather sensational Wanda Wassilewska and scores of others were indefatigable on the ‘literary But once the war was over, front’. antagonism to the west became the order of the day. ‘The secularized Soviet Version of Moscow as the all-saving ‘third Rome’ grew louder and more persistent, ‘As a result the gulf between contemporary Russian and western literatures could not but widen, Whereas for years Soviet authors used to be translated into all European languages especially into Eng- lish, the interest in their works began to seeide until--towards r9s0—it sank to its lowest ebb.agren37 cp 5 RCERME NEST PORN GE SACRED BOOKS However regrettable such a situation, (1 key to it lies outside literature a chang’ % only occur if it first takes place in polite’, which would then automatically lead ; one in culture and literature 35 WG ‘The benefit derived from it would invaluable for both east and west. the M. de Vogué, Le roman russe (1885); 4 Pypin, Istoriya russhoy literatury (4 vols 3808 99); A. Brickner, Geschichte der russ, Litera’ (1998); V. V, Sipovsksy, Ocherki istorii russkag romana (2 vols, 1909); V.V. Sipovsky, [story? russkoy slovesnosti (4th ed. 1909); M- Barings Landmarks in Russian Literature (1910) + V i Keltuyala, Kurs istorii russkoy literaturys 2 (1913); L. Léger, La Russie intellectuelle (1914); Russkaya literatura XX veka, ed. S. A+ ‘engerov (3 vols, rgr4—16); Ivanov-Razum- se Fusskaya literatura XX veka (1920); uasberg, Russi Literaturgeschtc! (1922); V. Des cone ‘Noveyshaya tusshaya literatura (rg22); N. K. Pilssanovs Dea veka russhoy literatury (1923); A. Luther, Gechichite der russischen Literatur (1924)$ Hares qvikitina, Russkaya literatura ot si7vo- ligma do nashikh dney (1926); D. S. Mirsky, A ‘story of Russ. Literature to 1382 (1920); RIX AnOv, Putevoditel” po russkoy literature Litera, (1927); Contemporary | Russian Lygatire (1933) ‘and A History of Russian suerature, ed. B,J. Witfield (1949)3 P- Ni Russert, Die russische Literatur (1927) 9° usskava literatura (2 vols, 1926-28); 4J- Sat, La littérature en Russie (1929); S huvalov, Belletristy (1928-31); N.¥-ArSenic¥s G24. Literatur der Neuzeit und Gegenccar! (1920); XA. "Nazareno, Lovoriya, resshoy leratury XIX 9. (oth ed. 1931); P. Milioukew, ew Mejement intellectuel russe (293%~32)5, E auf die per, den Einfluss der schonen Literaray Fomia, iAtische soxtale Beceegung (1932); A. G- ronolonn eoditel’ po bibliografit, istoriografit, Laven St t entsiklopedii literatury (1934)5 J; (rogay? L7eduction 10 the Russian Nove Latedg dy Spector, The Golden Age of Russ. Tetteraw7® (1943);"E. Lo Gatto, Storia della ‘Sour ,russa (and ed. 1943); G- Reaveys Wot Literature To-Day (2946); N. J of ad Reno of Barty Ruse, Literature (es ; . ed. . we, Soviet Russian Literature (393.0 ANtHOLOGIES: J. Bowris F of th ssi - Bowring, Specimens of the Anthobige 26ts (2 vols, x821723); L. Wiener, ‘gy of Russian Literature (2 vols, 1992 23); B2i,J- Cournos, Short Stories out of Soviet and, 1929) and A Treasury of Russian Life Peg, Humour (1943); C. F. Coxwell,, Russian ams (t929);S. Graham, Great Russian Short in es (1920); G. Z, Patrick, Popular Poetry ther tet Russia (1929); J. J. Robbins, Azure and {| res of new Russia (1929); B. Deutsch on tmOlinsky, Russian Poetry (1930); a) Ovalov, Bonfire, stories of Sovtet Russia Russias SF. R. Noyes, Masterpieces of the Playe( Drama (1933); E. Lyons; Siz Soviet Sevier 1934); G. Reavey and M. Slonim, Blake, py7dture: an anthology (1934); B. ‘our Soviet Plays (4937)s A- Flores, [488] Diterature and Marxism: a_ controversy of t eritics (1938); M. Grindea, Sovier Literature, Art, Music (1942); I. Montague and H. Marshall, Soviet Short Stories (1942); G. Shelley, Modern Poems from Russia (1942): C.M., Bowra, A Book of Russian Verse (1943) and A Second Book of Russian Verse (1948); M. van Doren, The Night of the Summer Solstice, and other stories of the Russian war (1943); B. G. Guerney, 4 Treasury of Russian Literature (1943); J. Rodker, Soviet Anthology (1943); E. Fen,’ Soviet Stories of the Last Decade (1945); J. Fineberg, Heroic Leningrad (1943); A. Bakshy, Soviet Scene: six plays of Russian life (1946); H. W. L. Dana, Seven Soviet Plays (1946); J. Lavrin, Representative Russian Stories (2 vols, 1946); M. Guerney, ‘The Portable Russian Reader (1947); 3. Kunitz, Russian Literature since the Revolution (1948); ‘A. Yarmolinsky, 4 Treasury of Russian Verse (1949). JL. consisting of books connected with the diffusion, maintenance and prac- tice of any specific religion. Such books are concerned with either public or private worship, and consist of hymn_ books or liturgies, records of events of religious significance, or transcripts of the utterances of religious teachers, prophets or sages. They may also include codes of law claiming to have been delivered by a divine beihg to mankind, or even dramas connected with the intercourse between gods and men, the performance of which on stated occasions may promote human welfare. It is probable that such literature did not very readily in the first instance get into script, sirice the sanctity of the words and the danger of their misuse by un- authorized or ill-disposed persons pre- cluded their being written down; and even when they were, it was often considered inadvisable to let anyone except priests and well-aceredited laity have access to them. Sacred books may be classified into pre~ biblical or non-biblical, biblical and post- biblical. PrE-RIBLICAL.—Into this category may be put the sacred literature of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. The sacred books of Japan and of Central America, although pre-biblical in the sense of having originated in areas un- influenced at the time by the Bible, do not appear to have been committed to script until after the beginning of the Christian tra, but with this proviso we may include them here. Orally transmitted records of : Sn Books, a class of literature[489] religious myths existed among the Celtic and Scandinavian peoples and in central Germany, before their conversion to Christianity, but none of these myths would appear to have been put into writing by their inventors. For such works as these see MyTHoLocy. It is difficult to decide whether the Middle East or China really enjoys the distinction of having first set down its sacred literature in script, and until the characters found in the remains of the Harappa culture in India have been deciphered, we cannot tell whether its people possessed any sacred books. India certainly did not put its sacred literature into script until a relatively late date. In Mesopotamia it would appear that it was the early Sumerians who began making tablet records of sacred matters, and the practice continued for many centuries, so that we get cylindrical and oval tablets of many periods. ‘These fall mainly into two classes, first, liturgical, and second, records of religious myths. In the great temples were collected large numbers of hymns, so that they might be recited again and again on appropriate occasions. Indeed the most natural type of a sacred book is a collection of lyrics intended to be chanted to various divine persons. In India they were not written down for a long time, and we do not know how long it may have been the practice in early Sumeria to transmit them orally from one temple minister to another. Nevertheless enough fragments of hymn-tablets of great antiquity have been found in the ruins of temples to make it certain that the practice of writing down hymns goes back very far. ‘The use of such hymns may seem to us to have been magical rather than religious, but besides much adulation there is also from time to time a note of penitence and even of gratitude. ‘There are also records of liturgical prayers for certain stated occasions such as the consecration of anew temple or the procession of the image of a god, which have been carefully copied down for repetition. ‘The second class of record is that of religious myths. Records of stories pro- fessing to describe the creation of the world, the deluge and man’s search for immortality are extant in more than one language of the Middle East, and it would appear that not only the temple libraries but also those of the kings—if indeed these were separate ones—contained tablets of this kind. Types of books somewhat similar to those found in the Old ‘Testa- ment may thus be said to occur in ancient 16* SACRED BOOKS Mesopotamia, the main difference being that the non-Hebrew ones are more polytheistic and less strictly ethical, while the diction is archaic. There is however one fragment which somewhat resembles the book of Job in its motif, and another which appears to be part of a collection of moral precepts, some of which strike a surprisingly high note. In Egypt also we get large collections of hymns, written on papyrus and preserved in the temple libraries. But we also find records of myths, sacred dramas and even elementary attempts at a systematic theology as well as sebayit or wisdom literature, consisting of strings of moral precepts. ‘There is however no evidence in either Mesopo- tamia or Egypt of any attempt to create what might be called a canonical collection of these works. In India and China the case is somewhat different. In India a vast mass of orally transmitted material accumulated during the centuries which preceded the Christian era, but it was held so sacred that it was never written down. When at length manuscript records began, they were jealously guarded, and until quite recent times it was considered improper for any- one below a certain caste to have access to them. Further, the Brahmin priesthood divided them into two classes, which we may call roughly canonical and non- canonical or apocryphal, but which in Sanskrit are called gruti, or ‘that which hath been heard’, and smriti, ‘that which hath been handed down’—these being somewhat the equivalent of revelation and tradition, Under the heading of fruti fall the four books of the Vedas, together with such classical works as have developed from them, to wit the Brahmanas or ritual- books, and the Upanishads or records of the first attempts at philosophical theology. Under the heading of smriti are included all the later Hindu religious works such as the Puranas and the more strictly sectarian books. (See INptaN LireraturE; Mana- BHARATA; RAMAYANA.) The Chinese classics are not sacred books in the same sense as those of India, Though much revered formerly, they do not claim to be the result of revelation, but are the repositories of ancient Chinese culture and wisdom, especially as reshaped, according to tradition, by the Chigreat nese sage Confucius, (See CONFUCIAN Clas. ao aa CHINESE peer) n Japan the principal sacred boo! Shinto are the Kojiki and the noe 5, + i} Ongt (aa.v.). “in their present form as wren documents these’ “records of weetteDSACRED BOOKS matters’ as they are called, are not really very ancient, but probably belong to the roth century 4.D. though the oral traditions of which they are made up are probably much older. In subject matter they thus resemble the Puranas of Hinduism and were very likely composed for a similar purpose. Bwuica, Lirerature.—This consists mainly of the sacred books of the Hebrews and of the Christians, and is therefore centred upon what are called the Old and New Testaments (see Brie), But here again we get a distinction between canoni- cal and extra-canonical works, and attached to both parts of the Bible are a number of so to speak satellite books, which have failed to get into the canon of either Old or New Testament and yet have played a not inconsiderable part in the devotional life of both Jews and Christians. ‘These books are usually known as Apocrypha (the word means ‘hidden’) and some of the Old Testament ones—though not by any means all—are to be found included in the full Bible, between the Old and New ‘Testament. No apocryphal New Testa- ment books are now appended to any Bible, but there are a considerable number of them, and they have played in the past a substantial part in popular Christianity, especially in the middle ages. Incidents drawn from them are frequently to be found in medieval art. Great importance is attached by most orthodox Jews to the volumes which embody the traditional interpretation of their canonical books, namely the Talmud (the word means study). From the moment of the com- pletion of the Old ‘Testament canon Jews ave felt that it needed to be interpreted, and in process of time these interpretations were collected in written form. There were two separate Talmuds. The earlier one was the Palestinian and was compiled by a group of Pharisaic 'Tannaim or teachers’ at an academy established near Jaffa. The second, known as the Babylo- nian Talmud, was compiled in Babylonia itself by members of the academy of Sura (see Asn). The earlier Talmud took shape between A.D. 70 and 220, the later one between A.D. 220 and 550, under the Amoraim or ‘interpreters’. ‘The Talmud is divided up into a number of tractates, 63 in all, and from its completion came to be *egarded as the official embodiment of {fwish tradition, so that all expositions of © canonical books are bound to be kept in harmony with ¢ ; E Fj ‘y with it, any other interpretation Peing held nnorthedox. Naturally there have been Protests and reactions against [490] this. On the one hand the Karaite Jews (8th century a.p.) rejected all such tradi- tions and insisted upon going back to the canonical books themselves, rather as the 16th-century Protestant Christians insisted upon going back to the text of the canonical Bible, with a rejection of all medieval and even in some cases patristic traditional interpretations. Then there have been liberal schools of thought among modern Jews just as there have among modern Christians. And finally there was the curious movement of the Chasidim in eastern Europe, begun by a mystical teacher who went by the name of the Baal Shem Tov or ‘Master of the good word’, and who aimed at renewing the spiritual life of the Jews by diminishing the domination of the rabbis with their rather slavish insistence upon the meticu- lous analysis of the Torah. The sayings of the Chasidic teachers were for a good many years orally transmitted, since it was felt by some of them that once they began to create a new set of writings similar to the Old Testament or the ‘Talmud, the spirituality would go out of them, "After some years however it was feared that many of these sayings would be irretriev- ably lost if they were only memorized, and so collections of them began to be made. These of course have not yet reached the status of canonical sacred books, but in certain Jewish circles they are much esteemed. ‘The canon of the New Testament grew. up in a way very different from that of the Old, and in amuch shorter time. Indeed in this latter respect it differs much from the canonical books of Zoroastrianism, Hinduism and Buddhism, which, as we have seen, remained in a state of oral transmission for many centuries. It should be noted that the gospels themselves initiate as it were an entirely new genre of literary writing. There was nothing like them before their time, and the lives of the saints are clearly the result of them. Post-sisticaL __Lirerarurr. — Some would place the Talmud and the Chasidic works in this class, though others would say_ that they were strictly speaking biblical. ‘There can however be no mistake about the sacred books to which we now turn, The Qur‘an, the sacred book of Islam, makes 4 totally independent claim. Written in Arabic of the 7th century A.D. it is said by orthodox Moslems to have been transmitted by God direct to Mohammed, and, since the latter was according to Moslem tradition illiterate, its preservation is in itself a[491] miracle. But the facts as critical study can elucidate them are somewhat different. There would appear to have been several stages in the composition of the Qur'an. Indeed Richard Bell thinks that there must have been three stages in the original compilation of the book, the first being simply a memorizing of lists of signs and of exhortations to the worship of Allah, of which very little survives but fragments: the second, a reduction of some of the earlier alleged revelations to script, made by Mohammed during the latter part of his time at Mecca and the first year or two of his stay at Medina: the third stage, begin- ning about a.p. 624, the second year after the Hijrah, when Mohammed decided that his new movement must have a sacred book which could take a place equal to those of the Jews and the Christians, But this, even at the time of his death, would not seem to have been the Qur‘an as we know it, After the decease of the Prophet, his followers and disciples began to make a collection of his sayings and these were added to the already existing material, with the result that a longer recension of the Qur‘in eventually appeared. In this, short prose pieces were joined together to make longer suras or chapters, while short poetical pieces remained untouched. The net result is that the long prose suras are many of them to all appearances composite, while the poetry is in its original form. The editors then arranged the various suras according to their length, with the shortest first. "The final step in this official arrangement of the Qur‘an was to take the text as it stood in the caliphate of Othman as standard and to suppress all other texts. The word Qur‘an means that which is recited, and the book itself is essentially meant to be heard. Its language is turgid and rhythmical and there are many repetitions, but to read it in translation in a detached way is not to capture the spirit of it. Each suva has a name, derived from some leading word or idea which occurs in it, and this form of homenclature seems to be derived from the Talmud, where each tractate has a separate title, such as Shekels, Vows, Decisions. Certain dis- tinctive ideas recur frequently and even to a wearisome extent, but Mohammed knew what he was about and was well aware that propaganda requires reiteration, With the theology involved we are not here concerned. What is relevant, is that the promulgation of the Qus‘an had at the time a profound influence upon the Arabic language and was in effect the beginning of an Arabic literature, Although no SACRED BOOKS one can understand the Qur‘in without recognizing its dependence upon the Judaism of the Talmud and upon the apocryphal books on the fringe of the New ‘Testament, it has nevertheless a distinctive character of its own. After the medieval period in India other forms of sacred literature sprang up thete, mostly devotional hymns, the product of emotional faith in some god, conceived as personal and gracious. ‘These collections known as bhakti hymns, though not strictly speaking canonical books, have had a great popular influence, especially in south India. ‘The entry of Islam into India led after a time to the growth of hybrid movements, partly Hindu, partly Moslem, and these in their turn produced sacred literature. The chief item in this class of works is the Granth Sahib, which is the sacred corpus of poems belonging to the Sikh community. No other post-biblical works of any importance have been produced until the last 150 years, when the influence of the Bible has again showed itself in the production of two rather strange books in America, the Book of Mormon and Mrs Eddy’s Science and Health with Key to the ‘Scriptures. The former embodies ‘attempt to represent the aboriginal in- habitants of the American continent as descendants of the so-called Lost Ten "Tribes, and the text of the book, which was of the nature of a pious forgery, was alleged to have been inscribed upon certain gold plates, the existence of which was revealed by an angel to the founder of the Mormon sect, together with the means of translating their contents. No evidence has ever been adduced to substantiate this claim, and the story told in the book is plainly of the nature of fiction and resembles in style some of the Bible apocrypha. ‘The other work, though prolix and formless, is equally plainly a book inspired by sincere conviction. It aims at interpreting the Bible in a manner which is sometimes allegorical and rarely critical, but which has behind it a definite theory about the origins of ill health and its cure, derived from the actual experiences of the founder of the sect of Christian Scientists. She possessed an acute though untrained intelligence, and it is thought by some that she had imbibed rather vaguely some ideas drawn from Platonism, perhaps through the influence of her student brother, Th book is a fairly long one and has passe through many editions. “Her follows are scrupulous about maintaining the ovo and integrity of its text, PuritySAGA One of the most recent attempts at the formation of a corpus of sacred literature is to be seen in Japan, where some of the sects of Shinto, founded by prophetic personalities, have begun to collect the sayings of their teachers, rather in the same way as that in which the disciples of Confucius and Mo-tzii collected the obiter dicta of their respective masters. Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testament, ed. J. B. Pritchard (1950); Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms, with ‘texts and tr. (1909), Sumerian Liturgical Texts (1911) and Sumerian Liturgies and Psalms, with texts, transliterations, tr. and notes (1919)—all three ed. S. H, Langdon, H.D. Griswold, The Religion of the Rig-veda (1923); Hindu Scriptures, ed. N. MacNicol (1938); The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, t. R. E. Hume (1921); The Song of the Lord: Bhagavadgita in Wisdom of the East, tr. with intro. and notes, E. J. Thomas (1931). The Sacred Books of China in Sacred Books of the East, TIL, tr. J. Legge (1879-85); The Analects of Confucius (1929) and The Way and its Power. A Study of the Tao-te-King (1934) both ed. A. Waley; D. C. Holtom, The National Faith of Japan. A Study in modern Shinto (1938). Talmud, see Asut; L. H. Newman (1944) The Koran, tt. J The Qur'an, tt. RB Psalms of the Maratha Saints in Heritage of India, tt. N. MacNicol (1919); Psalms of @ aiva Saint, tr. I. Tambyah (1925); Sikh Religion, tr. M. A. McAuliffe (6 vols, 1909). M. B. Eddy, Science and Health (875), ed. Hasidic Anthology, ed. ~ Rodwell (and ed. 1950); ell (2 vols, 1937). A. G. Eddy (1883), Saga. ‘The s means liter th ort, S282, (plural _sdgur) : lly ‘something said’, and, as with Eddie and Scaldic ee some of the Norse sagas were preserved by oral tradition for long periods before being Dae Se They can be divided into five main groups: (1) Sagas of the kings; mainly dealing Pat early kings of Norway, as for example Snorfi Sturluson’s Heimskringla and Karl Jéns- son’s Sverris saga; bo ith the Drkney eatls, Ofireyog oe, oe Orkneyinga saga (Eng. tr. A. B. Taylor, 1938) and the Sense Teings, Shjéldunga saga and Knytlinga saga; the Jémsotkinga saga deals with both Norway and Denmark. They are biographies Tather than histories and are based partly on the work of earlier historians, partly on eral tradition and sometimes on the {iidence of first-hand witnesses. (2) Ice rae Sagas. These cover the period llowing on the first settlement of Iceland, gecmtoae. ‘They tell of a rough and violent fanade2 for by internecine strife, where a tically sensitive conception of personal [492] and family honour prevailed. Some deal with a single person; Gésla saga Stirssonar (The Story of Gisli the Outlaw, tr. G. W. Dasent, 1866), Viga-Glims saga (Eng. tr. Sir E. Head, 1866), Grettis saga (The Saga of Grettir the Strong, tr. G. A. Hight, 1913) and Hallfretar saga. Others give the history of a whole family, as in Egils saga (Eng. tr. E. R. Eddison, 1930), Laxdela saga (Eng. tr. T. Veblen, 1925), Vatnsdecla saga (The Vatnsdalers’ Saga, tr. Gwyn Jones, 1944) and Njdls saga (The Story of Burnt Njal, tr. G. W. Dasent, 2 vols, 1861). A third’ group’ depicts a whole district, Zyrbyggja saga (The Story of the Ere-Dwellers, tr. W. Morris and E. “i ally some are Hrafnkels saga (Eng. tr. Gwyn Jones, 1935), Bandamanna saga and Hensa-Péris saga (The Story of the Banded Men and Hen Thorir, tr. W. Morris and E. Magniisson, 1891), Most of these sagas were probably first written down during the period 1200-50; they are less reliable than the sagas of the kings and should be regarded as historical novels rather than history; they are of unknown authorship. (3) A third group, dealing with Icelandic chieftains and bishops, are Contemporary Sagas, written by authors who were contemporaries of the personages they wrote about or at least had their information from first-hand witnesses. Some of the writers are known and they date from the end of the 12th century or later. Chief amongst those telling of the Icelandic magnates is Sturlunga saga, in which is included Sturla Dérdarson’s Lslendinga saga; the story of the first five bishops of Skdlaholt is told in Hungrvaka, and there are separate sagas of bishops Porlakr Pérhallsson (1178-93) ; Pall Jénsson (r195~1211); Arni Porléksson (1269-98); and of the Hélar bishops, Jén Ogmundar- son (1106-21); Gudmundr Arason (1203- 37) and Laurentius Kalfsson (1324-31)? Laurentius saga, tr. O. Elton’ (1890); Stories of the Bishops of Iceland, tr. Mrs Disney Leith (1895); The Life of Gudmund the Good, tr. G. Turville-Petre and E. S. Olszewska (1042). (4) Fornaldarségur (Sagas of Olden Time) are a group of sagas set in the legendary past, outside Iceland. They have little or no historical basis and were intended purely as enter- tainment. Most important of them is the Veélsunga saga (Eng. tr. W. Morris and E. Magnusson, 1870), based on the Elder Edda; they were written down in the 13th century and their authors are unknown. (5) Finally, in the rath and 13th centuries many foreign romances were translated[493] into Norse both in Norway and Iceland, principally Alexanders saga (a prose trans- lation of a Latin poem on Alexander the Great); Pieriks saga (based on a German original and closely connected with the fornaldarsaga); and Karlamagntis saga (based chiefly on French lays on Charle- magne). Epitions: Islendinga sdgur (13 vols, 1946- 49), Sturlunga saga (3 vols, 1948), Byskupa ségur (3 vols, 1948) and’ Fornaldar sogur Nordurlanda (4 vols, 1950)—all ed. G. Jénsson; Riddarasdgur (3 vols, 1949) and Karlamagniis saga (3 vols, 1930)—both ed. B. Vilhjilmsson; Hawksbék, ed. F. Jénsson (1892-96), fslenzk fornrit (1933 ff. Fortuer Ena. rr.: Hamlet in Iceland, 1. Gollanez (1898); The Saga of Hrolf Kraki, §. M. Mills (1933); The Saga of the Faroe Islanders, M. Press (1934); The Saga of Gunnar,’ W. Emery (1940); The Sagas of Kormdk and The Sworn Brothers, L. M. Hollander (1949).—Titree Northern Love ‘Stories, W. Morris and E. Magniisson (1875); ‘Summer Travelling in Iceland, J, Coles (882); Corpus Pocticum Boreale, ed. G. Vigfisson and F, Y. Powell (2 vols, 1883); The Viking Age, P. Du Chaillu (2 vols, 1889) ; Viking Tales from the North, R. B. Anderson (1889); Origines Islandicae, ed. G. Vigfisson and 1°. Y. Powell (2 vols, 1905); Translations from the Icelandic, W. C, Green (1908); The Norse Discoverers of America: The Wineland Sagas, G.M.Gathorne- Hardy (1921); Stories and Ballads of the Far Past, H. Kershaw (1921); The Northern Saga, f. E. Kellett (1929); Four Icelandic Sagas, Gwyn. Jones (1935);_ A Pageant of Old Scandinavia, H. G.’ Leach (1946); Three Teelandic Sagas, Mi. Schlauch and M. H. Scargill (1950) Criticat Works: W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (1897); S. Nordal, Om Olaf den Helliges Saga (1914); H. G.’ Leach, Angevin Britain and Scandinavia’ (1921); K. Liestol, The Origin of the Icelandic Family Sagas, tt. A.G. Jayne (1930); B. S. Phillpotts, Edda and ‘Saga (1931); H. Koht, The Old Norse Sagas (1931); W. A. Craigie, The Icelandic Sagas (1933); M. Schlauch,’ Romance in Iceland (3934). RGP. Salons. ‘The salon is essentially a social gathering, usually held on fixed days in a private house, at which writers, artists or scientists mingle with interested amateurs on more or less informal terms. It flourished particularly in France in the r7th and 18th centuries, when it largely took the place occupied in other periods by enlightened courts, literary clubs and circles, coffee-houses or dance-cellars. The prototype was the Hétel de Ram- bouillet, where, between 1610 and 1650, Catherine de’ Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, was at home in her ‘Blue Room’ to aristocrats, grammarians, critics and poets. Here La Guirlande de Fulie, a SALONS book of 6r poems in praise of the mar- quise’s daughter, was composed. Mme de Rambouillet’s principal succes- sor was Madeleine de Scudéry, at whose Saturdays the Carte du Pays de Tendre was playfully worked out before being pub- lished in her novel Clelie (1654). Among, numerous rival salons were those of Mme. Scarron (the future Mme de Maintenon), Mme Aragonnais, Mme de Ia Suze, and Ninon de Lenclos who provided a centre for the libertins or free-thinkers. The feminine viewpoint and preéciosité of style of some French r7th-century literature owe something to the salons, which easily fell into affectation in their search for refinement. The word préci- euse was first used by d’Aubignac in 1654. in an indirect allusion to Mme de Scudéry’s circle, In the 18th century the emphasis shifted from discussions of style and of sentiment to scientific, social and even political questions. ‘The model was the salon of Mme de Tencin (1681-1749), whose legitimate son d’Alembert was to play a considerable part in the intellectual life of the age. Her mantle fell upon Mme Geoffrin, Mme du Deffand, who con- ceived a hopeless passion for the young Horace Walpole, and Mile de Lespinasse, who began as Mme du Deffand’s com~ panion but left her to open a rival salon in the same Rue Saint-Dominique. All these salons were ‘philosophic’ and pro- vided meeting-places for the chief con- tributors to the Encyclopédie. Other notable salons of the second half of the century were those of Mme Helvétius— also a Ealane bons for the Excyclopedistes —Mme @Epinay, the protectress of Rousseau, and Mme Necker, mother of Mme de Staél. After the Revolution the decentralization of society and the increasing commercializa- tion of literature led to a decline in the influence of the salons, though they continued in name until yesterday. A tendency to enthrone a single ‘lion’, as Chateaubriand at Mme Récamier’s, marred the free interplay of conversation which was the essence of the old formula, Only the Salon de PArsenal, where the young leaders of the romantic movement met as the guests of Charles Nodier (1824-30), had something of the older freedom, In England the salon has never taken root, in spite of the attempts of such 18th, century ‘blue-stockings’ as Mrs Vesey 2-7 Mrs Elizabeth Montagu to esnoscd 90d With a different conception of sate msSANSKRIT of culture and society the English have generally preferred masculine clubs such as Dr Johnson’s dinners at the Turk’s Head, or ideological groupings such as the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood or the Blooms- bury Group (q.v.). At its narrowest the salon can become a coterie and deserves Voltaire’s ironic description of it as ‘a small circle presided over by some woman displaying the dawning of her intelligence in the sunset of her beauty’, At its best it has been an antidote to philistinism and excessive masculinity and has usefully linked society and the arts, though there has been no example of an outstanding writer tolerating its direct influence. jb: Momet, La Vie parisienne au XVIITE siecle (1914); R. Bray, La Préciosité et les précieux (1948); P. de Ségur, Le Royaume de fa rue Saint-Honoré, Mme Geoffrin et sa fille (1897), Julie de Lespinasse (1906), Esquissés ct Gps, Mme dit Deffand (1908); M. Salomon, Gharles Nodier et le groupe romantique (1908); M. Masson, Une Vie de femme au XV IME dle: Mme de Tencin (xoxo); E. Magne, qiuture et PHotel de Rambouillet (2 vols, 3929730); G. Mongrédien, Madeleine de cudéry et son salon (1947). GB. Sanskrit is the term somewhat loosely applied to the language spoken by the Indo-European invaders of the Punjab shot the rath century n.c. It is closely Gree git Persian (Avesta), Homeric Sanskrit Latin, The earliest recorded sagsktit is embodied in the Vedic hymns and Una, commentaries, the Brahmanas the gq emishads, and in the epics; but by become omtuzy many Vedic terms had RovWaltel, obsolete that Yaska had to draw Paning U0SS#"Y, explaining them, while and systemathes? .btammarians codified way arose cwed the grammar. In this Tenens glassical Sanskrit, the ‘polished’ difers hon’ Brahmin priesthood, which pie vakrits or ‘natural’ the founder of Buddhi: the Prakrit of Maghad: his original doctrines are recorded, and the Buddhist emperor Asoka employs the same medium for the edifying edicts which he poe to be graven on the rock from tgbiwar to Mysore. Sanskrit was never ing’ Pular speech: in the dramas, the Sansken@ his Brahmin ministers speak orden 2 While the women and the lower appear ely in Prakrit, With the dis- ada ps of court patronage the Prakrits Raculars erKe down to form the ver- today, while Sanskrit remained ism, taught in Pali, fa or Bihar, in which [494] crystallized as the language of the church and the lingua franca of scholars. See INpian Literature. HGR. Sapphics, verses written in the sapphic stanza, which is of the form —v-~-| ve-v—— (3 times), ~vv—~ (once), named after the poct Sappho. They have been imitated by many modern poets, as by Sidney, Cowper, Watts, Southey and Swinburne, CTO. Sarashina Nikki (‘Sarashina Diary)’, Japanese literary diary, written in 1059-60 by the daughter (1009, personal name unknown) of Fujiwara Takasue. It is a delicate ‘account of a journey from Shimésa to Kyoto (the capital) in roar, a later journey from Kyoto to Sarashina, and of various miscellaneous events of interest. A, S. Omori and K. Doi, Diaries of Court Ladies of Old Zapan (1920). EBC. Sasune’i Davith, one of a collection of four Armenian epic tales, taken down by philologists since 1876 from peasant bards living in the mountains south of lake Van. ‘These all deal with the heroic exploits of the dynasty of Sasun and are divided thus: (1) The growth to manhood of the twins, Sanasar and Baghdasar, with stories of their great strength: (2) the exploits of Lion-Mher, who single-handed fought an army of Turkmen; (3) the story of Davith-Mher who went to Egypt at the queen’s invitation, married her and begot a son, Misra-Malik; (4) the story of Sasunc’i Davith, the main hero of the epics, and of his rivalry with his step-brother, Misra-Malilk. Sasna Dster, ed. M. Abeghian and K. Melik-Ohanjanian (2 yols, 1936-39); Sasun- akan, ed, D. Tchitony (Paris, 1942). A.Sa. Satanic School: see Romanticism. Satire may be described as a literary form designed to incite contempt, amusement or disgust at what is ridiculous or unseemly. The word itself comes from the Latin satura, meaning originally a medley or miscellany; there is no_ etymological connexion with ‘satyr’. When first used as a literary term, it seems to have meant a revue or farce. Satire has been described as the only literary form invented by the Romans. There is, however, evidence that in some early Greek writers (Archilochus, Semon- ides of Samos, Hipponax) the natural tran- sition had already been made from lampoon and private abuse to invective aimed at more general and public correction of morals. And later, after the drama had[495] developed as an independent literary form from the Bacchic festival, there appears the blend of satire and poetry characteristic of the work of Aristophanes. But satire as a characteristic genre and as a direct influence on later European literature is mainly a creation of the Latin writers; and its blend of rigidity, brilliance and savage force may be said to reflect certain aspects of the Latin temperament. ‘The ancient Italian peasantry had their fierce, licentious and comic songs of the vintage and harvest, known as Fescennine verses (q.v.). But the inventor of satire as a character! poetic form was Gaius Lucilius. He was followed by Horace who, in his earlier period, wrote realistic, humorous, satiric poems directed at social abuses, but sometimes turning discursively to more general and philosophical topic: Persius, a Stoic, also had philosophical jnterests; but his literary originality lay jn a tart realism, a vivid, slangy, rugged style, which may be compared with that of his ryth-century English successor Donne. Javenal, the greatest of Roman satirists, introduced into verse-satire a rhetorical strength; sometimes, as in the roth satire, on ‘the vanity of human wishes’, even a tragic strength. Besides the satiric poets there remains some work by Roman prose-satirists. One work survives complete, the Apocolocyntosis ((Pumpkinification’), by Seneca, written under the emperor Nero to ridicule Nero’s predecessor Claudius. But the most re- markable Roman prose satire, the Satiricon of Petronius, also written under Nero, survives only asafragment. It is a curious mixture of uninhibited realism with jmaginativeness and fantasy. Petronius, together with the amused, disillusioned Lucian whose characteristic form was the comic dialogue, have perhaps more im- mediacy of interest today than some other ancient satirists. Roman satire, in verse and prose, though it may owe something to Greek inspiration (perhaps to the ‘Old Comedy’ of Aristo- phanes) is characteristically Roman in the jnoral seriousness of its purpose and the uninhibited violence and cruelty of its means of expression. Its influence on those of congenial temperament was pto- found; but less when it was directly imitated in ‘neo-classical’ fashion than when its spitit was re-created in newer forms. The spirit of Lucian lives on in Rabelais and Swift, that of Petronius in Flaubert, far mote than in the avowedly «neo-classic’ authors. ‘Thus in the middle ages direct imitation SATIRE in Latin of the patterns and devices of the Roman satirists did not produce good results; sterility of form and dull didacti- cism of content are all too frequent. And the vigorous vernacular satire of the middle ages (Til! Eulenspiegel, Reynard the Fox), which does not derive from classical models, hardly constitutes a major literary art. The greatest medieval literary artists —a Dante, a Chaucer or a Villon—are only incidentally satirist. In the renaissance, with its rediscovery of the real meaning of classical forms, came the recognition (denied, for instance, to medieval authors like Jean de Meung, in his continuation of the Roman de la Rose, or William Langland, in Piers Plowman) that satire was most forceful when separated out, as a distinct element, from other elements like religious and ‘philosophical didacticism or love-poetry. Hence arose the popularity of the satiric epigram— sometimes following ancient masters of the short epigram like Martial, sometimes (with more important consequences) those greater masters whose style tends to the epigrammatic, like Juvenal. ‘The influence of Juvenal in English literature descends to poets as diverse as Donne, Dryden, Johnson and A. E. Housman. ‘The development of verse-satire shows a fairly direct continuity from Roman models, In post-renaissance English liter- ature Donne, Hall and Marston, in the carly 17th century, imitated the garrulous, rambling satire of Horace and Persius: Dryden, in the 1680s, wrote his greatest satires (notably Absalom and Achitophel) largely under the influence of Juvenal; and in the 18th century Charles Churchill, and Pope in his inferior works, continued the tradition of satiric garrulity; while John- son’s London (1738) and the grave and moving Vanity of Human Wishes (1749) are both directly paraphrased from satires of Juvenal. In Italy neo-classic satire was written by Vinciguerra, Alamanni and above all Ariosto, who attempted to blend Horace with Juvenal. This also Regnier in the 16th century and Boileau in the 17th attempted in France; and they, like their English and Italian equivalents, had many successors. But in general, satire since the 17th century largely emancipated itself from, classical sources and models. Roman verse-satire was directly imitated from the renaissance onwards; but in English literature some of the greatest saci poems, from Pope's Dunciad to Byrne Don Juan, are formally guite mma, Ss and in prose the great satiric MhasterpiecesSATIRE MENIPPEE have in fact not derived formally from the Roman genre but are rather a rchandling of other genres, with the element of satire, so to speak, injected into them. Thus the starting-point of Rabelais’ great works, Gargantua and Pantagruel, is the romance of chivalry, And in the 18th century Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels, one of the most powerful indictments of human pretensions ever written, has for its model the travel- ler’s tale, while his Battle of the Books is in the convention of mock-epic: as in its different way is Fielding’s Jonathan Wild. Voltaire’s Candide, which can be compared, in its purpose of deflating 18th-century optimism, with Gulliver’s Travels and with Johnson’s Rasselas, is in form a picaresque travel-romance (like the earlier German novel Simplicissimus, which has much the same theme). And a more modern satiric masterpiece, Flaubert’s Bouvard et Pécuchet, the target of which is bourgeois mediocrity, shows the same freedom of form; a rambling story in which the satire 48 a matter of tone and attitude rather than a formal quality, In fact the history of satire since the 17th century is the history of a tone and attitude rather than the history of a form. his is true even of the history of formal Satire in the 18th century. In Swift, for example, satire is a general term to include a number of complex devices for inciting contempt and disgust. The satire of Fielding (as in Yoseph Andrews) is a tone for inducing more genial reactions; and that of Voltaire (as, in a different way, that of Gibbon) is a means for inducing a kind of monic complacency. Thus some of the greatest of writers have been able to use the complex of tones and attitudes associated with satire without being formal eee ‘his was the case with Moliére au antes; and, in English r9th- ccatury literature, ‘with Jane Austen {especially in her earlier novels), Dickens, ‘Thackeray and George Eliot.” Formal satire of various kinds flourished in the 18th century but not in zoth. The end of that century, reece its recrudescence in English literature in new forms: as in the novels of Samuel Butler (especially Erewhon) and the drama of haw. And in the present century the Satiric fantasy of fable (as in Aldous iG, ley’s Brave New World, or George ee Animal Farm and 1984) the eet farce (as in Evelyn Waugh’s and "4.a"4 Fall, a sort of moder Candide) dialogue ,ROuse-party’ kind of satiric centus Jmvented by the early roth- TY writer Peacock (as in Norman [496] Douglas's South Wind) testify to the new interest in a return to the formal qualities which seem to be a fundamental demand of characteristic satiric art. WW. Satire Ménippée, an carly French satirical pamphlet reflecting the hostility of the French bourgeoisie to the States- General convoked by the ultra-catholic Ligue in 1593 to elect a new king other than Henry of Navarre. Promoted by Jean Leroy, a canon of Rouen, it has parts written by Pierre Pithou, Jean Passerat, Nicolas Rapin and others. A. vigorous medley of prose and verse, it includes notably parodies of speeches by delegates to the States-General. Satyre Ménippée (1594), ed. C. Read (1876). —F. Giroux, La Composition de la S.M.(1904). GB. Saturnian Metre, an carly Latin form of verse used before the introduction of Greck metres (the method of scansion is un- known). Some x60 examples are known; the most often cited is ‘dabunt malum Metelli Naeuio poetac’. CLO. Scalds. Scaldic poctry differs from the lays of the Elder Edda in that its authors are usually known; moreover, it celebrates contemporary personages and themes and employs complicated verse forms, chiefly the dréttkuett (q.v.), and uses numerous kennings. ‘The most prominent. scalds were mainly Icelanders who had settled at the Norwegian court where their art was held in the highest esteem. The bulk of scaldic poetry deals with the exploits of kings and chieftains; but at times the themes are personal or mystical, and after the introduction of Christianity a religious scaldic poetry developed, using the old forms. It was handed down by oral tradition until the rath and 13th centuries. Bragi Boddason (c. 800-50) is the earliest scald whose work is still extant; Pjéddlfe ér Hvini, also 9th century, was the author of the poem Haustléng and of Ynglingatal on which Snorri Sturluson based’ his ‘Ynglinga saga. Of greater importance was Porbjérn hornklofi (c. 900); he was the author of Glymdrdpa, which is only partially preserved, and Haraldskvcedi (ot Hrafnsmdl), one of the pearls of scaldic poetry. Etréksmdl (anon. c. 950) celebrates Eric Bloody-Axe. Eyvindr Finsson, called Skaldaspillir (roth century), is the first scald of whom very much is known, He was attached to the court of Hakon the Good and appears to have been a remark- able personality; his most celebrated poem is Hdkonarmdl (961). The greatest of all[497] the scalds was undoubtedly Egill Skalla- grimsson. Three scalds of a different Kind are Kormékr Ogmundarson (ce. 930- 70), Gunnlaugr ormstunga — Ilugason (1008) and Hallfredr Ottarsson vandree- Saskald (+1007); the first two are noted for their erotic verse and the third for his Oldfsdrdpa. Christian influence is notice- able in the work of )érmddr Kolbrinar- skéld (+1030) and Sigvatr érdarson (c. 995-1045) ; both were attached to the court of St Olav: Sigvatr is noted for his Berséglivisur, a poem of political advice written for king Magnts the Good. The development towards Christianity was completed in Arnérr })ér3arson jarlaskéld (11th century) who is remembered for his Magnisdrdpa. After the death of king Haraldr hardradi ('1066) the importance of the scald as a recorder and reciter of history gradually declined, a process which was hastened with the advent of the written saga. Although scaldic poetry has been handed down to us in a mutilated and often unsatisfactory form it is valuable as a source of history and mythology; and linguisti- cally. In medieval Norway technical virtuosity in dealing with conventional material was the thing most looked for in a scald, and as a consequence it is seldom that we can admire their work as poetry. ‘Texts: F. Jénsson, Den norske-islandske ‘Skjaldedigtning (4 vols,’ 1912-15) and Carmina Scaldica (1913); E. A. Koch, Den norsk- isldnska skjaldedikining (2 vols,'n.d.); L. M. Hollander, The Skalds (1945)—Criticism: A. Heusler, Die altgermanische Dichtung (1931); E, Noreen, Den Norsk-Isldndske Poesien (1926); Sir W. Craigie, The Art of Poetry in Iceland (1937). RGP. Scazon (Gr. oxdlor, (CHOLIAMBUS. ‘limper’). See CTO. School Drama, Latin drama, written by Christian humanists, usually schoolmasters for use in teaching. ‘The stage which was used (a closed space on a scaffolding, representing a street with the mansiones at the back) was directly influenced by the Italian humanistic performances of Plautus and Terence from 1471. North of the ‘Alps, Wimpfeling (with Stylpho, 1480) and Reuchlin (with, Henno, 1497) were among the first to write original plays in Latin, divided into 5 acts and with so-called choruses. Soon after, the performance of this kind of play was added to the pro- gramme of the humanist Protestant schools for purposes of practice, originally as part of the curriculum within the walls of the school, Jater as an annual recreation for a SCHOOLS AND MOVEMENTS larger audience. In the Netherlands Gnapheus started using biblical subject- matter for the first time in his 4colasius, which met with unheard-of success. ‘The Jesuits used the school drama for their counter-reformational didactical purposes. See Jesurr DraMta. E. Schmidt, Die Bihnenverhdlinisse des deutschen Schuldramas im x6. Jh. (1903); E. N.S. Thompson, The controversy between the Puritans and the stage (1903); F. S. Boas, University Drama in the Tudor Age (x914); P. L. Carver, The Comedy of Acolastus trans” lated from the Latin of Fullonius by John Palsgrave (1937); J. A. Worp, Gesch. van het Drama en het Tooneel, I (1904); A, Peterson, Det svenska skoldramat (1929). JJM. Schools and Movements, Literary. The term ‘school’ can be applied to a group of writers who deliberately band together to influence the literary scene and who are agreed on general principles which guide their work. Those principles are usually laid down in programmes or mani- festos and propagated in periodical or collective publications, Literary schools are often the expression of a new generation which protests or revolts against the principles evolved by the previous genera- tion (cf. the Pléiade, the Géttingen Hainbund, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, the ¢cole parnassienne, the Stefan-George- Kreis). A ‘movement’ has usually originated from a school, spread from one country to another and become, for a time, a domin- ating factor on the literary scene of one or several countries. Romanticism, realism, naturalism and symbolism (qq.v.) are such ‘movements’ and the wider they spread the more diverse they became and the less exactly can they be defined. The term ‘movement’ has been abused in modern times and adopted by groups which were in actual facts schools (such as futurism and surrealism, qq.v.) but aspired to impose their doctrines upon their con- temporaries. Hardly ever has a ‘school’ survived for more than a few years and a ‘movement? for more than a decade. Yet there is hardly any school and still less any move- ment in literary history which has not left its traces for many decades after its inception, In this respect the disseming- tion of ideas and principles of style has constantly fertilized the progress or regress of literary activity. Particular care has to be taken. wi terms such as classicism, romantic¢ieg tt n » Tomanticism and realism (qq.v.). They are not onl, for literary movements in space moy Ses ime,SCHUTTELREIM but also modes of literary expression and literary attitudes which have occurred and recurred throughout the history of literature. They are moreover basic modes of style. Yet, however dominant one of these styles may be at any one given time, they never dominate an age completely. Furthermore the great creative genius will never conform to any one style, mode of expression, or doctrine but will for ever develop. ‘The leading literary personality may therefore be connected at one time or other with certain schools and movements, but can never be identified completely with any one of them. R. Weller, ‘Periods and Movements in Literary History’, in Eng. Institute Annual. Columbia U.P. (1941); H. Peyre, Les généra- tions littéraires (1948); H. P. H. ‘Teesing, Das Problem der Perioden in der Literaturgeschichte (Groningen, 1949). RES. Schiittelreim (‘jolting rhyme’), the Ger- man equivalent of the clerihew (q.v.) in intention and effect, and of the spoonerism in technique; like these, it is almost exclusively used for facetious performances. Example: Am Kongo Kannibalen wohnen, Kaffee kommt aus ovalen Bohnen. Schwank, German term for the common anecdote in its simpler literary forms. ‘The garliest German examples (Swabians as heroes’) are recorded in Latin: the so- called modus florum and modus liebinc of the gth century. Scandinavian literature few—the prymskvida of the Edda Perhaps, and certain saga episodes. Old Hrench fabliaus (q.v.) are the model for des Stricker’s realistic verse tales, which a8 lude the first cycle (Pfaffe Amis). We ae Or assume that Schwdnke were Wazed in longer works, e.g. Heinrich eee 's Ring and many Shrovetide plays. The facetiae of the humanists swelled the native stock. Hans Sachs versified many. In the sth and 16th centuries collections proliferate: some (Till Eulenspiegel and Schildbirger _ tales) remain at a modest literary level (see NKFURTER, STEINHOWEL); then: Joh. Pauli (Schimpf und Ernst), Jérg Wickram (Rollwagenbiichlein), Jak.’ Prey (Garten- kesellschaft), Martinus Montanus (Weg- Rirzer, 1357), H. W. Kirchhof (Wendun- pth, 1365-1603) etc., the titles of which ae Modest and honest airns—to gap ain and keep in humour. ‘There is a Bactuless one includes Erich Raspe’s G A ppausen tales (London, 1785, tr. collectinn&°% 1786), until the revival of old ons by the romantics. Regional [498] literature and the publications of dialect societies still recognize the genre. P. v. Winterfeld, Dt. Dichter des lat, MAs. (1922); articles and biblio. in P, Merker-W. Stammler, Reallexikon (4 vols, 1923-31) oF W. Hofstitter-U. Peters, Sacheb. d. Deutsch- Runde (2 vols, 1930). FPP. Schwellvers, German term for expanded Hines in Old English (Anglo-Saxon) alliter- ative verse, made by the addition of extra groups to the normal metre; ¢.g. ‘“Meotod him pet mod gestapelad, forpon he in his meahte gelyfed.’ C.T.0. Science Fiction, imaginative fiction of the type usually associated with Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, though actually of much greater antiquity. Typical themes are adventures in imaginary lands and utopias, voyages in space, time or other dimensions, and the effects of new dis- coveries and inventions. The border between pure fantasy and science fiction is obviously indistinct: one may say that & story is science fiction when its fanciful elements are made to seem plausible in terms of contemporary knowledge—even if, as is often the case, the treatment is not strictly accurate. Many elements common to later science fiction may be found in Homer, the Arabian Nights tales, and in folk-lore. ‘The classic theme of science fiction is space travel, first treated in Lucian’s Vera Historia (a.o. 160). The astronomical discoveries of the 17th century gave this subject renewed impetus and it was taken up again by many writers, notably Cyrano de Bergerac. Jules Verne, however, wi the first to handle the theme with realism and scientific care in From the Earth to the Moon (1865). In his many stories Verne accurately anticipated a large number of later inventions (c.g. the helicopter and the submarine) and was the first writer to bring this type of fiction to a large audience. As a literary figure, however, he was eclipsed by H. G. Wells, who in his stories dealt (often for the first time) with almost all the basic science-fiction ideas. Since Wells, only Olaf Stapledon has been of comparable stature. f Some of the many other British writers who have made occasional excursions into science fiction are Stevenson, Haggatd, Doyle, Kipling, Shaw, Huxley, Forster, George Orwell and C. S. Lewis. Among European authors merition should be made of André Maurois and Karel Capek, whose ‘R.U.R.’ introduced the word ‘robot’.[499] Science fiction entered a new phase with the appearance, in the 1920s, of magazines exclusively devoted to it, the American publisher Hugo Gernsback being largely responsible. As a result a flourish- ing school of writers has arisen, often capably dealing with such subjects as relativity, wave mechanics, the uncertainty principle and the most advanced ideas of modern physi In recent years biology, psychology and the social sciences have also contributed to this type of fiction, the status of which has been considerably enhanced by the technical developments of the second world war. More than a score of magazines (several of good quality) now cater for a growing public, and the output of science-fiction books has increased enormously. No comprehensive study of this type of literature yet exists, but useful references are : M. Nicolson, Voyages to the Moon (1948) and J. 0. Bailey, Pilgrims Through Space and Time (ad. [1947] )- AC.C. Scientific Literature: see LrarNinc AND LITERATURE. Scots Literature. The literary history of the Scottish Lowlands has two main elements: the development of a vernacular tradition in prose and verse and a long and varied contribution to English literature. ‘The record of vernacular prose is a brief one; it covers the Middle Scots period (c. 1450-1630) and includes translations, controversial and theological writing, and chronicles, in an all-purpose style which is generally weighted, richly latinate and yet forceful (sce BELLENDEN, James VI, Knox, Urqunarr). But Knox anglicizes; Urquhart writes under the spell of English styles; and from the mid-r7th-century literary prose writers use English, although the vernacular was a medium of cultured conversation into the 18th century. Scots has a realistic, humorous or dramatic function and is used with varying richness and consistency, in the novel dialogue of Barrie, Galt, Macdonald, Scott, Smollett and Stevenson; and in the 1930s Grassic Gibbon made a bold experiment in blending Scots and English language and idiom. But dialectal variety, and the breakdown of Scots in the industrial areas, make the prospects very faint for realistic vernacular prose. Scots poctry has a different history. Barbour, and in the cultural heyday of the early 16th century Henryson, Dunbar and Douglas, produced great national poetry. With the union of the crowns (1603) Scots SCOTS LITERATURE verse appeared to go the way of Scots prose, in the essentially English work of Aytoun, Drummond, Montrose and Stirling—and in the 18th century, Thomson and others; but the vernacular tradition continued in popular poetry, and the antiquarian collections of Ramsay and the original verse of Ramsay and Fergusson revived a native poetry on which Burns set the seal. Apart from a few good lyric and ballad poets, those who followed Burns in Scots fell too easily into bacchanal and vapid sentimentality, and the best roth-century lyric verse was written in English by Campbell, Davidson, Lang, Macdonald, Scott and Stevenson. In the 2oth century a new vitality has been given to Scots poetry in the work of MacDiarmid, Bruce, Gray, Lindsay, Soutar, S.°G.' Smith, Douglas Young, Andrew Young and others. Of these, some use a synthetic diction, blending modern Scots and the old literary language; some work directly in the living vernacular; and some use an English which does not obscure the essential Scottishness of their thought and feeling. In both Scots and English the new poetry does, and promises, well. ‘ Scotland has made important contri- butions to English letters in history and biography (e.g. Boswell, Burnet, Carlyle, Hume, Lockhart, Robertson); literary criticism and the periodical essay (e.g. Arbuthnot, Blair, Brown, Carlyle, Jeffrey, Lang, Lockhart, Scott, Stevenson, Wilson) ! and _pre-eminently in philosophy (Bain, Balfour, Caird, Hamilton, Hume, Mill, Reid, Adam Smith). Scottish literature shows these general characteristics: (i) a love of style and Ianguage, running from the grace and classical dignity of Scott and Stevenson to the exuberance of a Carlyle, a Dunbar or an Urquhart; (ii) great vividness and power in describing action (e.g. the ballad poets and Scott, Barbour and Smollett); (iii) a distinctive humour, wild, extravagant, or roughly satirical (Dunbar, Urquhart, Smollett, Burns) or sly and subtle (Henry- son, Galt, Stevenson); (iv) a love of the supernatural (the ballads, Hogg, Scott, Sharp, Stevenson) and a power in the grim and macabre (Henryson, the ballads, and the novelists and some of the modern poets); (v) a zest and a broad sympathy which have produced great things in lyric and ballad, fine historical writing, and a fiction rich in humour, vitality and path, ‘The Scot's sense of drama has been largely absorbed (but seo Banaiz, Lynpsav, Tee and Ransay) in non-theatrical forme gee a fine new dramatic tradition has developedSCOTTISH GAELIC LITERATURE [500] in the present century with James Bridie and others. Catalogue of Printed Books in the National Library of Scotland (7 vols, 1867-79); Catalogues of the University i Aberdeen (3 vols, 1873-74; suppl. 1887, 1897), Edinburgh (3 vols, 1918-23), Glasgow (1836), St Andrews (1826-1902); H. G. Aldis, List of Books printed in Scotland before 1700 (2904); W. Geddie, Bibliography of Middle Scots Poets (1912); A. K. Anderson, A Short Peat aol) on Scots History and Literature 1922). J. “McCosh, Scottish Philosophy _from Hutcheson to Hamilton (1874); J. M. Ross, Early Scottish History and Literature (1884); A. S. Pringle-Pattison, Scottish Philosophy (1885); J. Ramsay, Scotland and Scotsmen in the 18th Century (2 vols, 1888); H. Walker, Three Centuries of Scottish Literature (2 vols, 1893); A. M. Williams, The Scottish School of Rhetoric (1899); T. F. Henderson, Scottish Vernacular Literature (1898); H. G. Graham, The Social Life of Scotland in the x8th Century (2 vols, 1899) and Scottish Men of Letters in the 18th Century (1901); G. G. Smith, Specimens of Middle Scots (1902) and Scottish Literature (1919); J. H. Millar, A Literary History of “Scotland (1903) and ‘Scottish Prose of the x7th and 8th Centuries Gor2); J. C. Smith, Some Characteristics of Piols Literature (1912); W. R. Sorley, A Ritory of English Philosophy (1920); W. A. taigie and others, The Scottish Tongue (1924); ison, The Dialects of Central Scotland (1926); A.S.Mill, Mediaeval Plays in Scotland (7927); LF. Grant, The Social and Economic renee of Scotland before 1603 (1930); eae Mackenzie, An Historical Survey of ottish Literature to 1714 (1933); Edinburgh CGaws in Scots Literature, intro. H. J. C. ares (1933); J. M. Smith, The French ‘ground of Middle Scots Literature (1934); L pa The Scots Literary Tradition (1940); 2 J.C. Grierson and J. C, Smith, A Critical History of Englis is ee Bgl Poetry (7944); M- pitas Scottish Gaelic Literature has a separ- ay higtory only since the x7¢h century, reland and Gaeli tland shared a common culture, cera ne old bardic tradition lasted longer in Scotland than in Ireland. Love lyrics by Isabel, countess of Argyle (ff, 1480) are contained in the well-known Book of the Dean of Lismore. Niall MacVurich wrote an elegy in strict bardic form on Allan of Clanranald (tr735). "The strictly Scottish period saw the development of popular poetry of con- siderable merit. The most distinguished (Anais, that of Alexander MacDonald Tyensit Mac Mhaighstir Alasdair, c. ees 79) chief among the Jacobite bards Bp ne and. MacDonald was the son of aia qpurant clergyman in Ardnamurchan sousin of Flora MacDonald. In 1745 he joined the forces of Charles Edward, receiving a captain's commission under the younger Clanranald, After Culloden, MacDonald remained in hiding in the Clanranald country, and, on the passing of the Act of Indemnity, he was made bailie of Canna. Besides Jacobite poetry MacDonald wrote love poems and nature poetry, and his Birlinn of Clan- ranald, the description of a voyage from South Uist to Carrickfergus, is generally regarded as the finest poem in Scottish Gaelic. Mary MacLeod (c. 1615-1705) composed eulogics and laments for distinguished members of great houses, in the spirit of the professional bards, Others who deserve mention are Duncan Macintyre (Donnchadh Ban, 1724-1812) whose Benn Dobhrain is much admired, Rob Donn (714-78) and) John ~~ MacCodrum (1710-96). M. MacLean, The Literature of the High- lands (1904); W. J. Watson, Rosy Gaidlig (1920), Bardachd “Ghaidhlig "(2932); J. L. Campbell, Highland Songs of the Forty-Five (1933), Gaelic Songs of Mary Macleod Cog MD. In poetry the roth century shows @ decline both in technique and_ content from earlier Gaelic poetry. ‘The influence of Lowland measures with a marked and regular stress impaired the virility of metres which had till now retained much of the strength of the older classic metres. Economic changes produced a hopelessness of outlook which is reflected in the poetry of the time. The genuine nostalgia of the evicted for their native land was s° frequently expressed in song that it has lingered on, hollow and trite, as almost the only motif of the popular songs of today. Among the poets of the rgth century may be mentioned William Livingstone (1808-70) and Dr John MacLachlan of Rahoy (1804~74).. In the present century better poets have emerged in the persons of Sombhairle Maclean (Dain do Eimhir, 1943), George Campbell Hay (Fuaran Sléibh, 1947) and Derick Thomson (An Dealbh Briste, 1951). 4 During this period much work has been done in the collection of older Gaelic poetry and folk-tales. A beginning hed been made in the r8th century with Ranald MacDonald’s Collection (1775) and Gillies’ Collection (1786). ‘This Was followed in. the next century by the Stewarts’ Collection, The Beauties of Gaelic Poetry and ’ several collections edited by the Rev. A. Maclean Sinclair[sor] in Nova Scotia, to mention only a few. For folk-tales we have J. F. Campbell’s Popular Tales of the West Highlands, and for old charms and incantations the great collection of Dr Alexander Carmichael, Carmina Gadelica. In prose the most outstanding writer last century was Dr Norman MacLeod, Caraid nan Gaidheal (1783-1862), most of whose work appeared in periodicals. Another essayist of distinction was Donald Mackechnie (1836-1908). Perhaps the best writer of Gaclic prose in the present century is the Rev. Dr Donald Lamont. D. Maclean, The Literature of the Scottish Gael (1932). AMa. Seguidilla, Spanish stanza form. Lines of 7 and 5 syllables in stanzas of 4 or 7 lines. Rhyme scheme: XaYa;bZb. ‘This form admits of some metrical irregularity and of assonance instead of rhyme. E.M.W. Semantics. ‘I'he conveying of ideas, emotions and imagery by poetic language involves problems of ‘meaning’ in their most acute form. Each individual has an idiosyncratic understanding even of con- crete objects—e.g. the phrase ‘a yellow light’ conjures up a mental response which depends on the person’s having been taught that, when light falling on the retina from a certain kind of object in the physical world evokes this particular mental reaction, the object which gives rise to the reaction is designated ‘a yellow light’. The information has to be handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation—a person who had never been shown cither the colour ‘yellow’ or ‘a light’ by demonstration could conjure up no mental concept on seeing the words ‘a yellow light’. Mental reactions to physical objects may vary from brain to brain—each person has his own set of mental responses by which he recognizes and can discuss the physical world, and the components of each set are valid for that particular person. Where abstractions are concerned, i.e. where no visual concept is summoned up by a word, the problem of communicating ‘meaning’ is much more acute, e.g. in such a statement as ‘kindness is the highest of the virtues’, what are the meanings of ‘kindness’, ‘highest’ and ‘virtue’ and what are the meanings of those words by which you are trying to define them ? In poetry the variations of psychological mood invoked by sequences of words is something which no one can assess. ‘The SEPTENARIUS personality, upbringing, emotional ex- perience and intellectual attainments of both writer and reader affect communica- tion in poetry and imaginative prose more than in any other field of writing; and two people reading the same poem may not be aware that, within the limits of their own set of mental responses and taking the emotions they have experienced in other fields of life as referrents, they are each undergoing quite different reactions. One of the characteristics of 2o0th-century literature is that man’s increasing ability to think constructively about the com. plexity of communicating ideas, emotions and imagery has checked the spontaneity of flow of many poets and writers of imaginative prose. Literary expression no longer seems so simple, and in an attempt to communicate some psycho- logical state as precisely as possible the poet resorts to unexpected similes and strange rhythms—almost shock tactics— in order to avoid private association of ideas on the part of the reader. This brings in its train the superficial imitators who use intensely personal imagery which means nothing at all to anyone else because it has only particular significance for the riter instead of being chosen with the idea of having universal significance for the reader. See Criticism; Taste. W._R. Brain, ‘Speech and Thought’, in The Physical Basis of Mind, ed. P. Laslett (1950). H.An, Senarius, a metrical line consisting of 6 feet or containing 6 stresses, in Latin and Greek especially the iambic trimeter, which was the metre most commonly used for Latin dramatic dialogue and was employed by the fabulist Phaedrus. The alexandrine line is a form of senarius. C.T.O. Sendebar (Libro de los engafios e los asayamientos de las mugeres, 1253), Spanish collection of stories. “There is a central story which connects 26 very humorous tales of female deceptions. The book was translated from the Arabic by order of prince Fadrique, brother of Alfonso X of Castile. D. Comparetti, Researches respectin; Book of Sindibad (18823 with Spa text rea Eng. tr.); Libro de los engafios, ed. A. Bonilla San Martin (1904). EMW. Septenarius, a metrical line consist; , ©onsistin, 7 feet (especially the trochaic tetramer acatalectic) or containing 7 streaee exemplified in the well-known medics} alIe patetabepenelaneniersaamomorme of DUNNE AES PREY eet. SEQUENCE [s0: Latin ‘Mihi est propositum in taberna 07) and in the Middle bnglish, orm, Poema Morale and (in irregulat SO? Robert of Gloucester’s Chronicle. 4 18 example is in Russell Lowell’s verse, ©" There’s naught so hard, Lord Byron S25, as getting under way’. When broken inte four and three elements it becomes {n° common metre (q.v.) . | com- Sequence (sequentia), a liturgical Soin? Position sung between the Epistle an Gospel, after’ the “Alleluia, which W3° prolonged in a Jubilus on the final a. Jp the earlier French sequences, the, words were set to the melody of the Jubilus, Whereas in the St Gall sequences, which Frere once considered the earliest, te fast Strephes use the melody of i ‘The claim of Notker of St Gall (191 to be the virtual eventos of sequences, OF the basis of his account of how he came to experiment with such compositions after fiudying an antiphonary from Jumiéses, as been abandoned, though he was # Pinter of many admirable ones. Sequences ‘ad alteady ‘been composed in France, and these often end each line on 4, 2 finycf their primitive connexion with the to When sequences were no longer adapted existing melodies, they ceased to be ip Prose and assumed rhythmical form, with sssonance and, later, thyme. The 1th entury was a period of transition ; Wipo’s sequenze, Paschali is an example; As the anupence developed, it resembled, more Severs 4 thythmical hymn. Adam of formato’ sequences represent the highest ay development. Temote origin of the sequence is to Be foun in poetical homilies used in the a aie Palestinian churches. vinbume and H. M. Bannister, Anal. Bam F382 W. HL. Breve, The Winchester in ber 894); B. Wollesz, Hastern Elements Byzrnaine, getamt (2947) and History of von den Sree 714. Hominograph (1949) 5 w. zendichn einem: , Die Anfange der Sequen- gesck puns’ in Zschr. £. schweiz, Kirchen- - (1946-47) and Notker der Dichter (2 vols, 1048); PF. Me aa (1929). J. E. Raby, Christian- atin asthy Sey 2 paPion Brothers (Serapionovy Bratya), dont group formed in Feb. 1921 by a thar yecune Soviet writers who demanded ideoigttsture should remain free from any Very ouical or political interference. ‘The Ostentame of the group was taken—rather Hometieusly—from one of BE. T. A. ann’s “most romantic tales. The 2] roup, which lasted only some three years, Bicluded Fedin, Vsevolod Ivanov, Kaveat Nikitin, Shklovsky, Slonimsky, ‘Tikhonov and Zoshchenko. so Sermon. The Christian sermon as a type of literature can be traced back to the sub-apostolic age in the so-called 2nd Epistle of Clement, possibly of 2nd- century date, In the preaching of Origen. in the following century it, becomes an orderly exposition of Scripture, often highly allegoric, and its systematic report~ ing now makes it available for a wider circle of readers as well as for future pulpit repetition by those incapable of producing sermons of their own. With such out= standing Greek orators of the 4th century as Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus and John Chrysostom, classical learning and classical eloquence further transform and refine the sacred discourse, which, in the west, was to receive from Ambrose and Augustine its severer Latin models. Library cata- logues, homiliaria and summae show as clearly as original works the immense authority wielded by these early Fathers throughout the middle ages and, indeed, far beyond. By the 13th century the Latin sermon achieves its full claboration at the hands of friars and other trained scholastics, and its nice divisions and distinctions, rhetorical apparatus and formal structure henceforth proclaim it the true sister of the ars dictaminis: parler, c'est précher. More important, though hard to determine, has been sermonic influence on the growth of vernacular European languages and litera~ tute. ‘Without any doubt, the most ancient use of the vulgar ‘tongue has occurred in preaching’, and such employ- ment of Celtic, Teutonic and Romance dialects is recorded from at least the 7th and Slavonic from the 9th century on= wards. Medieval popular evangelism also created a vogue for moral exempla of all kinds, vivid illustrations from current life, anecdotes, fables, legends, proverbs and marvels, pagan as well as Christian, snatches of verse and even facetiae. The pold satiric attacks of ‘the Menots, the Maillards and this Barletta’ on the sins. and follies of society are equally typical of preaching elsewhere and, like the petsoni- fication of vices and virtues, the dialogue, the developed allegory and the realistic treatment of Scriptural characters and events, of much in the vernacular vers¢ and drama of the times. Contemplative litera~ ture has likewise profited from the inspira~ tion of Bernard of Clairvaux and the Victorines to that of ‘Thomas & Kempis.[sos] In the Protestant era the printed sermon, which spread the message of the Re- formers, fostered for generations a taste for sermon-reading. During the course of the 17th century, under court patronage, sacred eloquence reached its zenith in two countries. The literary heritage of Elizabethan and Jacobean England tbus revealed itself in such masters of ‘meta- physical? prose as Lancelot Andrewes, Joseph Hall, John Donne and above all Jeremy Taylor. In the land of Pascal and La Rochefoucauld the majestic periods of Bossuet, the searching analysis of Bourda- loue and the charm of Massillon, ‘the pulpit Racine’, occupy a place of similar distinction in the history of French letters, while in Austria an Abraham a Sancta Clara still thrusts and burlesques in the manner of Geiler. Today, after many further vicissitudes, the ars predicandi seems to be perishing. ‘The best and most modern biblio. for the sermon in the middle ages is in 1. Mourin, Six sermons francais inédits de Jean Gerson (1946); for the later periods, see E. C. Dargan, History of Preaching (2 vols, 1905-12). For its literary significance, G. R’ Owst, Literature and Pulpit im Medieval England (1933), Sestina, a poem consisting in its strict form of 6 6-line stanzas, with a 3-line envoy; the line-endings of the first stanza (being all different) are repeated in the other 5 in a different order, so that the last end-word of a stanza is the first end-word of the next stanza; of Provencal origin, its inyention is attributed to Arnaut Daniel (c. 1200), who was imitated by Dante; the poets of the Pléiade adapted it to French, in which it was especially cultivated by the Comte de Gramont (c. 1840); in English there are notable examples’ by Edmund Gosse and Swinburne. C.T.O. Shah-Nameh (‘Book of the Kings’), the Persian national epic, written by the poet Firdowsi and consisting of about 60,000 verses in couplet form, Shah-Nameh, owing to its antiquity, purity of language and outstanding literary merit is considered the greatest monument of the Persian language, and its author the unrivalled epic poet of Persia. Shah-Nameh deals with the rise of the first legendary dynasty of the Persian empire, the golden age under Jamshid, a thousand years of cruel rule yy the tyrant Zahhak, the restoration of national sovereignty under Freydun, the protracted struggle between [ran and Turan, the exploits and herculean feats of SHORT METRE Rustam the Persian national hero, the invasion of Alexander the Great, the subsequent disintegration of the country and, finally, the rise and fall of the national Sassanian empire. The latter part of Shah-Nameh, dealing with the Sassanian empire (s.p. 224-652), is of great value to the historian. Shah- Nameh bas enjoyed unbroken popularity among Persians for about a thousand years, and owing to the poetical genius of Firdowsi has completely overshadowed numerous previous and subsequent attempts to compose a work of its kind. Ed. T. Macan (Calcutta, 1829); J, Mohi (Paris, 1813-68); A. Vullers, (Leyden, 1877- 84); Brukhim (Tehran, 1943-46); Book of the Kings, tr. J. Atkinson (z832); ‘metrical tr. A. G. Warner and E, Warner (9 vols, 1905~ 24); Le livre des rois, tr. J. Mohl (7 vole, 3876-78). F, Wolff, Glossar_au Firdosis Schahname; Vershonkordans der Schaimame (2 vols, 1935). nye Shinkokinshi. (‘The New Kokinshia’), Japanese poetical anthology, ordered in 1201 by the emperor Gotoba, compiled in 1206 by Fujiwara no Sadaie and five others, and revised in r210 and subsequently. It is usually considered the most significant of the 20 imperially-commissioned antho- logies after the Kokinsha (q.v.) and it was the largest up to that date, containing 1,975 tanka poems, in a usually refined and symbolistic style. Eng. tr. of selected poems, A. Miyamori, Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry, 1 (1936); Kokusai, Bunka Shinkokai, Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature (1948). E.B.C. Shoku Nihongi (‘Continuation of the Nihongi’, q.v.), Japanese historical chron- icle, written in Chinese, covering the years 697-792. A first draft was submitted in 794 by Fujiwara no Tsuginawa (#727; +796) and others to the emperor, who ordered its completion, effected in 795 mainly by Sugano Mamichi ($814). It is the second of the Rikkokushi (‘Six National Histories’), JannS: ty J.B. Snellen, in et As. Soc. japan, and ser., 11 (1934), 14 (4937): | G. B. Sansom, “igs beapenial dicts in the Shoku-Nihongi’, in Trans. As. Soc. Japan, and ser., I (1924); H. Zachert, Die kaiserlichen Erlasse des Shoku-Nehongi (x932)- E.B.C, Short Metre (S.M.), 2 stanza-form, consisting of 4 lines, the first 3 of which, have 3 stresses each and the fourth stresses, used in hymn-writing. See als. Lone Meree. cre,”SHORT STORY Short Story. The short story is the most natural of literary forms. It can be accurately identified in many ways, but no matter how it is identified, it remains a brief communication. The spoken parable, the account of adventure, the anecdote, the joke, the funny story, all these were the short story before the short story was put to paper and given form. The Old Testament and the New Testament are full of excellent short stories. No family of the world which deserves to be named a family was ever without its story-tellers. Every people has a lore, which is in fact a series of stories told again and again. _. There is no person in the world who is not himself from time to time a teller of stories. The exchange of stories is continuous, the kinds of stories are endless. Were it possible to take down an account by a small boy of the events at school one afternoon, the boy’s words, printed, would in all probability constitute a short story. If the trouble were taken to do the same thing with an account by an old lady of a whole year spent sitting on a front porch, 's also in print would constitute a short story. The adventure of living or of failing to do so effectively or dramatically must be communicated by people to people, which is the telling of stories. There is of course some difference between a spoken story and a written story. A great many caer Writers have sought to write as if someon emselves were speaking, or as if haneone else were doing so. ‘The people Gmever hardly ever try to speak as if oe ley vers saying was writing. ‘oint is that the short story, the unprolonged communication _ between somebody and ; : ead evans omebody else, is natural The first story-tellers spoke their Stories, remembered them, changed them, improved them, so that in telling a story again and again over a period of years the story became formal and artful, Such matters as character, setting, atmosphere, style, “suspense and conclusion were considered and exploited. ‘The one sto: told again an of man alive, Variations of i ry that has been and is being d again is of course the story The story is endless. ‘The on it are infinite. ‘Thus, for be a shew 0f Short stories there can never work "tage of raw material on which to novelise$ an this be said also of the the nove] ait Most certainly can, because also is only a longer account of a [so4] very small amount of the experience of human beings. The written short story will be found again and again, entire and complete, in many novels. The matter of length, the matter of number of words, is at first relevant and finally irrelevant. ‘The terms short story and novel have come to have fairly specific meanings, at least for literary specialists. For the people themselves however any story is a story and anything in covers is @ book. The short story is without a doubt the freest form of writing, freer certainly than any of the kinds of poems and perhaps freer than the novel, although this point might be a source of literary controversy. A story can be all the things a poem and anovel cannot be. A story can be a poem and it can be a novel in essence and it can be both of these things at once, but no poem can be a short story and no novel can be a short story. A short story can be the plainest kind of. communication or the most complicated. It can be the most orderly kind of expres- sion or the most haphazard. _ If there is a writer who is a writer, a short story can come to pass effectively without any involvement in any of the literary theories of the form with respect to the allegedly basic requirements, such as plot, develop- ment, outcome. These elements can be useful or useless, depending upon who the writer happens to be. For it is the writer who is the writing, and it is the writer himself who establishes and maintains the rules creating the reality of any writing he does. A short story can be nothing much more than pure style. It can be an exultation, for instance, or it can be an expression of despair. ‘The short stories of Edgar Allan Poe are stories of plot, suspense, atmosphere, and mood, They are, all of them, art stories, and altogether lacking in connexion with real life. Their reality is an art or even an artificial reality, Through Poe the short story became excessively formalized, so that for a time it was virtually imprisoned. Guy de Maupassant freed ‘the form once and for all in what would appear to be the greatest achievement in the form by one writer. He may be said to have written a few great stories, many good stories, and enormous numbers of bad ones, but the fact remains that in every story he wrote, great, good, or bad, there is a sense of real life, and all together his stories are a[sos] celebration of the pleasure and pain of mortality. Chekhov pushed the short story form into another area of freedom, melancholy, charm and grace. O. Henry in America must be remem- bered for both a valid achievement, and a mischievous influence. His trick ending appealed to many readers for many years. In only two or three of his stories was he able to become so deeply involved in truth as to forget the trick ending. Generally, his stories seem to have been manufactured by a machine rather than written by a human being. The machine is witty, it has a heart, but it is a machine. The short story of Dickens, although relatively insignificant in the body of his work, is free, human and effective, for Dickens, whether writing a short story or a long story, was an improviser. Impro- Yisation is more nearly the way of nature itself than orderliness. ‘Literary theory has it that a short story should be something that a reader can read in one sitting. The trouble with this theory is that some readers can sit longer than others. Generally speaking, when another method of measurement is em- ployed, it is said that a short story should be anywhere from twenty-five hundred words to something under ten thousand words. Anything under twenty-five hun- dred words is considered to be a short short story. Anything over ten thousand words is considered to be a long short story. And anything over twenty thous- and words is considered to be a novelette. All of this measuring is convenient for certain kinds of literary experts but it is mainly meaningless. ‘There are whole and magnificent stories in the Old Testament which are frequently under five hundred words in length. ‘There are any number of passages in long novels which are over twenty thousand words and yet quite accurately can be considered short stories. ‘There can be no final theory about any kind of writing. The first requirement is awriter, the secondareader. In between, the theories can flourish for ever. They seem to flourish most abundantly when the writers and the short stories involved are the least fresh and most repetitious, and finally the most apt to fall by the wayside. The writing of bad short stories can be taught. The writing of good ones hap- pens pretty much by itself, because there has happened to be a writer in the first place. ae ‘The possibilities for the form must be for ever infinite, for as long as there are SICILIAN SCHOOL people with the breath of life in them the one story continues to unfold and to challenge him who wishes to capture and hold fast a small portion of that astonishing fable. No man ought to embark upon a career of short-story writing who is not aware that he himself lives a hundred short stories a day and that he is not unlike anybody else in the world in this. He should also understand that his chances of making a living by writing short stories are very poor and he ought to be willing to write them solely because he wishes to do so, or must do so. Is the written short story necessary to contemporary man? The answer is that it most certainly is when it is well written, or, to put it another way, when it happens to be great. As for the unwritten short story, that is as necessary and as inevitable as the air itself. W.s. Siamese Literature. The glory of Siamese literature is threefold: its distinc tive poetry (chiefly double quatrain and extended verse); Buddhist literature and commentary; legal literature. In recent years essayists and novelists have copied western models with some success and the realistic novel with psychological problem scenes enjoys popularity among the sophisticated. Translations of French and Russian plays and novels, down to existen- tialism, began a vogue in the 1940s; western scenes, plots and dramatic situa. tions are given typical Siamese settings and attract increasing attention. The short, story is now a favourite medium for the Siamese author. Skilful experiments in free verse have not met with the success they deserve; efforts to recast the old ‘high style’ classical masques and dramas are succeeding. Pattama Sompothiyan (the standard life of Buddha), still published in classical style, is now available in modern colloquial ‘style, and dramatic versions bring it even closer to the people. See also Inpo-Cuinese Literature. NW. Sicilian School, the term applied to the poets.in the vernacular associated with the court of the emperor Frederick II and of his son, Manfred ($1266). The name (cf. Dante, De Vulgari Elog., I, 12) properly denotes the court itself which under Frederick was centred at Palermo, not th nationality of the poets, who came fra the mainland as well as from Sicily thon they were mostly soutiemers, “ye bough Fepresents the first appearance of Tyistoo! sSIETE INFANTES DE LARA a poetic literary language. Herein lies its importance; for its poetic themes it depended on the love-poetry of France and Provence, It lasted about 50 years. With the downfall of the Hohenstaufen power in Italy the literary centre of the peninsula moved north to Tuscany and Bologna. Antologia dei primi secoli della lett. ital. II. La scuola siciliana, ed. G. Lazzeri (1942); La Magna Curia. La sc. p. sic., ed, C. Guerrieri Crocetti (1947). KF. Torraca, Studi su la lirica ital. del Duecento (1902); V. De Bartholomacis, Primordi della lirica d’arte in Italia (1943); G. A. Cesareo, Le origini della poesia lirica é la p. sic. sotto gli svevi (1924). KF. Sicte Infantes de Lara, Cantar DE Los. Fragments of this lost Spanish chanson de geste have been reconstructed by R. Menéndez Pidal from the prose versions of it preserved in the Crénica general of Alfonso X and in a later revision of it. This story of murder and revenge occurs later in ballads, in plays by Juan de la Cueva and Lope de Vega and in an epic by the Duque de Rivas. R. Menéndez Pidal, La leyenda de los Infantes de Lara (18 iui i Eee ae a 7a (856), Reliquias de la poesia Silesian School. Earlier literary histor- ians distinguished two Silesian Schools in x7th-century German literature: the first (a misnomer) grouping together the poraediste followers of Martin Opitz’s & ‘orm, many of whom were neither iicsians nor active in Silesia (e.g. Dach an. feteming) ; the second, centred round ofnannswaldau and Lohenstein and the Bosts of B. Neukirch’s anthology, with the Pan's 28 @ transitional figure between aoe o echools. It is now customary to ¢ eave the general movement of eeezian teform from the various local influcnneg editions which it engendered or baad ed » of which the specifically Silesian Nimmbeeotside @-8. those of Kénigsberg, oi erg, Saxony), and to speak of a resin group which includes elements of both so-called Silesian Schools but is in a eee iclecitical with the second, ugh it also includes i Angelus Silesius, aan A defensive and menaced Lutheran Suture strongly influenced by the counter- puctmation “and produced by peculiar of heal circumstances was characteristic Opits Slesians who from Béhme through eS Gunther dominated German leamed®:, In an age when. culture was universitet courtly the absence of a 'Y and an important court drove [506] young Silesians to acquire learning and polish abroad, especially in Holland, and deprived them of cultural foci on their return. ‘The resultant absence of an organized literary public exercising a critical function has been held to explain the unbridied lush imagery of the later Silesians, as well as the failure of the Silesian drama to develop. H. Heckel, Gesch. d. dt. Lit. in Schlesien (1929); J. Nadler, Literaturgesch. d. dt. Stamme “und Landschaften, 2 (1931); P- Hankamer, Dt. Gegenreformation und dt. Barock (1935); H. Schéffler, Dt. Osten im dt. Geist von Opits su Wolf (a9405 brilliand) Silva, Spanish metre. A combination of r1-syllable and 7-syllable lines most of which rhyme; there is no prescribed order of rhymes or of long and short lines. EMW. Sinhalese Literature. Though there is evidence to show that literary activity in Ceylon began as early as the 3rd century the earliest extant specimens of ese literatu: are the so-called iriya Graffiti, inscribed on the ‘mirror wall’ at the Sigiriya fortress. They area series of short lyrics, the earliest of which can be traced back to the sth century A.D. ‘The earliest extant Sinhalese literary works, however, are the Siyabaslakara, a work on rhetoric and the Sikhavalarda, 2 disciplin- ary guide for Buddhist monks, both assigned to the roth century. Two important prose works, Gura- lugomi’s Amavatura and Dharmapradi- pikdva, appeared during the close of the 12th century and were followed in the 13th century by several more prose works, the most important of them being the Butsarana, Saddharmaratnavaliya, the Pijdvaltya and the Thiipavamsa. ‘The earliest extant narrative poems, the Muvadevddvata, the Sasaddvata and the Kavsilumina, were composed during the 2th and 13th centuries. Historical and Buddhist themes pre-occupied the minds of later writers till at the end of the 14th century there appeared the new literary form of the Sandesa (‘messenger poem’). Several Sandesa poems were composed in the 1sth century besides some narrative poems, the most important of which are Sri Rahula’s Kévyasekhara and Vittive’s Guttilakavyaya. During the next three centuries literary activity in Ceylon suffered a setback owing partly to successive invasions by Europeans and partly to internal strife and dissension. The most important writers[507] of this long dark period were the poet Alagiyavanna Mohottdla and Valivita Saranankara, the Buddhist reformer and writer. In the roth century Sinhalese writers came under the influence of European literature, which is most noticeable in the novel. _In the field of poetry too, a marked change in form and character has been noticed and not a few Sinhalese poets have given up the narrative and epic forms in preference to the lyrical. The Sinhalese drama is yet in its infancy, though folk: plays have for centuries played an impor- tant part in the social and cultural life of the people. Dramatic works produced in recent times show considerable European influence. M. Wickremasinghe, Sinhalese Literature (Colombo, 1950); E. R. Saratchandra, The Sinhalese Novel (Colombo, 1950). Sirvente, French and English form of the Provengal sirventes, denoting a poetic form used by troubadours and, in the earlier examples, dealing with the political and military rivalries of the great. spicuous among the authors of sirventes are Bertran de Born, Pons de Capdueil, Bernard de la Barta, Guilhem Montan- hagol. C.T.0. Skaz (from skaza?’, to tell), a special folkloristic genre of Russian literature. It usually deals with events told by an eye- witness, with all the mannerisms and inflexions typical of a peasant or a member of the lower middle-class. Nikolay Leskov in particular created masterpieces stylized in this manner: Leusha, Ocharovanny Strannik, Zapechat- lenny Angel. After Leskov the stylized shag-genre was taken up by Alexey Remizov whose influence, like that of Evgeny Zamyatin, persisted after 1917. The best known representative of the shaz-genre in Soviet literature is (or was) M. Zoshchenko. V. Krupyanskaya and B, Sidel’nikov, ‘Ustny narodny skaz’, in Narodnoye tvorchestvo No. 6 (1938); A. K, Moroseyeva, Kak yabotat’ s narodnym skazom (1939). JL. Slovak Literature. Until the second half of the 18th century Latin, Hungarian and Czech were used by Slovaks as literary languages. After sporadic moves towards linguistic independence Anton Bernolalk established a standard language based in the main on the western dialects. This commended itself for a time to many Slovak Catholics, and one notable poet, SLOVO O POLKU IGOREVE Jan Holly, wrote his patriotic epics in it. ‘The Protestants however continued to employ Czech as their literary language (e.g. Kollar and Safatik). In the 1840s a Protestant patriot, Lrudovit Stir, worked out a standard language based on the central Slovak dialects; it soon found general acceptance. A group of gifted poets used it from the outset, notably Andrej Slidkovié whose epic Marina ushered in modern Slovak literature. In poetry the Slovak writers could draw on the rich tradition (in matter and form) of native folk-poetry: this was done to great effect by Jn Botto, In the late xoth century lyrical poetry was dominated by the passionate Slavophile Vajansky and the prolific and versatile Hviezdoslav. Prose fiction, already successfully prac- tised by Jin’ Kalintiak and Vajansky, reached maturity in the work of Martin Kukuéin. Since 1900 Slovak poetry has on the whole followed the main European streams: the neo-romantic manner is represented by Ivan Krasko and Martin Razus, symbolism by E. B. Lukaé, the poetry of socialism by Laco Novomesky, surrealism by Rudolf Fabry. In prose the regional and social novel and short story have always been predominant and are most_notably ex- emplified in the work of Timrava and Milo Urban. A considerable and more versatile talent is shown by Margita Figuli. The historical novel has been most successfully cultivated by Ladislav NadaSi-Jégé. Since 1948 socialist realism has been the only officially sanctioned literary technique for the Slovaks, as for the Czechs. A, Mraz, Dé&iny slovenskej literatiry (1949; the most up-to-date general survey); J, Viéek, Déjiny literatiry slovenskej (1923); A. Mraz, Die Literatur der Slowaken (1943); Albert Prazik, Déjiny slovenské literatury, I (1950); Jin Irmler, Slotwakisches Lesebuch (19433 in Slovak). See Czecu Lirerarurz, © RUA. Slovo o polku Igoreve (The Lay of Igor’s Campaign), the finest poetic monu- ment of old-Russian literature. Its sub- ject is the unfortunate expedition of prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the nomadic cute of the Polovtsy in 1185, his defeat, captivity and escape. Written in beautif rhythmical prose after the Bysantice patterns, it is full of poetic beauties Some passages have the magic and fresh. ness of folk-songs. The work represents a mixture of Christian and pagan element of a spontaneous feeling of nature and wie of political harangues imbued with "<SOCIETIES, LITERARY valiant patriotic spirit. It must have been written by one of the prince’s warriors some time about 1187. The MS. (early x6th century) was discovered by count A. I, Musin-Pushkin and first published in 1800. The original MS. perished in the Moscow conflagration (1812), but a copy of it made for Catherine II remains. ‘There have been some doubts as to Slovo’s authenticity (the most recent from A. Mazon). Authoritative opinion is now decidedly in favour of its genuineness (but see Forcrrtes, LITERARY). Slovo o pollu Igoreve, ed. N. K. Gudziy and P. Skosyrév (1938); La Geste du Prince Igor, text and trs into French, modern Russian, English and Polish, made and commented by H. ‘Grégoire, R. Jakobson and M, Szeftel (New York, 1948); The Tale of the Armament of Igor, text and (not always reliable) Eng. tr. L.A. Magnus (1915). E. V. Barsov, Slovo o polku Igoreve (3 pts, 9); V.N. Perets, K isucheniyu Slova 0 hee (1926; with biblio,); wo d’Igor y ed. Sherine to) Slo . Mazon, ( vo 0 polku Igoreve, mbinago (1940). TL. Societies, ee » Literary. The number of iiterary societies has increased enormously in the last hundred years. As a result of Wider education, interest in literature and ¢ other arts is no longer confined to an enlightened few. ‘This process has created anced for societies which not only provide “it Members with the means for contact Pig acussion, but can also accumulate a aaa) with which to maintain specialized a ‘ies, edit the texts which interest them selcitgulate periodicals in which the “Thug Of their researches can be published. aes Societies may be concerned with all 's of literature or may concentrate on Se rceealcce author or period. Peaineeech Societies of historical importance fienta Sane of writers and their and thie nod PY @ common creative ideal, Which saws is distinct from the societies pares cater for the reader and the scholar. in England there were, for instance, the Areopagus created by Spenser, Sidney and others; Johnson’s ‘Club’, of which Burke, Goldsmith and Boswell were members; Cs the circles which frequented Will’s, re ‘e Grecian and the other coffee-houses of eae and 18th centuries. In France the lenitde (av.), of which Ronsard was the and ng figure, elaborated rules for poetry Acad Ue of language in advance of the from 41° Frangaise, which itself developed the saloetivate literary circle. Later on centuries (q.v.) of the 17th and 18th day. Trae’ the literary fashion of their “IY Produced the early academies [508] and the Arcadia (see Acapemres), In Germany there was the Deutschiibende Gesellschaft founded by Gottsched, who envisaged it as an ‘Académie Allemande’ and this was followed by the poets of the Gottingen Hainbund (q- In Spain the Generacién de ’98 had political as well as literary influence at the end of the 19th century. A number of the learned societies which emerged in Europe during the r7th and 18th centuries, many of which still survive, originally embraced all forms of learning, but with the increase in human knowledge and the consequent tendency towards specialization, they were obliged in course of time to come down on one or the other side of the fence which separates the humanities from the natural sciences. ‘The Royal Society, founded in London in 1662, at first set no limits to the field which it proposed to explore. Among its early members were Dryden, Waller and other men of letters. Yet its subsequent activities became so exclusively scientific that, in 1900, when it was required to represent British humanistic scholarship in the International Union of Academies, it was found unable to do so and the British Academy was founded to relieve it of this task. Similarly the Royal Society of Edinburgh (178s) originally consisted of a ‘physical’ and a ‘literary’ class, but the physical class secured such dominance over its fellow that the literary class only once had the honour of providing the Society’s president. This was Sir Walter Scott, who held office from 1820 to 1832. ‘A similar tendency has prevailed in France, where a large number of societies entitled ‘Académie (or Société) des Sciences, Arts et Belles Lettres’ were founded in provincial centres from the 17th century onwards, the earliest being at Caen (1652) and Nimes (1682). Other early foundations have retained a literary character. The Honourable Society of Cyrnmrodorion (1751) and the Spalding Gentleman’s Society (1709) are among the earliest. The latter included Pope, Addison, Gay and Bentley amongst its first members and served as a model for similar societies founded soon afterwards at Peterborough and elsewhere. The Literary and Philosophical Societies of Manchester (1781), Newcastle (1793), Leeds (1818), Hull (1822) and Bath (1823) have all maintained at least a partial interest in literary matters. The following selective list of con- temporary societies is intended only for rapid reference. To prevent it becoming[soo] unwieldy many societies have been deliberately omitted, while others have been excluded for lack of evidence of their continued acti doubtful cases are marked with an asterisk. Academies, which are more or less authoritative bodies not open to general member- ship, are dealt with separately under Acapemirs, Lirerary. In the case of national or regional societies, the place shown may be taken to be the location of their headquarters or the place at which their publications are issued. No publications are shown except current periodicals. ARGENTINA: Argentine Association of English Culture (Buenos Aires). Instituto Cervantino (Buenos Aires, 1947). Insti- tucién Cultural Espafiola (Buenos Aires). Sociedad de Biblidfilos Argentinos (Buenos Aires, 1928). Ausraa: Grillparzer-Gesellschaft (Vienna, 1890. Pub. Jahrbuch, x891-*), Hof mannsthal-Gesellschaft (Salzburg, 1949). Wiener Bibliophilen-Gesellschaft (z912. Pub. Jahrbuch). _ Wiener Goethe-Verein (1878. Pub. Chronik, 1886-). Verein fur Volks- kunde (Vienna, 1895. Pub. Osterreichische Zeitschrift fir Volkskunde, 1895-) Becorum: Cercle Royal Artistique et Littéraire (Brussels, 1847). Koninklijke Kring voor Oudheidkunde, Letteren en Kunst van Mechelen (1886, Pub. Handelingen, 1889-). Société des Bibliophiles de Belgique (Brussels, 1737). Société des Bibliophiles de Liége (1863. Pub. Bulletin, 1882-). Société Liégeoise de Littérature ’Wallonne (1857. Pub. Bulletin, 1858. Vereeniging der Antwerpsche Bibliophiclen (1877. Pub. De Gulden Passer, 19247). Brazit: Sociedade dos Cem Biblidfilos do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro). Canapa: Literary and Historical Society of Quebec (1824. Pub. Transactions, 1833~). (CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Literarnthistoricka Spoletnost Ceskoslovenski (Prague, 1935*)- Spolek Ceskych Bibliofila (Prague, 1908). Denmark: Danske Sprog- och Litteratur- Selskab (Copenhagen, rotx). — Islandske Litteratursamfundet_ "(Copenhagen, 1912). fszlenska Bokmentafélag (Copenhagen, 1780). Jysie Selskab for Historie, Sprog og Litteratur (Aarhus, 1932). Selskab til Udgivelse af Gammel Nordisk Literatur (Copenhagen, 1880). Fixtanp: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura (Helsinki, 1831. Pub. ‘Toimituksia, 1834). Svenska Litteratursiillskapet i Finland (Helsinki, 1885. Pub, Skrifter, 1886-; Forhandlinger, 1886-). France—The numerous _ provincial ‘Sociétés (or Académies) des Sciences, Belles- Lettres et Arts’ are excluded, ‘Their activities are now mostly archaeological and historical. Alliance Frangaise (Paris, 1884; with SOCIETIES, LITERARY agencies and a large membership throughout the world. Its object is to spread knowledge of the French language and literature). Les Amis de Balzac (Paris, 1923). Les Amis de Combray (Association des Amis de Marcel Proust) (Illiers, Eure-et-Loire, 1947). Les Amis @’Edmond Rostand (Paris, 1948). Les Amis de Flaubert (Canteleu, Seine-Inf., 1913). Les Amis de Francis Jammes (Bordeaux). Les Amis de Frangois Coppée (Paris). “Les Amis de George Sand (Paris, Les Amis de Georges Bernanos . Les Amis de Guy de Maupassant Les Amis de Jean-Jacques Rous- seau (Montmorency, 1946). Les Amis de La Fontaine (Paris). Les Amis de Mon- taigne (Paris, 1912. Pub. Bulletin, 1937-). Les Amis de Musset, formerly ‘Les Muset- tistes’ (Paris, 1906). ' Les Amis de Rabelais (Chinon, 1948). Les Amis de Rimbaud (Meéziéres, 1927). Les Amis de Romain Rolland (Paris, 1945). _ Les Amis de Ronsard (Tours) Les Amis des Lettres (Paris 1937; gives financial and other support to writers). Les Amis de Verlaine (Paris). Les Amis d’Henri Bergson (Paris). Asso- ciation Guillaume Budé (Paris, 1917; edits Greek and Latin texts). Association pour la Diffusion de la Pensée Frangaise (Pari Pub, Bulletin critique du livre frangais, 1945— Les Bibliophiles Nimois (1923). Compagnie Littéraire du Genét d'Or (Perpignan, 1923; dealing with French and Catalan literature). Les Lamartiniens (Paris, 1902). Maison de Ja Poésie (Paris, 1928; offers 4 literary prizes yearly). Les Rosati Picards (Amiens, 1894; Specializes in the Picardy dialect), Société Anatole France (Paris, 1932). Société Chateaubriand, (Chastenay-Malabry, Seine, 1930). Société de Publications Romanes et Frangaises (Paris, 1930). Société des Anciens Textes 'Frangais (Patis, 1872), Société deg Auteurs et Compositeurs Drama. tiques (Paris, 1791). Société des Bibliophiles Dauphinois (Grenoble, 1905). Société des Bibliophiles de la Guyenne (Bordeaux, 1866). Société des Bibliophiles Francais” (Paris, 1820). Société des Bibliophiles Lyonnai (1885). _ Société des Bibliophiles Normands (Rouen, 1863). Société des Gens de Lettres (Paris, "1838; professional association, em- bracing the Société des Postes Francais and the Syndicat des Ecrivains). Société des Langues Romanes (Montpellier, 1870, Pub. Revue des langues romanes, 1870-). Société des Textes Franeais Modernes (Paris, 1905). Société d’Etudes Staélliennes (Paris, 1929). Société d'Histoire du Théatre (Paris, 1932. Pub. Revue d’histoire du thédtre, 1948), Société d'Histoire Littéraire de la’ France (Paris, 1894. Pub. Revue Phistoire littéraire de la France, r894-). Société Francaise de. Reproductions de Manuscrits & Peintures (Baris, xgrr). _ Société J.-K. Huysmang (aris, 1926), Société Littéraire, Historian et Archéologique de Lyon (1778). ane Littéraire ‘La ‘Tour Magne” (Nimes. Société Poétique de France’ (Paci? 1931). Revue littéraire et artistique). oe ue @Alfred de Vigny (Paris, 1947),