General Properties of Power Losses in Soft Ferromagnetic Materials GIORGIO BERTOTTI Aburec—Measurements re reported of the ass pe ecle (ina at ax waveform) vers mugneving frequency fx fo = 100 or Predict the dependence of dn ith an sppresieation within 10 percent casts, The bear of graimrieted Se which resents some spec complentes, dscused in particular et 1. Intropuerion HE AIM of the present paper is to provide a contti- Dution to the understanding of magnetic losses in soft metallic ferromagnetic materials that may be useful both to the fundamental physicist interested in microscopic magnetization processes and to the engineer involved in the electrotechnical applications of soft steels. Basically, We shall examine the dependence of power losses on mag netizing frequency f, and peak magnetization Jax. tying to clarify how this dependence is related tothe parameters like grain size that define the microstructure of a given material, as well as to those like domain size that char- acterize its magnetic domain structure. Our starting point will be a simple and important phenomenological princi ple, which has been commonly adopted in loss invest gations for & long time, the so-called separation of losses [1], 2). According to it, the average power loss per unit volume P of any material is decomposed into the sum of hysteresis and a dynamic contribution, which are sepa- rately investigated, P= pie) 4 pide a Manuscript received December 10,1985; revised My 23,1987. Thie snort was soporte in at by te lian Mine of clon apd the Frog ia Ei eat Gat CXR NEA IEEE Log Numer #717388, (0018-9464/88/0100-0621801.00 with PO” equal tothe area of the quasi-static hysteresis Joop times fa. The physical reason for such a decompo- sition is that P°™ originates from the discontinuous character of the magnetization process at a very micro. scopic scale, whereas P'” is associated with the mac- roscopic large-scale behavior of the magnetic domain structure, In fact, a proper statistical treatment of the loss problem [3]. [4] shows that (1) is naturally obtained ‘whenever the characteristic time seales ofthese two pro- cesses do not overlap. ‘The important conceptual simplification introduced by the separation of losses is readily appreciated, because the interpretation of P'"”—the quantity of principal interest in this paper—can then be based on simple macroscopic domain models, paying no heed to the intricate fine-scale details of wall motion. In this connection, the so-called ‘classical model (2), [5] even disregards the very pres- cence of magnetic domains and assumes a magnetization process perfectly homogeneous in space. In te case of a Tamination of thickness d and inthe range of magnetizing frequencies where the skin effect is negligible, this model predicts (sinusoidal flux waveform) POM PS = aod f/6 (2) ‘where o is the electrical conductivity ofthe material. The classical model is, however, too gross a simplification ‘As a consequence of domain effects, the dynamic loss Pls. generally found to be definitely larger than PIS), the diference between them, called excess loss PO, being in many cases larger than P™) itself. By expressing the total loss as P= pi 4 pla 4 plow, 8) the central problem becomes then to understand the origin and the properties ofthe excess term P'*’. ‘The guideline in the interpretation of excess losses has been, for a long time, the model proposed by Pry and Bean [6], in which the dynamic loss of an infinite lami- nation containing a periodic array of longitudinal domains of width 2L is calculated from Maxwell's equations, This model indicates that the fundamental parameter control- ling excess losses should be the ratio 2L/d between the domain size and the lamination thickness and predicts Pie ce peta, when 2L/d <1 1988 IEEEpiss (: 632-1) pow, when 26/d >> 1 @) In spite ofits remarkable achievements, however, even the Pry and Bean model turns out tobe of limited validity, essentially because of its highly idealized character, In microerystalline materials, infact, itis commonly found that PS! ~ PS even if 2L/d << | [7]-I9]. On the ‘other hand, P'“/f, shows in general a nonlinear depen- {dence on f,, which cannot be easily explained in terms of G) [7]. Im the case of single crystals or grain-oriented laminations having 2L/d >> 1, the departure of mea sured losses from Pry and Bean predictions has been re lated to various effects, like the presence of imegularities in the wall motion, domain multiplication, or wall bowing. [10)-[16]. As to ‘fine-grained materials, attempts have ‘been made to connect excess losses with Barkhausen noise 171, oF to attribute them to continuous rearrangements of the domain configuration [18]. However, no general agreement as tothe role of all these mechanisms in deter ‘mining the actual loss features of soft materials has yet been achieved. ‘A new conceptual framework, capable of including most ofthese effects in a unified treatment has been pro posed recently by the author, on the basis of a statistical Approach to the loss phenomenology. The theory, devel- ‘oped in [3], [4], 19]-[22] and here briefly reviewed in Section II, leads to the conclusion thatthe large-scale be- havior of magnetic domains can be described in terms of the dynamics of # statistically independent magnetic ob- jects (MO), each corresponding to group of neighboring, interacting domain walls, and reduces the loss problem to the investigation of the main physical properties of as a function oF fn, Apa: and the material microstructure. This approach can be successfully applied 10 a variety of dif. ferent material, by investigating the physical meaning of the concept of MO in each case. In particular, it has been shown that a single MO can be identified with a single Bloch wall in grain-oriented materials with large domains [20], whereas, in microcrystalline materials, the whole domain structure inside a single grain plays the role of a single MO [21), [22] Starting from these premises, in this paper we present the results of « twofold investigation. Inthe first place, ‘we have carried out a systematic experimental study of the loss behavior versus Zn. and fin various soft mag- netic materials, consisting of measurements of the loss per eycle versus fy in the range 0 = fy = 100 or 400 Hz, depending on the material) performed—at several values of peak magnetization Jqu.—on SiFe alloys of dif- forent texture and grain size, Atmeo iron, NiFe alloys, and amorphous ribbons. By these results, reported in Sec= tion TIL, we have tried to provide a source of information ‘on the properties of eddy current losses in soft materials, ‘as well as a basis for @ proper testing of theoretical loss models. In this connection, our second goal has been to interpret these experimental results in terms of the men tioned dynamics of MO's, and to relate the observed properties ofthe parameter f tothe microstructure and the Somain structure of the investigated materials. As fully discussed in Sections TIT and TV, several interesting con- clusions have been obtained by’ this analysis. First, the theory gives a natural interpretation of the general fact thatthe dynamic loss per cycle is a nonlinear function of Jay and shows, in particular, that this nonlinearity is ap= ‘proximately consistent with a simple law PO /f, = Aavfj, for a wide variety of materials, Secondly, the the- ‘ory is also applicable to nonoriented, microcrystalline laminations having a fine domain structure (22 /d << 1) In this case, the absolute value of the constant k; can be calculated, under reasonable assumptions, directly in terms of the values of the hysteresis loss and the average grain size, obtaining good agreement with experimental results, Finally, the theory reduces the dependence of ex cess losses on Both Ips and fa t0 & common mechanism, the competition between the applied field and highly in: homogeneous internal counterfelds governing the dy: namics ofthe single MO’s. This feature ofthe theory has important practical consequences, since it permits one t0 extract the dependence of dynamic losses on both Igy and fa from a single loss curve ata given value of fey. and 10 ‘express this dependence in closed analytic form. In par- ticular, it will be shown in Section IV that, in the case of grain-oriented three-percent SiFe, the knowledge of only {oo points of a single loss curve permits one to predict the loss behavior Versus Jay, and f With an approximation that, for the data presented in this paper and in the range Jy % 20 He, is within +10 percent I. Sranisticat. InreRPRerarion oF Eooy CuRRENT Losses According to the statistical theory of eddy current losses 0, and by the magnetic field Vo. Equations (7) and (8) lead tothe nonlinear excess loss expression Hog = PY} Agha (VI-¥ 40GB — Meas ha (9) {In the following sections, we shall undertake a general study of the properties of the function (Haq: {P}) in different materials to clarify the real value and applica- bility of the proposed theoretical approach to magnetic losses, and, in particular, the physical meaning and range ‘of validity ‘of the linear law (8). Before passing t0 the Presentation of the experimental results, however, we Want to recall a simple and useful procedure, already pro posed in [20], by which the function A(Hac: {P}) can be directly obtained from experiments. According to (5), HO /Fios is determined by the values of H™ and Hig. Both of these quantities can be directly evaluated from experiments, as can be seen from their very defini- tion. Therefore, if we plot a generic loss curve in terms OF O/H Ves Hege—instead Of P fy Versus fy a8 y/2 usual—we shall directly obtain the behavior of the func- tion (Hey {P}). It is interesting to notice that a quite similar loss representation has also been proposed and used, although on more empirical bases, in [14], [15]. ‘According {0 the physical interpretation summarized in 2), is expected to depend explicitly on H,x. only, while ‘other quantities (€.8., fna.) should have only an indirect influence, through induced changes of the parameters {P}. This means that we may obtain valuable informa- tion on the microstructural properties of different mate- rials, or on the modifications of the domain structure be- havior upon changing Jma, in a same material, simply by using the a versus Hox. representation. For example, if 10 changes occur in the magnetic domain structure of a given material as a function Of Zyc, We expect that the loss curves referring to different Values of fan, Should all re- duce to a single curve, when represented in terms of versus Hac. This isthe point of view that will be adopted in the discussion of the experimental results reporeed in the following section. IL, Experimenta RESULTS AND Discussion Losses were measured on grain oriented (GO) and now- oriented (NO) three-percent SiFe alloys, Armco iron, mu metal, 50-50 NiFe alloys, and amorphous materials, as listed in Table I. Two sample geometries were employed in the experiments: standard Epstein frames and toroi dally wound ribbons. The power loss was obtained by micans of a high precision analogic wattmeter, permitting measurements at controlled sinusoidal magnetic lux waveform in the range of magnetizing frequencies 1-400 Hz. The hysteresis loss was measured in general through the ballistic method. In the case of NO SiFe and Armco iron, however, where the error in the ballistic evaluation of the hysteresis loss was found to be comparable withthe variations of dynamic loss at low f, the bysteresis loss ‘was obtained by directly extrapolating the dynamic loss ccurve down tof ~ 0. Far each sample, the loss behavior in the range 0 = fy = 100 Hz (0 fy =< 400 He for the amorphous ribbons), and at several (four to five) values of peak magnetization Ing, Was determined. ‘The oblained P /fy verss fq curves are reported in Figs. 1-10 (left-hand portion of each figure). In the right-hand part of the figures, the very same results are reported in ferms of (He; {P}) versus He, according to the rep- resentation discussed in Section If. We shall now examine these results in more detail, focusing our atention, in the first place, on GO and NO SiFe, because these two cases exhibit some basic features of power losses common, to some extent, to all the investigated material. Grain Oriented Three-Percent SiFe Fig. 1(@) reports the behavior of the loss per cycle and unit mass P/df, (8 is the density of the material) versus Js measured at five different values Of Iyuy. The corre sponding representation in the plane (#7... 7) is given in Fig. 1(b). This representation clearly shows the fact al= ready stressed in previous works [20], that GO SiFe is aresist — cP GRE Gy WES oe ~ lef eacrenres sean free Peano oss curves are easily obtained by a least-square linear fit- Soa | SESE yy | ting of the experimental point in the (gc) pane, Fig. 1 (a) Los pry and uit mass sol lax waveform verses ‘Segvuzing equeny in sin onened tree percent Sie, at erat ‘ales of peak mapatzon fa, se Tle I for fer infomation). ‘Vanou sols potent experimen loss pir ir sae age than uncer of messre aly ken ines ar eit ces ‘ial om (2,3), (ah valus ol parameters hy and Vo ‘ner cenaitlow. (0) Represtion of ste expeimesal pms {nem of paracetf Jelied Oy Tae en diayee je ican he seen th th representation ingle Ieee tee nt agi ines of fom (a). Thee slope deer Pines eld yw sven hy ther intersection mith # ai eral valet of and Yyste ely shamed est ate me Tis Yound tat Yar always coma vaue Vy = 0.1 Am ine Mem Ibi y= Toten gs = 17. = iD we fog = 1S Fin 228 hen ge 23 hd (ves amie eld cease where the linear law (8) for the dependence of on Hog is tvicty followed, We point out that this result c not be merely interpreted in terms of a first-order expan- sion of (ix; {P}) around He = 0, since the linear term Hy. /Vo is by no means small with respect 10 Ny, a8 can be easily checked directly from Fig. 1(b). The values of the parameters iy and Vy associated with the different shown by the broken straight lines in Fig, 1(b). We obtain Vo = 0.15 A/m, independent of Igy. Whereas Ap in- ceases fom fy = 1, when Ing, = 1.7 T, up to fo = 25 When Jay ST. The knowledge of my and Yy permits ‘one to predict, through (2), (3), (9) the behavior of P/Sfe versus fat Fay. The broken lines in Fig. 1(a) have been ‘obtained just by this procedure. One can notice the ex cellent agreement with experimental points, and, in par- ticular, the ability of (9) to describe the observed loss nonlinearities. This result leads toa first, interesting con- clusion about the behavior of excess losses in GO SiFe. Equation (9) implies infact, that, for sufficiently high val: ues of f_ (commonly above a few Hz) the excess loss per cycle can be approximated as PN fy = Slaw (YOO SVoleasta — Ro¥/4) (10) land therefore becomes essentially proportional to Vf. ‘Thus the statement, often found in the literature [2], 24}, that dynamic loss nonlinearities are limited to low mag netizing frequencies, seems somewhat inaccurate. Out re= sults show, on the contrary, that such nonlinearities ap- proximately obey @ simple vj, law in the whole investigated, range, so that the dependence of the total loss per cycle P/fy on fy is essentially of the form Pf = bo + iba + bn ay where the meaning of ky, ky, A: can be easily deduced from (2), (3), (10). It can be checked from (8), that, in the f, range where P/f, 2 Vfy. the number m of active MO’s increases essentially as vf. This conclusion is in good agreement with the results reported in [14], US}, (25).‘The fact that the field Vy is found to be independent of Togs makes it an intrinsic parameter of the material, con: ‘nected to its microstructural properties, rather than a sim- ple fitting parameter. We shall see that this interesting Conclusion applies to most of the materials fellowing the linear law (8). It has been suggested in a previous paper [20] that the microstructural interpretation of Vp should involve a relation ofthe form Vp ~ Hyy/Ny between Vi, the quasistatic coercive field Hy, and the number Ny of 'MO’s available for magnetization in a given cross section of the material. While the meaning and validity of this connection in GO SiFe needs further study and will be analyzed in a future paper, a possible interpretation ofits origin in microcrystalline materials like NO SiFe has been recently proposed (21], [22] and will be discussed in the next subsection, {AS to the dependence of Ay OM Imus, We recall that fy represents, acconding to (8), the number of MO's which are simultaneously active in the limit of low magnetizing frequencies, and that, in the material under consideration, ‘each MO essentially coincides with a single Bloch wal. AAs previously pointed out, ly = 25 at 1OW Ina & Value “which is ofthe order ofthe number of walls present inthe cross section of the investigated sample in the demagne tized state. This indicates that a faitly regular and coher- cent motion of all walls takes place at 1oW Igy. The pro= ‘gressive onset of irregularities in the wall motion with increasing Jy, is then clearly pointed out by the steady decrease of fy, down 10 ~ 1 (one active MO at a time), which represents a quite general lower limit for the values ‘flyin any material [20]. An interesting test of the phys- ical meaning of ry can be made by considering the mod- fications in the loss behavior consequent to dierent pro- cedures of sample demagnetization. Each of the loss ‘curves reported in Fig. 1(a) refers to a sample prelimi: narily demagnetized at a frequency of 1 Hz. If the same ‘measurements are performed after $0 Hz demagnetiza- tion, different results are obtained. The example reported in Fig. 2(2) refers t0 Im, = 0.7 T and shows a definite dynamic loss decrease after 50 Hz demagnetization. This effect progressively disappears when higher values of nay are considered. These results can be explained qual- itaively by noticing that, by demagnetizing the sample at 50 Hz, we activate domain multiplication processes that introduce a higher number of domain walls in the sample cross section, with a consequent reduction of the excess loss. The newly generated walls, however, are easily an- niilated at high inductions, and this explains why the loss behavior is afected by demagnetization only when Imac = 1 T. However, this interpretation does become really ev- ident and expressible in quantitative terms when the same loss data are represented inthe plane (Hx, #) Fig. 2(b). ‘The difference between the two loss curves results now in an increase of Rp, from My = 25 up toy ~ 40, indicating the higher number of domain walls introduced in the sam- ple cross section, while the slope 1/V of the loss lines has not changed at all, as expected from the mentioned ‘iicrostructural character of the field Va, Fig. 2. Modifications in os behavior fein one thee percot SF Tag = 0.9 T, consequent dierent procedures of ple demap eibion. See capon af Fig. for mening af employed Fepeeas ‘As a final remark, we point out that the linear law (8) is strictly followed by GO SiFe even after extensive plas- tic straining or upon the application of extemal tensile stresses [20] and well describes also the behavior of three percent SiFe (110) {001 single crystals [19], [20}. Nonoriented Three-Percent SiFe and Other Materials Following the Linear Lav Mt = Ay + Hlx./Vo Figs. 3 and 4 repor the loss behavior measured on two laminations of NO three-percent SiFe, characterized by different grain size and coercivity, In these material, the average size of magnetic domains is certainly smaller than the grain size, which, in turn, is smaller than the lami- nation thickness (see Table 1). As discussed in the Inro- duction, any model similar to that of Pry and Bean would predict, inthis case, no excess loss at all (See (4), in clear contradiction with the experimental data reported in Figs, 3¢a) and 4(@). We will show now how this contradiction can be resolved by making use of the theory discussed in Section I, A fist result of interest is that, as shown by Figs. 3(b) and 4(b), the linear law (8) is stll fulfilled. However, contrary to the ease of GO SiFe, the term Hox / Vo is now predominant at all values of Inn, and f, of interest. The parameter fy does not play any significant role and can be neglected. Physically, this simply means thatthe number of new MO's becoming active in dynamic conditions soon destroys any memory of the quasi-static state described by My, Equations (8) and (9) can then be conveniently ap- proximated as (Hoes {P}) = Hexe/ Yo (2) PI) = 1 VAM, = 8VoG™ IV (Inacha) (13) Equations (12) and (13) have a number of remarkable consequences. Assuming, in analogy with the results ob- tained in GO SiFe, that Vis an intrinsic parameter ofthe ‘material, independent of ae, We expect from (12) that all,“Prevent sre gs] ® teanalopous to that of Fi 1. Forths mtral (canbe apronimate by (2) which doce mt comin parameter My Value of bel Yo deter ‘lad rom (Pi A opeetticn of expetoetal ports Va B07 [A/m Two coninuous straight Segnees mig Na} epee hysteresis th iss coobutons Pg 4 Sam tn Pig 3 for sample wr a = 0.12 A/ loss points at different values of Ing. should reduce 19 @ single straight line, when represened inthe plane Hoc 2). This prediction is well confirmed, apart from some scattering of the data related othe precision of the mea- surements, by Figs. (6) and 4(b). In terms of the behav- ior of P/f versus ja, this implies that the single param eter Vo determines, through @), 3), (13), the complete ‘dependence of dyramic losses on Igy ad fay nd, i pa ticular, that the excess loss per cycle follows a simple Jf law. The broken lines in Figs. 3a) and 4(a) were calculated from (2), (3), and (13), assuming in each case the fixed value of Vp obtained from the corresponding (Hc) representation: Vg = 0.07 A/m in Fig. 3) and Vy ='0.12 A/min Fig. 4a) is evident thatthe fundamental problem at this point isto justify, on physical grounds, the absolute value of the field Vp. so as to explain the microstructural reason for the presence of an excess loss contribution in magnetic laminations having domains definitely smaller than their thickness. A possible key to this problem has been pro posed recently in [21], [22], on the basi of the followit Schematic description ofthe magnetization process in fine- grained materials. Adopting a point of view slightly dif- ferent from that of Section Il, we can equivalently inter- pret a single MO as a region of the material cross section characterized by a fairly homogeneous local coercive field, so that it will become active as a whole when the applied field overcomes a given threshold. In an annealed, fine grained lamination, where the main fluctuations of local coercive field are expected to take place from grain to grain, a single MO is then naturally identified with the whole domain structure delimited by the cross section of a single grain, so that the total number of MO's present ‘a given eross section of area of the lamination will be N= s/t as) with s equal to the average grain size. The statistical dis {ebution of the values of local coercive field st which f= ferent MO's will become aetive can be assumed to be, to 4 first approximation, flat, with constant density 1/¥q (he field Vp tepresents therefore the average minimum sepa- ration between different local coercive field values). AS fully discussed in (22), these assumptions imply that in dynamic conditions, when the applied field is greater than its comesponding quasi-static value by the amount He, all the MO's inside a portion of width Ha. ofthe men- tioned distribution of local coercive fields willbe simul taneously active. Since this number is simply = Hgc/Vo, (8) 8 staightforwardly obtained. On the other hand, a8 a consequence ofits very definition, the field Vy rust be directly related 10 the macroscopic quasi-static coercive field Hy, of the material. In fact, as shown in {21}, (22) the value of Hye in the loop of peak magnet- Jaation fy is elated to Vp by the expression Hy = NoWoloas 21.) (as) where Ny is given by (14) and ¢ 1, is the value of mac roscopic magnetization when all grains are saturated, each along its most favored easy magnetization axis ( 1.$°T) are due tothe fat thatthe expression we have used for the hysteresis loss becomes a bad approximation, while those a 1OW Inu arise from neglecting the term MV /4 of (10), Actually, this term becomes more and more impor- {ant with decreasing In, since Mp progressively increases, ‘while, at the same time, the first term of (10) decreases 48 View. Incidentally, these considerations show that both these sourees of error should be small around 1.5 7, 0 thatthe values of Cp and C; are indeed best determined by considering, as we have done, the loss curve corre- sponding t0 Inay = 1.5 T. Of course, (18) could be ap: plied not only to GO Sie, but in general to any material ‘obeying the linear law (8) or (12), with Vp independent of Tuas td Hy appFOXimately proportional 10 Imus (See Figs 3% and 11). Equation (18) gives evidence of the existence of wo basic contributions tothe dependence of the total loss P/6 on Jpg at a fixed magnetizing frequeney, one proportional to Fag the other to Ii. The average exponent expressing the law of dependence of P/5 on Ima is therefore ex: pected 10 be included between 1.5 and 2, depending on the values of Cy and C; in (18). This conclusion should ‘be compared with old empirical rues, offen mentioned in the literature [5], expressing Pas P ~ I. Our treatment provides a physical interpretation to these rules and shows, how they may arse from the interplay of the three terms which, according to (3), contribute to power losses. V. Conctusion ‘The theoretical interpretation of the experimental re- Sults on power losses in soft materials presented in this paper has shown that the function Ff; (P}) defined in Section I provides a promising convenient too! to look into the connection between dynamic losses and micro~structure of soft materials In several cases, a single fune- tion MCP: (PJ) can be associated witha given mate- ial, even when loss cues at ferent peak ‘magnetization are considered and when in GO SiFe— {dependence of #07 Ina Hs observed, it provides adie tional information on the magnetic. domain stracture ‘These results suggest focusing theoretical efforts on the study of the properies of # in diferent physical situa tion. Adopting this point of view has permite us ive 4 natural interpetation ofthe general presence of nolin- Cartes inthe behavior ofthe loss per eyele of any ma- teria, and fo achieve quantitative prediction of excess losses in fine grained laminations (see (12)-(17). How. ver. even inthe cases where we ae not yet able to pre- fice the properties of from a microscopic mode, the fact that a single function ACHng: {P}) can Deas sociated with a given material as relevant practical con- Sequences. Infact, can then be obtained from a single loss curve measured at a given vale of Toy, and, though (the complete dependence of dynamic losses on both I a fy can then be worked out. By making use of his result and of some addtional information on the depen- dence of hysteresis loses on fay, we have shown in See- tion TV that, in GO SiFe, iis possible to predict the be- havior of the total loss on Inay and fy from the knowledge ‘of only two points ofa single loss curve, with an approx- imation that, fr the data presented inthis paper and in the range fy = 20 He, is within +10 percent. Developing fenerl microstructural models ofthe bchavior of Fat {2}) in various materials appears now asthe rman ob jective of future investigations AckNOWLEDGMENT ‘The author is deeply indebted to Prof. G. Montalenti, Prof. A. Ferro Milone, and Dr. F. Fiorillo for their eon” stant encouragement and interest in this work, a number of fruitful discussions, and valuable comments and sug- pestions after their critical reading of the manuscript. He also wishes to thank B. Genova, A. Gobetto, S. Rocco, and C. Visca for their technical assistance in loss mea” REFERENCES (0) 4. W, Sing and 6. L, Howe, Jr. “Magnet properties ant do ‘mun suc ingrid 9 Sc-es"TEEE Pras Mage 0 MAG-10, pp 198-225, 975 [21 6°. 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