Plancks quantum theory

Let s look at how the color of a filament changes as the temperature

Lets
changes.
As the resistive wire (filament) heats up it
goes from red to white hot.
Color is related to temperature!

Black body radiation

All objects at a given temperature emit
radiation. (Think about the infrared pictures
of a burglar sneaking up to the house that
you have seen on late night TV).
TV)

Using classical physics 19th century scientists were unable to explain the
relationship between color and temperature. They thought that the energy of light
was related to its amplitude.

Blackbody Radiation and the Ultraviolet catastrophe

Sample
p at temp.
p T

Pinhole to
observe emitted
radiation
Expect this
classically

Cavity
C
i with
ih
non-reflecting
walls

Observe this!

Classical physics predicts that the shortest wavelengths will dominate (there is no
peak).
k) In other
h words
d the
h universe
i
would
ld be
b filled
fill d with
i h the
h highest
hi h frequency
f
radiation (gamma rays) (life would be unable to exist).

Plancks proposal
Max Pl
M
Planck
k proposed
d ((c. 1900) th
thatt th
the oscillators
ill t iin th
the sample
l could
ld only
l
vibrate at fixed frequencies. Namely,
h = proportionality constant (now called
Pl k constant)
Plancks
t t) = 6.626
6 626 x 10-34 J.s
J

E h
E h h

Notice that given either wavelength or frequency we can calculate the energy or
that ggiven the energy
gy both the wavelength
g and frequency
q
y are determined.

Using this assumption Planck was able to explain blackbody radiation

and
d solve
l the
h problem
bl off the
h Ultraviolet
Ul
i l catastrophe.
h

Blackbody distributions

An object near
absolute zero

A room temperature object

More Blackbody distributions

A red hot object !

But what is the physical

meaning of h ?

Photoelectric effect
Experimental Observations:
1.
Shine light on certain metals (e.g. alkali) and electrons are ejected. For
example, shining red light on Cs causes the ejection of the electrons.
Other metals require shorter wavelength (higher frequency) light.
light
2.
For each metal there is a minimum frequency light necessary in order to
cause ejection of the electrons.
3
3.
Shi i a lower
Shining
l
frequency
f
light
li ht on the
th metal,
t l no matter
tt how
h bright,
b i ht does
d
not result in the ejection of any electrons.
4.
If you shine a higher frequency light on the metal, the kinetic energy of
th electrons
the
l t
increased
i
d but
b t the
th number
b off electrons
l t
remained
i d the
th same.

H could
How
ld one understand
d t d these
th
f t?
facts?

Photoelectric effect: Experimental Setup

Photoelectric effect: Dependence on intensity

Photoelectric Effect: Dependence on frequency

Photoelectric Effect: Work function and

Plancks constant

KEelectron h

Photons as particles
Einstein : Light
g is not continuous but comes in discrete packets
p
(Quanta) called photons. Think of a photon as a particle of
light.
Two completely separate characteristics of the gun:
number of bullets/ second (analogous to the intensity of light)
energy of each bullet (energy of each photon)
1865 picture of 1 inch
Gatling gun

These two characteristics are not related to each other!

Photons as particles

Imagine that electrons at metal surface

are like balls tethered by springs to a
surface.
Balls (electrons) can only be knocked off if a single collision
between the incoming bullet (photon) and the ball (electron) has
enough energy to break the spring.
If each bullet (photon) does not have enough energy, it does not
matter
tt hhow many bbullets/sec
ll t /
are fi
fired
d (Th
(The iintensity
t it does
d
nott
matter.
If a bullet (photon) has more than the minimum energy, then the
extra energy (above the binding energy of the spring) goes into
the kinetic energy of the ball (electron)

Dual nature of light

U
Under
de certain
ce a circumstances
c cu s a ces light
g can
ca be made
ade too behave
be ave as a particle
pa c e
(photoelectric effect).
Under other circumstances (as we shall see) light can be made to behave as
a wave (two slit experiment)
experiment).
Light has a single consistent nature. This apparent duality
arises
i from
f
our description
d
i i off light
li h in
i terms off particles
i l
or
waves when it is neither (and both) !

Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom

Experiment #1
Shine light
g from the sun or from a heated filament through
g a slit ad then through
g a
prism. (The purpose of the slit is simply so that a single spot on the prism is
illuminated).

Result: All the colors of the rainbow are

observed without any gaps.
gaps The
spectrum is said to be continuous.

Spectrum of Hydrogen
Experiment #2
Now replace the filament (or sunlight) in the previous experiment with the
gaseous discharge of hydrogen gas in a bulb through the same slit and prism.

Result: Notice that we DO NOT observe a continuous spectrum. Instead, only

certain discrete lines are observed. If you change the gas (e.g. to Ne ot Hg)
different lines are observed (more lines at different positions). For all samples of
the same element these spectral lines are always the same. What causes the lines?
The lines represent a unique fingerprint for the element.

Johann Balmer and Johannes Rydberg

To characterize the spectral
p
lines of hydrogen,
y g , Johann Balmer ( a high
g school teacher)) in
1885 realized that the spacing of the lines followed a certain mathematical progression.

1 1
RH 2

4 n
1

Where RH is called the Rydberg constant = 1.097 x 107 m-1 and n = 3,4,5,6
Notice that this pre-dates Plancks postulate of the quantum.
This relationship
p ((formula)) was expanded
p
to include not only
y the visible
light emitted by hydrogen but the UV light emitted as well. It was also
extended to other hydrogen-like elements (Elements which have only a
single electron e.g. Li 2+ , Be 3+ , etc.)

1 1
ZRH 2 2

n1 n2
1

Z= atomic number of hydrogen-like element (1 for hydrogen)

n1 and n2 are positive integers

Orbits and the Principal quantum number

Since,

E h h

We can write:

1
1
E ZhcRH 2 2
n1 n2

What is the physical meaning of this formula ?

Neils Bohr ((in 1913)) connected this formula with the picture
p
of the atom that
was just emerging at that time. He invoked a planetary model in which
electrons orbited the nucleus just as planets orbit the sun. Only certain orbits
were allowed and each orbit was associated with an integer n, called the
principal quantum number. The orbit closest to the nucleus is associated
with n=1. The energy of the electron and the size of the orbit both increase as
the value of n increases.

Energy level spacing in hydrogen atom

Energy
e gy of
o an
a orbit:
ob :

E 2.179 10

18

1
J 2
n

Why is the energy negative ?

n=
E3 = E1/9
E2 = E1/4

n=3
n=2

Discuss ladder analogy steps are

unequal !

E1 = -2.179 x 10-18 J

n=1

Transitions in the hydrogen atom

To go from n=1 (the ground state) of the hydrogen atom,
atom we must supply
the difference in energy.

E 2.179 10

18
18

1
J 2 2

n
n
f
i

Where nf is the principal quantum number of the final state and ni is the
principal quantum number of the initial state. (in this case 2 and 1
respectively).
Notice that if nf > ni energy is absorbed (E > 0)
If ni > nf, energy is emitted (E < 0)
Examine the relationship between this last equation (derived
theoretically) and the experimentally determined Rydberg equation
(expressed in terms of energy).

Single slit diffraction

1. Waves passing through a single slit

Break in sea-wall (slit)

Size of slit is
smaller than the
wavelength!
Notice that wave is at
positions A and B at the
same time

Incoming waves (lines

represent crests)

Sea shore (screen)

http://www.control.co.kr/java1/masong/oneslit.html

Two slit diffraction

1. Waves passing through two adjacent slits
Break in sea-wall (slit)

Size of slit is
smaller
ll than
h the
h
wavelength!
Place where
Pl
h two crests
coincide wave is
even bigger; where a
crest and a trough
g
coincide cancellation
occurs.
Incoming waves (lines
represent crests)

Sea shore (screen)

On seashore (screen)
alternating regions of
lots of water (light) and
no water (dark)
corresponding
di to the
h
superposition (addition)
of the waves

Interference pattern from light

incident on two slits

Wave passing through two slits

Interference pattern

Interference/diffraction pattern WAVES

Notice that the size of the slit, d . What happens when d >> ( << d) ?
NO DIFFRACTION!

Equivalence of mass and energy

Einstein (1905)

E mc 2
Energy and mass are equivalent and related through the proportionality
constant c2. If the energy of a system changes (increases or decreases) there
is a corresponding change in mass.

E
m 2
c
IIn chemical
h i l reactions
i
the
h change
h
iin mass iis iimperceptible
ibl d
due to the
h llarge
value of c2 relative to E. In nuclear processes (radioactive decay, reactions)
because E is much larger (due to the strength of the nuclear bond), a
perceptible change in mass is observed.

de Broglie wavelength
If light
g has a dual nature ((both pparticle and wave)) whyy doesnt matter (e.g.
( g electrons))
also have a dual nature ? In 1924 Louis de Broglie postulated that it does.
Plancks
constant
t t

h
h

p m v
P i l velocity
Particles
l i

deBroglie
wavelength

momentum

Particle mass

Notice that if the momentum is very big, then the wavelength is very small.
Converselyy for an object
j with a small mass and a low velocity,
y the momentum
will be small and will be big.

Davisson and Germer experiment

Beam of electrons

On the screen they

observe alternating
pattern of lots of
electrons
l t
andd no
electrons.

Nickel foil
(crystal)

screen

What does this tell them ?

Diffraction and you

If all particles are also waves (duality of matter), then you are a
wave. Why dont you diffract as you pass through a doorway
(slit) ?

Imaging with neutrons

Example
a pe
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron traveling at 10% the velocity of light.

mn 1.67 10 24 g
p mn v (1.67 10-27 kg )(0.1)(3 108 m / s )
kg.m
s
h 6.626 10 34 J .s

1.3 10 14 m 13 fm
k .m
p
20 kg
5 10
s
p 5 10 20

This is about the diameter of a nucleus.

Imaging with neutrons continued

Example
a pe
What happens if we decrease the velocity of the neutron to 1 m/s? increases !

mn 1.67 10 24 g
h
6.626 10 34 J .s

4 10 7 m 400nm

m
mv (1.67 10 27 kg
g )(1 )
s

So a 1 m/s neutron has the same wavelength as blue light!

Vary the velocity of the neutron change its wavelength
LENS (Low
(L Energy
E
Neutron
N t
Source
S
att Indiana
I di
University
U i
it Cyclotron
C l t
Facility) does exactly this (http://www.iucf.indiana.edu/lens)
Val e: Study
Value:
St d matter analogous
analogo s to using
sing X-rays
X ra s but
b t at a different wavelength.
a elength
X-rays good for high Z, crystalline materials; neutrons good for low Z (eg. H)
less ordered materials