ENERGY THEOREMS AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS A Generalised Discourse with Applications on Energy Principles” of Structural Analysis Including the Effects of Temperature and Non-Linear Stress-Sirain Relations. by J. H. ARGYRIS, D.Sc. (Eng) Profesor of Aeronautical Structures, ‘University of London, Imperial College of Scence and Technology Co-author of Part II S, KELSEY, BSc. (Eng) Lecturer in Aeronautleal Structures, Imperial College of Seience and Technology NEW YORK PLENUM PRESS LONDON BUTTERWORTHSPublished inthe US.A, by PLENUM PRESS ‘dion of| PLENUM PUBLISHING CORPORATION 227 West 1th Suet, New York,NY.) Fis published by Buwerworth & Co, (Publahec Lid, Reprinted 1968 Originally published in a series of articles in ‘AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING Ost. Nov., 1954; Feb, March, April, May, 1955, JO, Arayee 1960 ‘Reprinted in rest Brian photo io by Page Bros (Norwich Lid.En Lg arto 29/323 239 PREFACE T Present work was originally published as a series of articles in Aircraft Engineering between October 1954 and May 1955. ‘The ‘purpose of these papers was two-fold. Ftsly to generalize and extend but atthe same time alio to unify the fundamental enerey principles of | analysis of elastic structures. Although much of the corresponding theory has been available fora numberof years, to the best of the author's knowledge it has not besa given before in such generality. Asan example, ‘whilst keeping within the small daection theory the arguments have been developed ab initio to include nonlinear elasticity and arbitrary initial strains eg. thermal strains. The first assumption introduces naturally the twin concepts of work and complementary work frst put forward bby Engeser. The author has attempted in this connexion to refer fall relevant and historically important papers. Since the appearance of the present articles, afew papers have been publithed which touch upon the same subject but suffer, unfortunately from a rather incomplete list of references. Seconaly, the writer developed in considerable detail practical methods ‘of analysis of complex siructures—in particular for aeronautical engineer- Jing applications. The most important contributions are the matex methods ‘of analysis. Since they are only edrsorily refered to in the Introdsetion, it may be appropriate here 1o describe their use and origin in greater detail. The matrix formulation besides providing an elegant and concise expression of the theory of such structure, is ideally suited for modern automatic computation because of the systematic ordering of numerical operation which the matrix ealeuls aflords. The necessary programming or the digital computer is simplified since it can be preprogrammed to carry out matrix operations with only simple orders as to location and size of the matrix concerned and the operation ¢0 be performed. The specific programming fora particular problem may therefore be written comparatively quickly and easily and, moreover, follows closely the algebraic analysis [As developed here, the matrix methods of analysis follow from particular forms ofthe two fundamental energy principles applicable to structures ‘made up as an assembly of discrete elements. The one principle leads to ‘an analysis in terms if displacements as unknowns (displacement method), while the second leads to an analysis in terms of force (force method) Besides revealing more ciearly the duality of the two methods, this erivation shows also the close connexion between the aproximate ‘methods (like the Rayleigh-Ritz method) for continuous systems and the matrix methods for finite assemblies This ie partculaly valuable in providing suitable techniques for establishing the basic properties — stiffess and fexibilty—of the individual elements ofa complex structure Where these elements have to be assigned simplified stress or strain patterns. But in stressing the advantages of a unified approach to these diverse problems, a word of caution is necessary against cacrying over into the modem methods too many ideas associated with practical calculations by the established or classical methods, The ability to tackle succesfully problems in which the number of unknowns is measured in hundreds carries with it the necessity of rethinking one's practical approach if maximum advantage is to be gained from modern computational teche niques. Inthe force method of analysis the choice of basi sytem and ofthe redundant forces must be governed primarily bythe requirements of simplicity and standardization, in orger to reduce the manual preparation of data toa minimum, and reduce the probasility of errors At the time of publication of the original articles it was intended to reprint them a a single volume and to follow up the Parts | and if, contained here, with further parts dealing specifically with the practical pplication of the matrix methods. Unfortunately it was not posible, for ‘a number of reasons, to complete this plan and the acticles have for some time teen unavailable. ice there appears to be @ persistent interest in them the present reprint has been produced to mest the deficiency Grateful thanks and acknowledgment are due to the Fitor of direraft Engineering for permission to reprint the articles in this form. The method fof reproduction has not permitted complete rearrangemnt of the text {nto book form, so thatthe divisions into monthly instalments are stil marked by blank spaces. However, errors in the text ave been corrected as far a5 possible, and the pages have been renumbered consecutively ‘to make for easier reference. Grateful thanks are du to Miss J. A. Bereg for her care and skilinffecting these changes. The author would also like to thank here those correspondents who have writen 10 point out textual errors and misprints A list of references to further work is also appended. These are all concemed with the matrix methods of analysis whose basie theory is developed here. In particular, Ref. 6 is an expanded and developed orm of part of the work which was initially planned for the original FURTHER REFERENCES TO RECENT WORK 1,3. H. Argyrie and S. Kelsey. "Structural Analysis by the Matrix Fores Method, with applications to Aircraft Wine”. Wssenschft= Miche Gesellchaf fur Lififaher, Jahrbuch 1936, pT. 2. J.H. Argyris and S. Kelsey. "The Matrix Foree Method of Structural ‘Analysie and some new applications". Bri. eon. Research Counet, RU&'M. 3034, February, 1956 3. 4.H. Argyris, “Die Matrizen-Theorie der Statik”, Ingeniur Archin, Vol. 25, No.3, p. 174, 1957 4, JM. Army. “On the Analysis of Complex Elastic Structures” “Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol 11, NO. 7, 1988. 5, J. Hi Atgyels and S, Kelsey: “Note on the Theory of Aircraft Structures". Zettschit fur Fligwissenschafien, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1938, J. H, Arayrs and 8, Kesey. “The Analysis of Fureages of Arbitrary GrossSeetion and Taper. aircraft Engineering, Vol. XXX, No. ‘6h p62; No. 362, pr IO; No. 363, p.135: NO, 364, p. 169: No ‘368, p 192; No. 366 ps 244; No. 367, . 272; 1999.” (To be pubished Jn Book form by Butterworths Seientine Publications)be Part I. General Theory By J. H. Argyris 1. INTRODUCTION HE increasing compleiy of ster structures ad the many exact. oF approximate methods svaable for ther anus demged at intersted view ofthe whole subject, ot only In der 0 samp their appatons but also 10 vscover some move general tthe el Inethods Threat ls oter reson demanding more comprehens discussion of the base theory. We mention onl the Insessingsietion pad to temperature stesses and the realiation othe importance of poke linear eet: When viewed from al thee aspect the den of presrtng a ne aan er ha mesg ‘Wit hs presen paper we sot OU Yo Svcop a comprehensive system for the determination of stresses and deformations in ease, ‘structures. Based on two fundamonal energy pmeiies: Although mush fe tis) ven has naturally been known fr mary Years we believe tht sone of te theorems and he eneralty ofthe resulc are ew, Te loading ters considered are of ar arbcry nature and include ab tuto the eft of temperature or other inital rans, Nether do we restrict ourselves 10 ‘asl bodies obeying Hooke's law bu ake account of purely clastic nom linear steswsein favs, This possibly not of very grea importance a presat but may have wider appieations in the future No problems of gas bhiywil be Touched pon inthe presen sete of ares and any oer considerations of lepe-delon tery ar, In neal ome, Those Durpase sto investigate, thin the ari-detesion theory, the sss nd deformations in ease bodies not necessarily obeying inca ste Sain law and under any load and temperate bution Byaainc effects ar intially not considered and ence tt asurned for he presen thatthe Toads and temperature are of the quissate typ When re ‘esigating thermal stam ef we ought sty fo base Ye analy thermodynamic consicetions: Thee ate, however ony slighty thes Sponere sin all theoretical work, we start by discussing the exact implications and equations derived rom the inal touring, bt we donot fest ‘urselves hereto this apect On the conta, we pay close atention te {pproninate methods of arava bsed on te py coneeps of wok andstrain energy. In parucular we tempt to give upper and lowes bounds eral proper ofthe srdture sch ats snes No steps Imada oefimate the eto af sess and formations at any Peicalat pai, “This series of papers orginally aro? from lectures given by the author singe 194530 at the ImprilCollegsy Unversity Lovdon Natural, the scope ofthe pretem work has groom beyond the narrower oncet of undergraduate teaching, butte bass of he analy dacs back ISR dine prone te pint ot hat crn tthe base ides ovate with Enger’ who unfortunatly docs nt stem to have followed thm up. We tele, ofcourse 0 Te oo somplementay cor cepts of work and compiemcntary work. I we consider an ordinary ford Siepicement dagram, then, even Hf he fenict ourseives to smal di Dlacements, tis may be curvilinear, the material follows 9 eat fersestran law. Works the are Getoen the dapaceet ans tn he Gurve le complementary work i hat includ betwen te fone ats tnd the cure, Thu the vo areas complement each She inthe fe tEngulr aren (res) placement) whieh woud be the work he ulate bree were ating with te ful intensity rom the beginning of the {isplacement. Naturally inthe ase of «ody flowing Hooke’ les, Le {wo complementary areis are equal, bust sul etl for ie purpose ot nayss to Keep them apart Since wing a previous paper's On he ‘bet the author has had the opportunity of consulting the most Ie ‘eresing test book of Stephen Pinsheno, Tere a reterene rade fo the work of Wesergards who indeed hs eveopes further te bask das of Engtser, But not on gute such a gencral basis se here: Sines approximate methods igre prominently i is pape elerene ight fo iemade to the work of Proper and Synge. They f00 st ou 1 Gaelop Selma the determination ‘of upper and lower lit to sain fSreray,restncing themarves, however, 0 Hooke? lw and cxclvang femperatire ects, Moreover, it sppeirs that although sanyo thee 2 {2 Sree Feat as eH 38 tS ine Rh ow of Sd de i son Se od 1) Toni, Sand Goode. Thur 9 hy, nde Mace Ne Yr, (13) Are Thema Sire dnt and wre Perens A.C. Va, Dee 98%, Fede ta tS aml eee de cat iaoaam seem Rrcaietdecmigcrth g o lik Setoartat ras ke tan a ae fit hes Powis arc eae sraiog Ta tee See bance ee ones (roi eetemaim meen dead sate meee ane ee es ier ha eet aya cr ee five ged atta cheer er iS ante etre atta ten taet fotos otter ce ns i Pecan akc Misra ce ees ath te at ected vata cacctrawe arte Rien Ai gansare nanan iden: ar asminaente tn eres Mie incu tte cal emanate ees sameeren irae ane gr Setgen eet Seaecinmaraiantast steer et lager recency tag eg name sain enastormias see setae Enc VECME Na 1 Dace 3Firstly the principle of virtual displacements may always be used to derive, for any particular Structural problem, the governing aiferental ‘auations and te appropriate static Boundary conditions in terms of the ‘isplacements, This method, however, i not commended in general asa {Substitute for the derivation from consideration of equlirium and elastic eommpatity, ‘Next the principe of virtual work is used to derive Castgliano’s theorem Patt I, generalized for thermal eects. Asis well known, this priniple plies not ony for non-finear strese stain laws But also for ge dis placements. Outline of argument leads us then naturally to the principle ‘Gf minimum strain energy for a fixed set of displacements and a given temperature distribution. This theorem applies also for nonlinear stress: fran las and is of great interest for approximate calculations In terms ‘Of assumed forms of sisplacements. It shows us tot, while the strain nergy is fora given se of displacements a minimum when the compaible State alto one of equilibrium, it on the other hand s maximum for 8 {ven set of forees under the same conditions, These theorems were Rrst ‘eveloped for linearly elatie bodies by Lord Rayleigh more than seventy five years ag0. They are shown to apply also in the presence of thermal ‘Main andlor nonlinear elastiiy. Inthe remainder ofthe chapter we i Yestgate in more detal approximate methods of analysts Using the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure and'it isin such applications thatthe principle fof irtual displacements shows its greatest power. The pariculae form of the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure known as the Caleckin method is also dit fussed. ft it of importance when the assumed deformations sais) all Soundary conditions. The methods indicated apply again In the presence Of theqndl srsine and non-linear stresesteain aus. The next, Section 5, {ive imple illustrations to the method of virtual dsplacemen’, "The sesond fundamental principe is developed in Section 6. We cal it the principle of virtual forees or complementary virtual work. Here We considera sate of equilibrium, apply 2 statically consistent aad infinitely Smal virtual Torce and stres system and find, by using the Idea Of com plementary work, the second principle This i @ necesary and sufficient Eonaition that the position of equllorium is also one of elastic com- patibility. Again this theorem may be used to derive the differential ‘Squatons of any particular problem, this mein tems of stresses or stress Tesultants, However, our commen on the parallel method inthe ease of the virtual displacements are equally applicable here. It should never be uted asa substitute for more physical and geometric reasoning, ‘Next, we derive whet is esentially a generalization of Castilino’s Il theorem. Contrary to| what is geeally Beived this theorem Joes ‘apply for nonlinear stress-strain laws as long as we replace strain energy ‘ycomplementary stain energ), whieh is defined in the same way a6 ‘complementary work. Its extended to include temperature eects. We proceed then withthe gencralization of Castigliano's principle of imu nn energy (or lease wrk) for non-linear stress-stra favs and thermal Strains. Some interesting Gevelopments derive from this and are given it the form of maximum and maimnum theorems complementary fo those developed under the virtual displacement method. They do not seem (O fave been given previously inthis form and provide a useful background fo approximate methods. They show us that any assumed statically equ alent stres dstibution must always under-esimate the sifines. This is tet valuable for practical purposes and is exacly opposite tothe effect ‘of astumed dipbeement distibstions which always overestimate the ‘Sips. The to in conjunction give us hence lover and upper bounds fw overall charagerstics of the Structure such a8 Ks stiffpes. Tp tg seodon we Giseus also the Unit Load Method whieh, as mentioned Bos, vig th as or oe of he more amvenient meds or {he ealeultion of daplacements and of tedundant forces Its shown {0 be applicable to stractures with nonlinear stese-strain laws. Section 7 resents some simple ilustraions of the principle of virtual Tore. Tn the last section we develop a slightly more generalized version of the 8a method of Mcler-resiau, These equations lead themselves readily Toresentaton in matrix form, Next we obta thecortespondingequations ‘wien displacements and not forces ae introduced asthe unknowns. “A Note on the Mathematics ‘The mathematics used in this paper is in general elementary and shouldbe familia to any university graduate. We have avoided the more formal application ofthe clculut of variations which ean be singularty, Unatiraetive to those more physialy inspired. Chapter 3 and parts of Chapters and 6 may prove ats rather dificult fora student. How. ‘ever it always posible to gain an understanding of the basic ideas by Substituting simple examples e frameworks) forthe necessarily more ‘eral proofs gen here “Te later parts ofthis series of papers will present a number of appli tions of the basie methods developed ere 2. BASIC EQUATIONS AND NOTATION body forees (e8. gravity fore) per unit ncn bof Paxalel toa bn dn ds surface forces per unit surface Co-ordinate system Tin dtetion cosines of external normal t© [9x Oy, O: sie Js nen a2 fon displacements J Normal (umany te Lo yon St} total shear strains | }e initial direct stains (eg. thermal strains) Ten Ton Te Stone Noe‘ shear strains Grape ete, elastic direct strains clastic shear strains even dVededydz clement of volume as element of surface a linear coefficient of thermal expansion (may vary wth 8) 2 rise of temperature E Youne’s modulus G Shear modulus May vary with @ ’ Poisson's ratio J 97 ~B1iYart Ont t BYP + Ouse cee “The corresponding explicit expressions for ay and oe ae obtained by substituting the stains ype te and fee. espectively TOF Pr w work of external forces U.=—Weeonst, potential (energy) of external forces uw steain energy (or potential energy of elastic de- Formation) complementary work, complementary potential of ex: ternal foress and compiementary potential enetey Of caste deformation us complementary potential energy of total deformation From & consideration of equilibrium on an elenent dV =dxdye, las. trated Tor he nirestion mF. Ys we Ue Ut b wiimrscortereneenenonnerss[Bs Fig. 3.—nternal equilibrium conditions From a consideration of equilibrium onthe surface (en. 2) 4) It Rn baby I tat bt mn, Over pact ofthe surfice the boundary conditions may be expres in eins asa 6s Hote ate boundary Sonos aod See ee Ia: ines of dpcenet oe ano or Beet Soundary condos) Natura the boundary conitins ny ba Both yaa ovr the shine prt of ihe sacs Censor esas he {be shown naa essed fay but in at tes (eB ead es Sttbeupte=. Rien ne vn pane but heey Restos toucnsees Sutot th pla seeatecoa ‘ a wale. both state and kinematic conto, “To denote infitesinal ements of eo properties of the structure (eg, co-ordinates, area, volume) we ue the standard symbol "Fo. denote infinitesinal increments of Toros, streste, placement, sai eed eae sete pena L "Hits UP iy aseming engineers theory of bending to hola (eR) -r-0 : wD and te Guo frm 0 vu workeqution [CS e) a} ae-0 (ie tis easy to se that for displacement funetons (80) stsfving al boundary conditions the Galerkin and Rayleigh-Ritz methods must yield the same ‘quations for oy be cand hence also the same ceformations. We need ‘nly realize that inthis ease Eqs. (57) are indeed equivalent tothe principe Of virtual work. Heace substitution of %, » in Eqs (57) must ge he Same result as substation into su-0 “The advantage of Galerkin's method les in a more direct derivation of the equations in a,b,c However, contrary to svhat usually assumed, this advantage (ssl if we ealelate BU directly. We note also thal Galerki's method allows only such approximate functions as satisfy al boundary conditions, while the Rayleigh Ritz procedire requires only the “stsacton ofthe Kinematic boundary conditions,Consider the cantilever under transverse load shown in fia, 10. To ‘obtain an approximate expression for the defieions » by the Raleigh Ritz procedure we need only select a function or sequence of functions Bing However, when applying the Galerkin method Ea, (61a) must satisfy aso the static conditions at #=F, fe. Shear force Bending moment =0 °° (8). (3) an 5. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE METHOD OF VIRTUAL DISPLACE- MENTS In this section we present a number of applications ofthe principle of virtual work, These are not meant to give the shortest possible solutions 1 the problems considered but merely to illsrate the way in which the method can be applied in some simple cates, More complicated problems are investigated in Part 1, (@) Continuous Beam with Non-Linear Spring Support ‘The uniform beam of bending stffest EY shown in rig. 11 caries 8 uniformly distributed load p and is simply supported atthe ends, At the czntre an additional support consists ofa spring wth the load displase. ‘ent lw pearfierstyg) seccnnanstees ta “ru te ini springs an te pet x whi sng ae Wie eat of he Enso Tory of Beng eas y pans ee faire aig ah by Iie dec Se ba ane Wc en gaan Meee Pas 2 Norinesr = “pring! r—te, Fig. 1.—Virtual displacements: Exam; * “Wien nonlinear spel {G1 Simoly support beam ‘The fist pat of the problem is, ofcourse, trivial and the result known to.any undergraduate, but we wan to show here how the Vital Dspace ‘ments method can be applied in suc a case, We consider virtual placements consisting of small arbitrary ad Sonal tins (ofthe beam fom i egitim po Principle of Virtual Displacements then express the equilorium con: ition inthe form 3u,-8W=0 o @® ‘The virtual displacements must satsy certain kinematic boundary con- tions namely Byn0 for z=0and 2=2! eee « and since both structure and loading are symmetricel we nocd only con Sider symmetrical virtual displacements, Hoses AB de=(69Y=0 for 21 Strains and stresses in beam due to «es as) and therefore the vitual strain de to Bris Bem FBV") = F150)" coon . (26) ‘The increment of strain energy inthe beam due to bending is thus 2f fo-Berdd-de= 24 | 5 which becomes, om integrating twice by pacts, hv") de @ remy bry | v6) [he Br de) esc 8) ‘The increment of strain eneray in the spring is Py a) ‘and the increment of work done by the distributed lod is BWA Bocce svisivessss 1D) 10 Since otherwise By is arbitrary we conclude that to saity Eq all) (E1740, NED") ,p~P=0 . fn snd» must satisty the differential equation Eby. cesceeeeseeee (al) Eqs (a2) and (a13) together with the kinematic conditions ra=O and (¥).0)=0 aa ‘ve all the necessary infurmation forthe determination of» lng rating Ea. (a3) and using the boundary conction (a) andl) wwe find finaly Yor ¥ the quadratic equation PAH UHH 0) KIVAVIV + IYO fas) bere WekOYGEL, Vim Splt24 : (©) Plane Redundant Framenork ‘A lane framework consisting of single joint connected by a number ‘of hinged bars toa rgié foundation is loaded by forces X ane along the axes Ox, Oy respectively (Ho. 12}. In addition, the bars are heated te arbteary temperatures and have also inital trains due to ertors a ‘manufacture, ind by application ofthe Principle of Virwal Displacements the forces Inthe bars. et u » be the dlspiacements of the loaded hinge, measured from the position for which all ars have the correct length and ate-ac 2606 tenes perature. Then the cota direct stain inthe rth bar fr these displacements secon sia 8, po tehet co wy The total stan ig made up ofthe ease strane ogether with the thermal stain ena) and the tal oa pr nh ie a ee el snes a) bing th atonal enth of tar (neato he corrc lent) due to manufacturing errs or oer eases, ems he ante sale tas oe andi dnt ent aa Menta ne[eem behind.) a I we now impose on the joint the virtual displacements Bu, By there arises an increment of strain energy 8U,, and an increment of work 317 of the applied foros, where Area 4,, Length & Fig, .—Virtal displacements: Example (b) Redundant yscem of baresucBaoby, “Saal teeter ® oine) [EY BW=xbu+ YB ‘By the Principle of Vitual Displacements 3U,-5W=0 and therefore A ott) sin cond) EA nett] + ae sinters ss Sy ede nasit-y]-0 wn I Ba, (67s t0 be satsid, sine Bu, Bv are arbitrary, the two expres- sions in brackets must separately be equal to zer0 and hence we have two ations in the dnplacements av. Solving for u,v the srsses and fores in the bars can be calculated from Ea, (b4). “The two equations are, of cours, the equi «cand pdirstions and could be derived iret by states with ie'the Prinipie of Virtual Displacements. Note that theve are always only tivo unknowas ia this approach, regard lest ofthe number of bars. Hence iis preferable to operate with the dis- ‘Placements us as Unknown than with foees inthe bars when n>. (©) The Open Tube Under Torque ‘A uniform, open tube of length /is subjected to a distributed torque im, pet unit length and end torques Te and Ty ‘With the assumption tht shear strains due to restrained warping are zero (Wagner assumption) establch the dilerential equation forthe angle of twist and the stale boundary conditions. Give also a series solution faethe ase when the ends e=0, 2Fareprevenied from twstng Bose ree to war, eh where ¥ ig the warping per unit rate of twist, The direct strain ex and {Rewis on due to non-constant rate oF twist ae Fey EO" ” sous (2) ‘The torque due to the St Venant torsional shear stresses is Ty=Gs0" vesccsssnnees . <8) We obtain now vieual displacements by giving to the twist @ an inere= sent $f. The vorresponding vital strain bei given bY oom" re ant nto fos da dis ane desanésaforeo tfotdgenferesores .. he Sct ERSTE PRET eS vom sar ese i Jos0°50yde=[610'88y'de (6) nh wor don yh aie tage and eo Bir ndbee 80, -TABD. oo a) Asin te Pcp of Vial Work Buin by -onfle 8s c1 G8) -midOne 8] ey Integrating by parts the est teem twice andthe second once, we finaly obtain jrerov—Gs0"—m8adesiou9 ere” ria | tere" (68y | 0 " © For the integral to vanish, since 38 is arbitrary, @ must satisfy the df= ferential equation ET8— G18" m0 2.0. (10 which is recognized as the usual Wagner equation differentiated with respect to 2 The twist at both ends of the tube is specifed then 50 must there be taken zero and the fist bracketed term in 9) vanishes also. I in addition the warping (and henee 0) is specied (eg. builtin ens) then (8) i also sero at gO and z= /and the remaining term also vanishes. If however the end s=/ i Tree to twist and warp, (80), and (80) are arbieary and ve have as further conditions from Gundy E08) E0"9,=0 J which are the necessary static boundary conditions at the fee end. The rst is ofcourse the condition for equality of external and internal torque And the second the condition for zero direct stress or the series solution, we fepresent the twisted shape by the Fourier 52 Yunsin (SE) cceeseee era and take for viral displacements the increments of twist produces by a fall variation be, ofthe ceetelet dy ‘sing 3) we hind sutwate 1S | cos "7 eos Ede cen) * , L (13) et) in sf te] {nso ve ian “mel or) €r) oe [GACT] orm | poo shih ve for he vt ton 2S ats nell ae LF) Gr] In this ase, since the assumed form of solution satisfies also the static ‘boundary conditions 6"=0 for 20 and. we can alternatively use the Galerkin form ofthe Virtual Work equation, whieh fin this ease for m even tere G10"—m884e—0 ein ‘nd is given immediately from Ea, (9). Ir we approximate our solution for @ by retaining only the first term in (cl6) we pnderestimate the average angle of twist. This es up with Our Statements om p 8; for, by putting 2~oqain(vz[P) we apply constraints Sn the tube ari hence overestimate the sins. n6. THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES OR COMPLEMEN: "TARY VIRTUAL WORK satura in reviewing the development of Sections 3 and 410 ingire Jeiiree sige gon thecomentn of onplenentay Sort dsr energy nar ay escolar ork an sn ncray by the introduction of vital daplacements In act ie conser Ess (28 ana (05) we reaae immediatly that he Tuntions BIP™ and 5d are independent ofthe variations bu ane assoited with te orc and sss increments, jst 08 1” and BU are independent of the vate ios Sana Braud witht chy a bes New finding 8°" and SU,* we may asuie that displacements ‘and rains i constant. Als, the infinitesimal increments a, da», 54 are arbi- tray as tng as teyaatay the eqiliam conioie fn he inetor and there such are prescribed, on the sures Thus if we fix tat the sfc Toyes are not to be varied over par ofthe pouhdary we must have ther bg; however, where Kinematie condtions are. presented on te Boundary the bf variation cannot be asigned. Iti apparent that our Incremental sexs fystem mead not even be an sianclly compatible one Ite onlyresreted by the eongvon that must be satay equialen {0 thelond increments Su and 99. Whites increments are applied 1s ‘sgumeda5 Setion 4 thatthe omperatreremmins constant Sins Infintesinal variations of freee and sree whch are arbitrary as long as they sais the preseribed equitorium condions we eal ual forces and scenes. “ Before extatingtheocem (25 forthe more general conception ito gee re nie any eran the ett orn ea ‘Thus, we multiply the ree Gepicerents uw by the internal equ tur conditions (29) which te sttal stresses Sy God es tun salty Sim iotegrate over the Body. apply Oreons Theorem: and note 1h Eoundary’ conditions (30) we bain Eg. (38) where ee are the tu Strain atsocited hth dslacemerts 1, e Next os apply Green's “Theorem in the opposite direction by starting from the ight ide {F Ea (33) We find tha this Tunction can only be eaual the le-hand Side the terms yc are indeed the expansions forthe strains @) and (G3) and sats the inemati boundary coins “Thus, we conclude that an elastic body fs nan elastically compatible state unde a given system of free a tempersarederiouton i for aay ‘tual Increments of forest snd sees from & poston of equiloru Ui Bad . @ we Berd¥ and 982=9182.-+80y+82n) 6) See also Eas. (35) and (380). Eg, (62) n fact a necessary and sulficient condition for elastic com= patibility ofthe guitar. “Theorem (62) we call the Brincipe of viral forees or virtual comple mentary work for elastic bodies subjected to loads and temperature dis- ‘bution, Note that (62) applies for nomlinear stress-strain lav “The above discussion indiates that there isa close parallel Between the | Ln} V2— 2 princi of viral dpiacerments and vital forces. Thus, by substitatng ‘tual forces (eess) for aul st daplacemcnt erase seed iden ri Tors (pena vaan ate a Stung for tear ste of forces we Sbais Ea (69 fom Eats Howeve, tis duit ony compl Yor contncaus terres tes Ae infty redundant. Ie onthe other hand we conace 4 eae cemiat strane wo fad tat whe sl pose fo deste oy ite set of viral dapacements bu ssoested wih x seid sea tertin of the Sapicemens: oly one srt ye can st or ce Xterra oes: ence no ean be asignet im the ater ett and the frie of vieual Toe fax’ appiction. AL mote fundamen Tinton ofthe prince of vital free appears ve sant i eed our theorems to fteceiacoments Here we nd that it rh gem lmpositie fo acheve thi forthe eile of virtual fort while a5 mentioned in Seton 4, no tie ifuty rss nthe ene ofthe ae Silcof tun spleens However for he ru ales rest Srems lnvoling al dalacsman theory the pte of steal res Sih fs many pata forse mo uel one sine he saad Drocedare trodes force asenkrovnt Natural teteare any ee scaly in molteredonda stactre, where avantagous fo ne iroduce isp icements an pwne here he principio tea espace mens the indeated pethod a shown in Expl O) of Secton We return now to Ear (0) andl nate ray ona sry sitle example Conese fo har eer the rdindsnt bea of wer) Asura sess /buitinotz0 sph spotted ve and seb to uilorm ond peer a, Under the saan ha the say tnaiper they of ending hola that shea deo ae sentido tenon V's Ben by val) BG) 2] As yl force we sek: BP a he cent of he team a sow in ro. da) However nce we reuie nly 5 sally equal Ses Sem fo equlfbrae the applied ial ead we may efit the oe Tedundancy and tle a sttaiy terminate Cam Tae Oe seats ‘hots eding 16s seraly sported bean and entre arene Ts 1b and 1), Dentng the tue deeson aie cere weave a it Swe bry, =8P peg Also since the Engineets theory of bending apples ( suse|fetrut] here the integral inthe square bracket refers tothe integration over the croseseetion. For the case shown in ric 10, aa -s0(1-2) rosa boo 1 Aso sine, 0) for 2a {I weapply now afore — A8P atthe free end our virtual system () trans formed into (a). Noadditional 317" arisessincev=0 at t= The addtional ‘bending moment SA” produced by ~ ASP is sie(1-F)s00 sd this fun oo rate an aoa 84, By ing te foment stain a ay hal pose without aia ha SUES Sop lf he viral Seem ‘We reten ow tor (62) and ote tat se the dplacements are assim constant when tne vital ces at applied we ay pd BP SSthevaration ofa peal =U," whee Y= flame maUV—flob tb WMS cossssee (6 Thus, 5H/*=—BU,* and U." may be termed the complementary potenti of the external fores” Note, however that WH mor = * Een btaing bom 17 ne musa eh the tegration Tor displacements varying with Toad. In fac, fora hmear syst nd no temperature elects r= -U."/2: compare ais Eas (a) and 8). ‘Ato since the thermal string are kept constant we may write te Fgh hand side of (62) a8 Busta ybudV= BU fd) — 5U (65) where Buta fyBod (650wet Ue US fl fb fl . 66) since © =const, Us* we term the complementary potential energy of total Geformation Nowe that tis always simpler to ealeulate directly BU," from Ea. (63), Particular cares necessary in evaluating U,* for as Eq. (3) Shows i the fist integral ef taken fo vary with o {rom the inital fo the final state whitey, ih the Second tategal refer gay to the faa values Physically speaking we may consider Uy" as the complementary work ‘evensay to each the final tre state of deformation fom an intl state In which we allowed free thermal expansion and destroyed compatibility Formulae (68) and (66) may be extended inunediately to the case of arbieary inital straining by substring det Sntich ee Mute fOr ys Eq, (62) can now be written more concisely But = BAU" EU.) 0 om Where the suffix o indicates that only forces and stresses are varied and Ute Us HUS a (67a) is defined as the total complementary potential eneray of the system. Eq. (67) states thata state ofequilorium ofan elastic body is also one of laste compatibility (Le the body fs atthe tue position of equilibrium) Irany viral variacion of the stresses and forces, while displacements Femi constant, docs aot give rise to any (fst order variation ofthe (tal ‘Complementary potential eneray. This theorern we cll the principle of 3 Stationary valde of total complementary potential eneray ithe later is fexpressed in terms of forces and stresses. Aetualy the stationary value of GPs minimum as we may prove without dificlly.* This pout s ise fussed in more detail under (C) Belov. gs (621 oF (67) may be used to derve the results which follow: (a), The ilferetial equations of the theory of sastielty (Tor arbitray Ioading and temgeratre“arbuton) or ‘any ‘parteular structural problem, in terms of stresses or stresereaultnte: the. appropriate Einematic conditions i ts of forces and sresee follow also from this ape mponan fone shat a appizaton is best frm Bust =syBouy and not to eval te fist Uy* and then to take its increment BU (@). Castgliano’st Theorem Purt TT generalized for Thermal EMets and (68) het us the deRexion (rotation) inthe direction ofthe force (moment) Pa This relation may be oblained immediately ive apply one Virtual ‘eXiernal forge 8P, Inthe direction ofthe displacement "nergy of total deformation Yor interealy redundant ‘This may be derived from (62) if we do not apply any exteral virtual forges Le 84, =Bfy=B§.— Bw, —Bo,=ber.=0 while varying the stresses 0 Then 39-0 @ lwhich is our generalization of the standacd principle of Castigliano of Minimum Stein Energy to include temperature ects and nodfinear fires tain laws, Note ain that Principle (9) eceseaiy applies only Iinernally redundant structures since for given external loads onlY One stiesdsteibuton can exist in stateally determinate structures. Eg. (69) itself only indicates that Ul.” has a stationary value in that particular state of equilibrium in which all the elste and Kinematic com patty conditions are satisfied. Note, as mentioned before, that withthe Fimitations ofthe. present assumptions, re. small displacements and ‘monotonically increasing sres-stran dagram, there is only One position possible where both the equilibrium and compatibility conditions are Extisied. We now investigate the nature ofthe extremum of U,", which naturally requles the consideration of second order terms as in Section 4 “Consider an elastic Body under given toads ang temperature dstieuton in ite compatibie equilibrium position, We make a ries of cuts in the Body bur atthe same time apply stresses o, acting aero and along the {ats ofthe same magnitude an the uncut body these are obviously the ‘Stesses required (o maaiaain the compatibility condition of perfect Nt at TA Canine, he ein deste er, 0% the cus. If we impose the virtual stresses Sa itis apparent that since these produce corzexponding deformations Su,‘on the eut faces the ater fare not any longer compatible. Ici important to realize thatthe bor "ystems are sellrequirating sine the external loads remain constent ‘Thus ina framework we my Obtain a system Ba, by culling a redundant bar and applying a variation SN tothe tru foes Nin the bar "We now investigate the differences in complementary work W/* and tt between the ofisinal equilibrium position ofthe uncut body and the new enforced equiloriom position ofthe eat body. Compating Eas. (38) tnd (66) we fad w vivian vw In moving from the uncut (compatible) equilibrium state tothe eut one we rote first tat the integral does not vary singe 9 Hs constant in this step. [so the frst order interment, 8U,*, of Uy" is aero since tis fs the con- ition for compatible equilibria of the ofiginal body and no fist order Snerement b1V* ean arise since the Toads P remain castant. We are then lef only with second order increments For the complementary work this i BEV" = 1Bu,-80,-dS ss (M00) (ovhere the integral is taken over the cut faces) which isthe work ofthe ital tresses So. over the displacements by- they thereves produce. ‘This is clearly positive. The second order inerement of Uy" is merely Sut =yfBorBeaY (708) since remains constant: Band Be are the sess and steans det 8 ‘Terma (10a) and (906) are equal and both postive ‘We conclude that she conplemetar) potential energy of total deforma tion Ux" and the complementary work W™ hove Jor gten foes and tem. perature dsribaion@ minimar tht postion of guano the und Sod at which comity 1s srihed. it oows tat 10, Is overestimated by assuming statically equivalent saree sytem which doesnot say all compatbity conditions tnd we, ignoring the later fact, equate U,~to iV ofthe applied loads P alone Me‘Cannot but overestimate the tagnituse of the daplacement sytem Under the loads & Converssy to achieve a given daplacemeat system our Calculations based on a on-compaibie ses system most underestimate {he corespending load system Thus, theater has hs maxim for he Unigue equilibrium postion which i aso truly compatible This may Be xpresed also as follows Forgiven dsplacemnts and temperature dsribution the complementary potent energy of tora deformation hax a maximum when the state Of quitriam sais oko she compari condos. “The above theorems may be combined to ge The sie ofan elastic body In which the equilibrium conditions are satigied sa mash wher thease sompatalycondions areal “Thos wesc thatthe efecto Introdlng assured forme of sess tribution forthe purpose of approximate soltions i the opposite to tht ‘oF the method of Virtual Displacements and therefore application of bth ‘ethods to's gin. probem yields upper ana lower Bounds to Sch Sauregate quantes at stifhess: No general conclusion as to bounds ca, ‘ofcourse, be drawn for the details of the stew distribution “The above theorems which apply als inthe presence of iil strains other than shove Sue to temperatre do not appear to have been en Sefore with this degree of generality (D). The Unit Load Method ‘Assume that we require the deformation (deflexion or slope) uy at a given point and direction of tn elastic redundant body subjected to given frees and thermal eects: Let the actol tonal stains inthe structure be Known and elven by? Younha bs Yas ‘Applying a load (force oF moment), 8P, in the direction of uw and using E4162) we find BPy-umfybodV Jetabat tydouldY ce OD Where Bore. Bag. afe the vital stresses due to 3P,. na linearly ‘hat system Bune, are proportional to BP, and Eq. (69) can be wien = flyBn Yen t Yon Yodel YBalY tw here Be. . di. ape the stresses due to a unit load. Since d., Fares, ned’ aaly satiety the imternal equlioum conditions and the itemai one for BPI wt is obviously advantageous to. determine Gaccssdore: 1 in the most simple statiealy determinate basi sytem or & nonlinear system Ea. Ge) is sil appleable as long as c, ete are calculated Ina statically determinate basie system. For onl) 1 the yn 3a Unit load 7% 15—Unie load method for ds cement of redundant framework latter case will, BoeaBPe=D0./DPe be the stresses corresponding 10 8 nit load "The Unit Load Method i the most sutsbe to i the clculetion of structures with a inte number of redundancies expressed stesses OF tres extant, "This will be shown in some detail in Section 8, Example ofthe application of Ea. (Na) Consider the plane framework with a redundant support as shown in ‘a. 15(). We'seek the delexion at joint 2 fr the loading case shown, Lettie actual elongation of the members due to loads Py Py tom: perature end manufacturing errors be denoted by Al, NExt we apply lunit load at 2 inthe direction of v and find the forces win the bars, Since ‘we need only considera statically doterminatecaze we Ignore the support at Can are left wth the vey simple problem of finding Win the letshand span only. Application of Eq, (7a) yet the simple formula TesENAI . : 1) \where the summation extends only aver the continuously drawn bars, The formula given is due essentaly to Maxwell» and Mohrt who applied ite slatiealy'determinate frameworks, Actually Man? derived this type. Of equation by using the priniple of virtual Gsplacements withthe actual longations taken as virtual ones and the unit load system a3 the actoal ‘one, Although such a procedure isin the present case of small displace: ‘ments permissible, it should nevertheless be avoiged since Eq. (1) follows more naturally from the principle of virtual forces, (©, Avprornate met of set ays Consider an lati sutected tetera cad (body ap sce (oa and en ae Se ne ead uae setumed fo Sa of be eae ond cna eases cones ae titer sre pceed they at ales nie ranean ee eee Banking n't an G's 1) He a Pr eh ee od Staucrproserekchensaptted ye nec bein Sar ea Et epria er ft y UF oan BE feds 9 — BE oye Eft oD wich sit stomatal the neal equim condone Eling the daplcomets tom thesia exresion 0) tan econ ede ie at Se ty ore Bes kty Teao . om where yu et. are the foal srans fa ete. Fora given sres-strin aw ‘we can express yay in terms of the siretes (72) and the temperature ©. Hence by substituting into (73) we aotain the diferential equation in the lunknown F which wil, 19 genera, be nonlinear. However, in the ca3e ‘of bodies obeying Hooke's law we obtain for a~const. the simple linear result 14 Hn) 0 2242) aw Ft, of courte, ao sly he gen boundary cao ft Comte pelts ie aa, aon function F is expressed inthe form ofa finite series thor ee 08) where Fa Fis.» Fz are known funetios of which F, satisfies the state boundary eBndiiions (5) where these are prescribed ang the Tunetions Fr vanish there, 10, ave constants 10 be determined by the vital feces principle. the system (26) satses by Sefton all given equi belom conditions andthe increment 3F-8h,-F : om ray be regarded as a vital sess system corresponding to zero incre: ‘ents ofexeral loads whete the inter se fed. Since 5170 (either forces are given or displacements are zero) the principe of minimum complementary potential energy of total deforma: tion is applicable here and takes the form DF Fe Tat ieptt ipe F BU fly aba ey Y BOAO. a) We te er Ja to denote he ntation ff... Jeedover the area ofthe two dimensional continu Subttng Btn terms of 7) We ed Jb Spek eh idan cessseeees 8) ad sine Bb arbi, Dh eR Sete aE Jarno seveee 9) if he tol stnns ae exo intr fie sess (72) and tem pers darfuion © ae Oban Bemr SO samen, Be that Eoowns oben iy Heke fe tedy oes tne aus rho fa isle cea er aot Soy ce a ee diate sudan mis Be epee of te Posters Se vad Bendhy Smile Oe ete Ube Hes eas ae ed aa Bo tence MF DE OF EE IE 6 rate He SALE Shae reas Relea Si}e« - . 796) from which we may obtain without dficulty the m linear equations for B10 bye “The case when all prescribed boundary conditions are sates interesting {oral surface conditions are then exactly satsied by (1). This inuicates that it should be possible to expres (79) ina form similar to that piven 8 Oalerkin’s method under the vrtaal displacement principle Infact we integrate (79a) twice by parts, or beter if we apply Green's TheoremI RR ee ae ie sk et es 17-—Vireual Forces: Example () Difsion problem we fin Sb-i ose tee See Sg rte +R ep te) flere aE ou Bre) Jef... .-)ds denotes the line integral along the boundary ofthe two- diensional continaum, But, on the boundary F;—0 and also (22 Eas. (75), “Hence Eq, (792) reduces tothe sli [Dba Be Tou ly simpler form, O fore ton (80) Bet aby which shows clearly how the method of virtual forces satisies in the average the compatibility condition (73). When the body i inary elastic Eg. (G0) may be writen ge (a-~const) [GE Aa) 22) 20M) Jraenofeeratton ass 9 {the expression inthe bracket being ofcourse Ea. (74) Note again the in denen ofthe slton om v when boy fre are conse, "The above application ofthe principle of virtual forces isa generaliza tion of a method developed by Timoshenko®, p. 161. A thermal stress trample ofthe above analysis is given in Part ‘Naturally, the mathod can be extended to thieedimensional cass We RIC proposed at early as 1908 a similar progedure forthe solulon ‘of St. Venant's torsion problem: this method isilusrated on a example Of considerable complet in Part I. A sligtly more refined approach’ than that shown above may be adopted when It is possible to estimate accurately the variation / Of F Parallel (o one co-ordinate say while the distribution parallel othe ther ovordinate Is more dieult to guess, Then, we ma) set F=f0) Ho) en where d(x) isan unknown function of x. ti, ofcourse, pessibleto forms Jate the analysis in any ther suitable co-ordinate system Substtting (I), with 3F=/89 in place of Fy into (9a) ox (80) (or related expressions), ‘we obtain after some simple integrations the difeental equation in when there are also Kinemate boundary conditions the corresponding boundary expressions for 4 Tallow also from (792) ‘Consider, for example, the case of linear elasticity, zero body fores and pure statis boundary conditions. Eq (8) takes here the simple form, JIA*F+ EaAOYE6dA=O os. cesses (08) Using (81) in (800, integrating with respect to.» and noting that (808) Ist be te foray tal varaton ip, we bai the aire uation in #8 fnithh (thersaf arvexlnoro-a ea wnete and yy ate the extreme (boundary) values of y corresponding to the sue x (ee ic. 16) Thus, the cosficlent of the homogeneous art ‘of (800) are only constants inthe case of a reeangular field “This method can yield very accurate fesulls and is actually the one adopted in Part I 7. ILLUSTRATIONS OF ‘THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES In this section we present a number of applisations ofthe principle of virtual frees to quite simple problems, Again, 11s not necessary sug- sted that the method fe the most sultable ope forthe problems con- ‘Sidered. [tis only intended f0 show how it can be applied in these simple tases. In subsequent parts ofthe paper some eather more complex pro- ems will be dealt with. In all the examples of this section linear elasticity is assumed (a) Diffusion Problem “The pane! shown in 1G. 17 is subjected to loads P applied atthe free nds of the edge members. Assuming thatthe sheet carries only shear Sires which is eonstant across the width b of each half (usual diasion {ssumption) obtain by application of the principle of virtual forces the Aierenia equation forthe load Pin the central stringer: Find aso the Aisplacement w of the foe end ofthe stringer From the equilibrium of an element of the stringer, we find for the shear flow fq 2y.) in the sheet ote (ey and from the equilibria of the fee end ofthe panel we nd for the load Pointe es memo a rye fe vs 2) For the virtual forces we consider a variation 5P, in te stringer load. ‘The applied forces Pare maintained constant and hence {0 sais the quilibriim conditions on the Tree end (2.0) me must take BP, 40 Be sero there ie. BP) Otherwise the variation 5, “0 @ arbiteary. Bg —43(P= HBP) eet (a4) ans tl in ei is Since th applied forces are not varie, the virtual fores principle (Ea. (62) For @=0) reduces t0 bue=0 “The vietual complementary energy due to BP, is Eeprcs2bpirn stp} cscs 6 Substituting for Pp BPs, a, 8g in terms of P, BP, and integrating the last term by parts we fing . freyt b dP, P LpaPas 5 sur |EEo) hb leeerabarao which is the required derential equation in P, Since BP, is zo for ri, she femaining tem in EQ. (27) vanishes for the upper limit t= Ai the lower limit 20, however, BP, ie arbitrary find hence 1s8—Virtual Forces: Example (b) Unit load method for ewitt of ‘mattlel tube Pr toe 2 i Fm0 foc 2=0 is ay hich with the equilibrium conditions on the free end PeaO for BF eee (a2 sh pein ound) co a ‘The diferential equation (a9) is, ofcourse, alternatively derived by a iret consideration of the deformations, In such case. the kinematic boundary condition al) appears asthe condition of sero shetr stain at the bailein end Solution of (83) with the boundary conditions (all) and (a2) gives [1 sout=2) a ath a ‘To determine the displacement w of the free end of the stringec we apply there a unit free and since we need only consider a statically devermteate System we assume the strings alone loaded. by the unit force: We: find thea (bee Eq (70) » 13) fbutudde and since Bud munit load 1, y= PEA ay hich ofcourse, merely the extension ofthe ringer Under the varying end load P,, = mins @ (©) Plan, StressStrain Relations for Oblique Co-ordinates In uniform isotropic plat, the tresses, om re referred to the oblique co-ordinates Oe, Ob (rc. 19). Using the prfciple of virtual forees and assuming the stress-strain relations for reciinesr stcsek ind expressions forthe strains ay ém and ein terms of the stresses, “The oblique strains «an ce erate defined asthe elongaions inthe dec tions Ge and Ob and the decrease in the angle 8 respectively Of the Uni patalelgram (see 0.19) For the Stes on Cy, vy equivalent to the oblique stresses, we Find 16 (a) (o) eddeosd only Ye W9-—Vireal Forces: Example (c) Stresses and strains for ob! ‘ootdinacer easily fom statics amu sin ) mca ty 608 8 forest O40 +01 6050+ 2g cos Dhsin 8 The rectilinear stains are 1 2-40) 1 C= Bluey) ko flO, Wr) Pon @ and hence the virtual complementary energy per unit thickness of the slement dd is wy Ps ‘ass oF os BU midst caBouet eboor Ben] EB eb, ton Oy MOBO) +2140) cerns © Substituting for ony Cr oy fom (1) we can now expres BU in terme ofthe oblige steises and virtual tresses, Thus forthe itu sree Sy we find for the virtual complementary eneray BU = AA fou ~Aase +20 605 BOW oes cee where sind costo ce « From ro (18) the viral complementary work of Ba sean to Be BWh doy vnsverncernne ‘eo and therefore fom the Vital fost pence an==8Ue . ro) we nda 3 teh som igo Hoa con ee) Applying a virtual stress Sow in the same way we obttn forthe strain ‘cathe corresponding expression som ppgloa ow 20008 © Conte no th vial sear ea om) fd re Sere ul arm tt un 8 9 sin 42 Bh Noa) con a Cotelating the complementary work of the vital shear sess 0 wend ee a9) 3070 60804 68 + sin Pod en ‘Thus the viral shear stess Sou does work not only due to the shear sea rn du othe ico a _— balun rors Eas (8) and (9) forte Scans eq, ce and equating us and 3% of Eas 10) and (elt vespetvey we hey aban fot the hen sta owt SEG louct oud] (a2) Note that with the strains defined as above the increment of com plementary ergy i Bust teaBrn + euBo+llrut6y) 608 B60 sn Dydd. (1) as compared withthe simple esl for recliner axe in Eg, (3)8, METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES WITH A FINSTE NUMBER OF REDUNDANCIES HE general theorems given in Sections 4 and 6 include, from the fundamental point of view, all that i required for the analysis Of redundant stractures. However, to Tetitate practic! calcultfons i {is helpful fo develop more explicit nuthods and formulae. To hind these isthe purpose ots Section, ‘A structure is by common definition redundant i there are not suifcent ‘conditions of equilibrium to. obtain all internal fores stresses or tree ‘esultants) and reactions: the number of redundancies is the difernce Setyeen he nur of unknown Tors (or sie and the number of fndependent equilibrium conditions. Strictly all actual stretures are i finitely redundant but for practical purposes its, in general, nese) And justifies to simplify and idealize the structure andlor stress dstebution in order to obtain a system with afnte (or even zero) number of redun ddancies, Such typical processes of simplification are, for example, the assumption of pinjoins in frameworks andthe assumption of the eh: ‘218 theory of bending in the analysis of beams. Note, moreover, thet he Ravleigh-Ritz procedure discussed in Section GP amounts also, In act, to the subsituion of a finitely redundant structure forthe actual elistig body. All our considerations in this Section are restricted to linearly eas bodies but Example 2 in Puc It shows how the present methods may be ‘extended tothe analysis of nonlinear redundant structures, ft fcurious to note that, while the solution of problems inthe theory of lastcty is derived very often from the-eilerental equations in the dis- Additonal Notation RO, P single, generalized, orthogonal force (enoment) R@P corresponding column matrices 4p single, generalized, orthogonal displacement (rotation) FqP corresponding eolumn matrices 2% &% (roe) stress and virtual (statically equivalent) stress due to unitload att 4 3. corresponding column matrices strain dve to unit load at ¢ corresponding column matric direct and cros-fesbiity F "matrix of fesibilites fg B transformation matrix for forces ‘oF, generalized and orthogonal flexibility matrices 'b rectangular transformation matct for internal forces (sttesses) S column matrix of internal Fores (stresses) ¥colums matrix of strains ‘ é flexibility matrix of g element flexibility matrix of all elements Aexibilty of element of unit length ef, ® trueand virtual stain due to unit displacement at / ‘oF seess due to unit displacement { Ay ky dizect and crosestifinesses Ke" matrix of stiffness ky A. transformation matrix for displacements K,. K, generalized and orthogonal stiffess matrices ‘© rectangular transformation matrix for strains placements, the stressdeformation analysis of engineering structures was, Until a few sears ago, generally based on the concept o forte redundaneies, ln nou ve wh nas rates gre method for the analysis of redundant systems, when investigating probieey (0) in Section $ used also the displacement method. The analysis of indetermine ate structures on the bass of redundant frees poes back to Clerk Maxwell ‘and Otto Mobi? and was ultimately developed ty Muele-Bresla.#4 Ths {echnigue fs, as mentioned in the introduction, more concise and physically ‘ore illuminating thaa the Custigliano approsehs it derives most natrall from the unit load method (see Section 6D, Eq (Ia). Mueler-Bresta's technique is generalized here and presented also in marie form, The effet of temperature or other inital strains is includ ab iit, Paralel to the rapid development of the foree-edundant theory occa sional practical problems were solved by selecting deformations 0s ‘knowns. Fundamentally this method is equvaiet fo the vita! displace: ‘ment analysis given in Section 4, Mohr was probably the fist o use such an approach in engineering structures when finding the secondary Bendiog sceses in frameworks of the type usually assumed to be prnsointed, Fhe Eig te ope a ase ro ,_stitess mates of ¢ element stifness matrix ofall elements stfiness of element of uit length 1. stress system of base structure 2, _self-equilibrating stress systems NY Z_ redundant force (moment) Bia bu telatve displacement at cut izedundancy in basic system due to enteral loads and inital stains Se Sia influence (Nexibiliy) coetcients of basic system for the direc- tions of redundant forces matrix of yy colurin matrix of 5. ‘angular matric elimination mati meg ce nes wg ape ati cepra tre earmamata force or moment inthe basic system due to X,—1 acting on an ‘lement which experiences a Ain the diction ofthis A (a), SC), M Om) normal fore, shear fore, bending moment ©,0 (cectangular) zero matt 1 nie matric vA bz4p0 2 +m direction of externa forces 1 redundancies Oye ccs feee eso elements of structure AY, A transpose and inverted (reciprocal) matrix of A (ese) column matrix—$——___—-— Following Mobe’s analysis his ideas were applied to stiPjoined frame- ‘works, the Fist sfstematic work being that ofthe Danish engineer Axel Bendicen'* However, the ares potentialities of the method were only i covered by Ostenfeldt 3 compatriot of Bendixen. He was the fist 0 point tut the duality ofthe force and displacement aperoach. tn fac, his eau tions for the unknown displacements in structure coraplement Mueller. Bresiau’s equation forthe redunant forces tis regretable that Timo: shento in is Tascinating History® does not mention Ostenei’s classical book, We give here a considerable generalization of Ostenfeld's ideas (0 include any structures under any lead and temperature distribution ‘The’ slope-deflexion’ equations of Bendicen form the bass of the method ‘of successive approximation due to Calsev} and developed by Hardy: Cross es the well-known moment distribution method. The technique tied is essontilly a. particular example of the relaxation ‘method of Southwell which has been successfully applied to a wide range of prob- lems. In its application to elastity and structural peoblems this latter method is partclanly representative of the modern Tendeney in making practical the numerial solution of highly redundant systems and has Seen taeda conjunction with Bh ores or asses and dupncements Unknowns. Further discussion of this method is beyond the scope of the presint work which ist concerned sith tration metnocs but te reader Brreterred tothe original literature onthe subject. In this Section we make use, where appropriate, ofthe matrix notation Although the complete analysis could be Jevelopea ab non this form itis thought precrable to give fst most ofthe basic principles inthe more familar long-hand' notation, Only the most elementary properties of the ‘marx algebra like matrix partion, multiplication, transposition nd Inversion are necessary for the understanding of our theory. The feader tay consul the classtal wock of Frazer, Dunean and Collar® Tor these 4nd move advanced matrix operations “Another-modern and readable Account given inthe recent book of Zurmuchl«* The most comprehen Sive work fo date on the formulation of aircraft structural analysis in ‘mats notation anyhowon this sie ofthe tant, isthatol® Langetors.ty D.Willis} presented racenty an intresting seount of some aspects Of ‘matrix operations in static and dynamic elastic problems ‘Before proceeding toa discussion ofthe general methods for the analysis, ‘of redundant sirctures we introduce some concepts Helpful fo the under Standing ofthe following theories and their subsequent matix formulation, A. Flexibiities ‘Conse a cantilever beam with a plage of symm yx cnsting of thee connected segments, band c with bending stifineste for dele In he yeplane (Elin (1) and CE), espetvey (es 20) Le the cor responding shear siffpestesi be (Git, (GA and (GA. Transverse forces Ry Rx and R, are applied inthe Fe plane atthe joints B, Cand B. Since thé system is assumed to be linear the prineple Ol superposition holds and we can express Ins dafexions n/p and rg interme ofthe loads as follows fis Ri thie Ret his Ra “ha Bile Betta Rf @) yfas Rita Ratha Re) where fis fare, ofcourse, the well-known influence coefficients 8 Infact, Jus the daplacement in the parestion due to @ nit force Rel i the ‘section. We call also J, dod fy the direct. and exo fenbiitiesre= spectively and dedues immediately trom Maxwell's relprocaty theorem (Ea. (83), Section 3) that Paar . > “To find the fexbilties fin any linearly elastic body we may use the unit load method developed In Section 60. Thus from Ea. (Tle), far ford? | fa Jove Sa (84) foun ai ‘ eee ‘eset Bengt he Sou Aah here (se also Eq. (3)) Outer ute (4a) 64 Oeataa tovsten J «91 (em on) a the strains and stresses corresponding toa unit toad at and’ the direction of 7 i). Under load we understand ether foes oF ‘moment. Similarly the flexibilities may fepresent either displacements oF Fotations. Naturally, formulae (84) yield als linear (angular) Rexbilities ‘due to moments (forces) respectively. Note that while, emg be the true rang due to unt loads at } and h respectively, 06 need only be Sirtal, Le. strially equivalent, stresses veto the same loads, This ts of {reat importance in fedundant stroctures, Thus, denoting y By 0 my Statically equivalent stress system due to unit loads at and hrespectively inna redundant strocture we can write Eqs. (4) aso In the form, It's, ofcourse, possible to substitute in the above formulae true stresses and virtual strains Tor true strains and virtual stresses But for reasons oF Topical consistency this best avoided.* ‘Assuming in th case ofthe beam shown in #10. 20 thatthe Engineers’ cory of bending stresses is true we find, noting hat the system i staclly determinate and hence #0, (640) Ss ‘hy @)where M.S; (My 5) ate the moments and shea forces corresponding to Wyat (Remi). Bas. (63) yield easly the following set of iniuence co thcients, yee? terme, + MED, RET. 2 "GAT GA CAT 1 . & iigliesor2e428=39 -wab+30)] bgfigcbes9 a 8 teay Gay, ) ‘To obtain fig tnd fg from the expression for fa omit in the latter the terms eand b£ repectvely. Also 0 find gf omit the terms involving ¢ {nthe last of Eqs. (86). Naturally, we cam also derive the influence Cents (65) by aitet‘ntegration of the diferetal equation for the de fected bears when shear deformations are included. A systematic method for deriving the fexiity coetcients Yor compound engineering structures 5 given late. Fnoence or Mexibility coefcients are of great importance in the static and’ dynamic analysis of linearly elastic engineering structures. In ths ESnnetion i is most appropriate to make use of the matrix notation not ‘nly Tor eoncisenes of presentation but also for the systema prograr- ‘ming ofthe consigerable computational work usually involved in practical ‘problems, The matrix algebra i, infact, ial suited for the automatic ‘igual computers now avalable. “The matrix form of Eqs. (82) 8, PoP as = were and Rae te coun maces ote dierent free my ns fn] fa re Al etineb Bl Hem mm 9 ea z ia uy and ~ [fe 6] .) fa fa Pos cers) is the so-called fexbiity matrix: note that F is @ symmetrical square tmatrix Toe relation (87), ofcourse, valid for any number mf displace sents an eatin nay nery ela body, Fo ech lace’ or tation there corresponds a force or moment Ry Thus, im such & case the mates are Petes etiee otal Rea(R Rees Rye + Ba) OO) and o nlieso= tages Jan | 4 ‘where the fn can be calculated always from Eqs. (84). The flexibilities fa (Gi) need not necessarily refer to.m diferent points. For example, we may ‘hoose three diections 9, zat a particular point ofa thees mensional body and define six Rexbties Senfonfer Sor Sea lov Son aL ‘corresponding to the thee fores Rely Ry=l, Ry at the same point Stina fora eas in which we aie’ he engines he of ning is tree we may require the slope and he Jllexion at a cross ‘ection under tranavene fotee and moment applied there. Three Bex Biles are regusted for ths information; note, however, that if shear Aeformations are included we must spel thatthe beading moment is ‘applied as engineers theory dirt stresses atthe particular erossseeton, 2 Characteristic property ofthe nflucnce cooMcints is that any J i 8 fiven elastic body depends only on the points and directions jand’h but Baton any eter decons sete Tr the elation of # Rexbly "A pets ofthe fexiilies of Eqs. (86) shows that it is possible to split tha complete flexibility matrix F into two additive and distnety diferent smatrices Thu, FoF Fs o where Fa and Fe are the fexibilties corresponding to pute bending and Shear deformations respectively. The Rest contains ony terms involving ‘Eland the second only tecms involving G1. For example, ob “ayer (20) Such a spliting of the Rexbility matrix is extremely useful in numerical tilutations, particulary when obtaining fest approximations in which we ‘egiet certain Mexibiides. Thus, in a frst approximate wing eralsis we ‘may neglect the 1b deformabiliy: at a Tater stage we can ascertain i Influcnce by adding the corresponding flexibility: matrix to the original Aexibilty (ee Example (b) of Section 9). The method is, ofcourse, quite Beneral as Eqs. (84) and (B48) show, for iis always possibe to write Vem {lCunea FOr tS ena) + Content Oven * Santen] 3 inere the ist expression in raund brackets gives the contribution of the ‘irc strains 19 /m whilst the second expression gives the eonibuton of the shear strung, Eg (95) shows sao thatthe spitting may be carried & ep farther by considering separately, Tor instance, the effect of the Strains ey or ofthe theeeshea® strains Coy yy Coe Silay, in foselage ing anaiis where we usually neglect the deformations due to shear and normal forces we can check their influence by adding the corresponding Aaubiiy and Fy to the matrix Fy Tor pure berding deformations. These matrices a, S)Se, Mita) nL $B] oo Q=GyRy+GisRet Gis 1 Ga +CaRGnR— f sesverseesnneee OB Qs Gy Ri +GaaRy + GagRy where i on ia the so-aled reciprocal or inverse matrix of G. Its determination is equivalent to solving Las. (93) and therefore inyolves considerable numer- Seal labour i the number of equations i large. In Such cases approximate ‘methods may have to be used. However, withthe advent of the automate Sita computers this ificaliy ts no longer insuperable. We give later in tht Section a systematic procedure suitable for punch-card machines for computing the reiprocal matrix but hope Co return in greater detail to this Sra sim questons in Part IIL, Next we have to determine th genera ies dapiacment eonespoding to the generale (ones By det tion qae obtained ftom the equality ofthe two expressions for work in the tho Sets of variables R, rand @, q, Thus, in matrix notation WatrR=ig@ 0 where ®” and q/are the transposed matrices of the column matrices rand ‘and are henes the row matrices Fel nnk ala eal « cs 9) Using the fest of Eas. (7) in (98) we obtain a-rB 100) ‘where Bis the crisps ofthe matex B, ie By Bos Bos | [B BB «ao» to (100) we find, R-BFBO-F,Q. 02) Eq, (102) shows that F,-BFB, . (10s) fs the Nexbilty matrix corresponding to the generalized forces and dis- placements @. g ‘We illustrate now the application of generalized forces on a simple ina te tid esr nt sty dnd dint hte men ala. ohinmmensuptsgateet gf: me ena! ics one Aron 6Te a a Fig, 21—Generalized force and displacements cxample, Fic. 21) shows a uniform cantilever of bending stipes EF and negligible shear deformability. The fexbiity F for forees Ry Ry Ry atthe equidistant points B, C, D is easly found from formulae (86) t0 68, ro 2s 8 5 128 (104) 5 a8 38 a where 1040) We seek now the components of forces and the generalized displacements corresponding to the generalized force, = forthe assumed load transformation matrix, r 7 } aot os <1 = 0s) 0:5 0-5 We deduce immediately, R={R, R; RI={t 0-5 —0-5) Hence, FSFR—(a/2 -2 ~Sa} “The values of R and race show in m0. (21). [Next we find the generalized flexibility Fy by straightforward matrix smulipiation from Eq (103), (106) We caleulate now the generalized displacements from Ea. (102) 3, 2=F,(0 1 0) 6a 25a a) Finally, ve anlyse the three generalized displacements qin their com: ponent. From Ba. (100), " r=G'q=(B-iyg=(8-)) (6a 2-52 a} For the inverted and transposed matrix of B we obtain from Eq, (105), con °. 6: — "seet u and therefore ra ~ov6att-sa-o-40) [arr | r= | “34a tion to-aa | =| Soa" 1-02 “0-40 Sa u Jo in agreement with the previously given values ofr. Each of the three coun fh, nent peso epee. vg hee omponents of the corresponding gcoordinate Fic. (21) Mustrates fn deta the tree gmades, NS aturaly, Eqs. (97), (100) and (103) are valid for any linearly elastic body and ay nurber'm offoress moments) R and displacements (one, Sons) The load transformation matric takes then the fren, _ By or |i Ba U Baw 408) and i not, in goneal, symmetrical, However, the transformation (103, Sale w cong’ raaeroato, ensues ta the en mats Fe Sillsymmetscal ‘Atention fs awn 0 the dual catonship (97) and (100). Thus, if we tcinsfoom lad system R by the transformation R-Ba, the corresponding displacements are transformed as a8r on. . (105) isoften required to find the set of forces and displacements Pp for which foes J we Jae sr Fhe Coote elasl elgenmodes cavtesponding® the et of displacements, fo Tood-dspacemenis law then avn by fon 0 o ° [0° Sree 0 o | F/O 0 cee lifueeeees0 eevee (10) foo eno sal I: rh PrmfoP is Pe fouPn Pm =Loam Py 206 CID 11 is always possible to find the unique load transformation, matin ‘which transforms our system Rint the orthogonal system Pp. We not enter here int its detailed derivation since the reader can consult a number of textbooks on this subject* ‘Our above considerations and in particular Eas (84) and (84) show that the Mlexibilides are particulary simp to derive fora tatcally determinate strueture, eg, the Beam of ro, 20. For a redundant struture we must ft fod he foro ei nc edn membre een an the true strain ¢, forthe unit loads. The necessary analysis is develope later but itis helpful to give here formal matrix derivation of the Bex Dilly F of an engineering structure, the srees distribution of which i Koen Toth fect wie sain the unt la method gen y Ee (ig). We denote by ey, so column matsees Tor the true stains an slreses respectively, coresponding 10 unt load Ry at the point and ‘Sirecton A Thus, Canéntuneontratea) } an S(O rn iP oPenP eed J where the elements ofthese matrioes may, ofcourse, vay with 2. Teisalvays possible te write ayy here f isthe Nesbiity matrix ofa unit cube atthe point x, yz. Thus for an isotropic BodyYE —v)E -viEO 9 0 te UE “sed 2 0 f= | O8E -vE Eo 9 0 eceees 0) oO 9 G0 0 ® 9 9 0 iGo 0 9 8 0 ONG Let also 4, be a column matrix for any statically equivalent stress system Soresponding toa uni load A,=t at he point and direction. Thus, ii eB ueBusBreioah ats) Fore statically determinate system only ones, system can be given—the true ones, We derive now the Mlexibilty coeticients Ja rom the unit oad tnethod a PanfsiedY=fBstynd—fictedV— Ny, Lupton | ae Hence the totality matrix F form points and dictions is Fatal [steed ‘ am wheres, # are the partitioned row mates : Selec Boee eal \ . ; om) fe esee Bee eee Sal if ‘We shall apply now formola (117) o a engineering structuce consisting orwny mambet of simple elements joined topeter at ther ends of bound hat” thee elements may be plates, Fanges, beams, rods, pinsjoined aa, cvotes and take in such a structure the place of the volume element eee etcaaingum. Let the structure be subjected t0 the force (and/or ‘moment. system Ra(R oe Ral ais) where Ry tslf need not necessarily bea single force or moment but may be S'enealized fore, Doe to these lads the typical x member is subjected {cits ends or boundaries (o a loading expressed as a column matrix $» Mihose elements are diet and shear steses, or stress cenllans, 6g lorgus, Bending moment shear fore, normal Tore, te. Now S, 1s ob ously near in the Rs. Thus, SDR. co (190i where by is a rectangular matrix with m columns, and corresponds, of CDurge, to the strese mark's a a point Ux J, 2) of a threesdimensicnal Sontinuum, If our structure i redundant b, ‘cannot be determined by Staucs alone, However, forthe present we assome that By is known, It ‘Sbvious thatthe relative displacements (shear angle, elongation, deexion, Slopes twist, ete) ¥, at the ends or boundaries ofthe f element can be ‘welt asa column mati ve R 120) were fis the flenbility matrix ofthe g element and has as many rows as Ve Each element being assumed to have a simple geometry it usually Giay to wnte down-—often merely by inspection—the matrix f,, Since thefe ary in general, alternative Sut equivalent ways of expressing the {dading §, on the. element, there are also correspondingly alternative {xprestion’ forthe exibiliy f,. This aspect i elaborated on it an example tthe end of our main argument. Note thet f, represents all deformations that are aceeseary to ensuite the compatiblity ofthe g element within the complete structure “The internal stress and deformation matrix of the aggregate structure may now be expressed as S=iS.55 Seo SIDR ay, Ve ee Meee SPOR «2 where Sand vate single column partitioned matrices and “eo : be foie ® cece | SR Le be Cfo ee eee ee | cesses O23) “The matin b has submatrioes with m columos. fis a partitioned diagonat ‘tii whose elements are the Rexiblty matrices fy. * ‘We denote now by Ba matrix whote m columns are loading systems on ‘he's members statvally equivalent to the external loads yl. Ry! y= respectively. we choose these systems tobe also elastically ‘ompatibe then, ef course, Bo «128 “Applying now the unit load method and using Ea, (122) and the transpose snattix Br we fing by an argument similar to that leading to Eq. (117) that the deflxions at the points of appfiation and in the directions ofthe Toad Rare piven 87 rabiR . eserves (25) ‘Therefore the fexbility matrix F for the prescribed m directions inthe complete structure is Fabe - (26) Te matrix operations in (126) are again congruent and thus F is indeed FS Fig B-—Stitinesses of a cantllever {isthe stioess per unit length of a bar. “The stiffnesses at point asoclted with the unit displacements at the same point are, in fact, already derived by the method of virtual displace: ments in Example 5b where they appear athe cocficents to the displace: ‘ments av. Naturally, the problem of deriving the single stiffness Le at ‘the point 2 from the set (145) still remains. A general method for solving. Fig. 4.—Stifioesses of pin-jointed framework 23this and related problem is given further below. Iti characteristic th the direct ealeutgtion a the Nexblies corresponding to {138} ts 8c Plicsted as that fr the single Nesbit at 2 {in Goth examples we see tha the sifnesse are determined mos staight- forvardly, in Tact practiealy by inspection, once we find the set of uni deformations for whieh itis simple to eaicslate the strains and: here stresses and forees, The advantage of fist deriving the sifnesses may be particularly marked in highly redundant structures butt tequites ay the Example of rc. 24 shows, the consideration of many dearees of freedom Which may also have its disadvantages. On the other hand fenbiites sre ways eaner (0 calculate Ifthe stresses corresponding to unt fores ean be Found without dificuty-as in statically determinate structures ‘We gave in Eq. (142) a general formula forthe determination of the stilfnesses: Let us consider It again in more detail. Observing fst that, while o! and o must be the ue stresses corresponding tort ane reat tepeciny th ane and nee of be al iin ad & (a, compaible but nt necessarily salealy consistent stains"), cores: ig {0 fal and 1) =| respectively: this may coneioute to $iderablesimpiineation of the calculations. However, the actual practic! ‘se of Egs. (142) rewritten here inthe form kyxfoeav 1 L 146) Ky forerdv red hay J is somewhat limited. This follows from the previous discussion which Shows that stiffesses are best found ether by considering all possible degrees of freedom atthe joints, in whieh case the determination of the A'S is usually performed by inspection, or by tnverting the Mealy ‘matrix F, Moreover, even if we calculate the stifmeses & for 8 restricted {otal number of depres of freedom at the joints (eg. example of Fc. 20) Eqs. (146) are really superfuous. Thus, inthe exampie of ro- 20 we have tofind the true stresses (ura four limes redundant structure, the analysis ‘of which includes the derivation of the Torces ky and the use of Eq (146) is hence unnecesary, Nevertheless. Eq. 146 sof considerable value when the elements into which the structure ts broken down are characterized not by simple loading systems (eg. beam elements or bars) for which the A's are determinable by inspection, but by simple (assumed) di. placement pattems. An example ofthis aplication given in D of this section Alo eve ints he atx formation of eq 142, whch i ‘ost useful in practical cases, ‘We now find’a generalization ofthe concept of stifness corresponding {0 the generalized flexibility given on page 19 Thus, following the arBue tent there we introduce the generalized displacements @ ave forces Gefined by he A OAR aan AGia(By (1379) see also Eqs. (96), (97) and 100) Substiitng the expiessions for ane R ing. (139) we Rind immediately eK . assy = AKA, 149) is the generalized stiffeis corresponding to the mm generalized displace mens Ea (149) may ata aloe ceived by inversion fom Es ie where (1490) ‘The paricular nar transformation ® (or the earesponding matrix A) reo lowercase nae sain eo eaemesgaorenintae ees wo eid ao [ene eg nt] ate ek | as 00 vest a wn lay Fig, 5.—Generslized displ We illustrate now in t6, (25) the applzation of formulae (14 }(149) ‘on the simple example of Fic, (21) and for the same load transformation mattis BOF Eq, (109), but sci here the components 0 forces correspond Ing to.a.generslzed displacement on “The displacement transformation matrix A of Eq, (1470 is given by Ea (103) 7 i ot] anc By=| 0-4) aor) } Ot F=Ag=A(0 1 0)=(0°6 0-4 ~0-4; ‘The generalized stifness matrix K, is best obtained by inversion of Fy i q: (106) and is Henee 5 0-016 0.09618 -0-117) =9-00515 OSH 0.406 [=o 0-808 0-218 L where « i given by Eq, (1040), Hence, @=Kg=K,0 1 0} (1060) an}{ -oasis 0-48 0-05} We analyse finally the generalized forces @ in their R-components. From Eq. (7) oF (E47) and carrying out the multiplication, or. a 0 +0548 40-406] | 40.9840 =0 005 40.274 “0-406 | ~ | “tana | 0.005 “0374 10°203 O.07a | U ot 4 Each ofthe three columns of the intermediate expression represents ob- uly the K components of Oy, Oy. Qy respectively. We cam check NOW the previously given sult for From Po FR wnre Fis gven in Eg (109), [Next we derive a geeral formula forthe stifoess K ofa structure eon- sisting ofa finite number of simale elements. The expression given 1s the ‘matrix formulation of Eqs. ([a6) and corresponds tothe Rexibty mates 1 rtF of Eg, (126). Since the analysis follows cisely the angumentson page 21 ‘we need present hee only the utes ofthe poor Consider agin an assembly of 1 sreturl elements joined together at Ui ends or boundaries, m displacements rare selected to dasonte te skins W ofthe complete structure. Let ky be the stiffs maths of thes Slement due to the characteristic stains ofthe Cement arin hom 6 acre va eso, ata hee wy Ser diferent but equivalent posible ways of expressing the straining of the bethe flement. Let a, ai, in general rectangular which transforms the Aisplaosmentsr into the tre stains v, ofthe elemeot te wear : 4133) ‘Then Sik. kar say isthe matrix forthe forces (moments, et.) applied on the element due to the displacements. The internal Tore (or ates) matrix Sof the aggregate Seveture is now given 69 Soar ass) vere BS. Specs 8) 036) and Bela eset) as kts the symmetral dagonalpatiioned mat, : he 8 ee ee | es cons | | | ass) Ceres u J internal forces 8 he Applying now the principle of viral work, taking and extemal forces R as the fue sate and selecting as Virtual st internal strains corresponding to unit ceplacements9= ohy : r= Trespectivaly wend Re=akar 139) where isthe transpose ofa. Thus, the stifiness mattixK ofthe compound Kaaka . (180) Ea, (160) may also be written as K=2aka, (1600) Since the virtual strains need only satisty the compatibility but not neses- Satily the equilibrium condition we may selot for the vital sate a simpler matrix a which satisfies ony the former. Eq (160) beconss then KAS (1608) Howe th anptcation of a pony spied mati is aly not Fequired in practice, As mentioned on page 23 the sffass matt Kis test catelied for ail depres of tee donnat te joints veuing vey spe “The configuration ofthe clements ofthe compound structure i sad t9 be in parallel in Ea, (160) since the assembly conation i engrossed By the mate @ which drives from conditions of compatiiity, Pies Eq, C60) nay be regarded az the mest gener formulation of the stffess naiit {or a structure with constiwent elements tn paralel i. is inedatly apparent why Eq, (14) which exprese the sess matrs for genealsed sloplacemsants mst have the same form as Eq. (160). In the fst case we derive, generalized displacements fom single displacements and in the fond, internal strains from external dispicerents In Doth appizations ‘this entails linear transformation matrix which, however, a square atria the former case. Also Kis he stifers ofthe complete seucture forthe singe caplacements while Kis the tas mata of te indi Eas (53) and (189) show that there is most illuminating parallet development to Eqs, (121) and (1250) Thos, iF he internal tative dee Placements (strains) v drive from the external daplasments With th Felationship, rr (1330) ‘Then the external forees R derive Feom the internal forces (stresses) § with the relationship RaiSaa's 2 1390) Ea, (159) restates, of course, the principle of Virtual Work. ne I aR a TABLE! Duality of Force and (Get alae pile to best cement Methods for 3b respectively) Fores) R Ftewoiniy F FK =I=KF ¢ roe R=BQ ar Ie | s v Feiiity ot siemens f Febtp q=Br=FO Q=AR=K¥ co eines S Sin at elements V vear sires an ements S) ReaS siimess ot elements (dor sining V) Keka leo he a K Before iustrating applications of Ea, (160) we draw attention to the by now all too apparent complete pata betweeh the foxy end Stipes approach nthe analgnof sutures We may copes hg com, Glsely by the tabular strangement under the two headhgs, ‘Methods of Forees and "Method of Deplacemen ‘he analogy been the two method i developed considerably in what follows end i shown i greater detain taRE ne Ilastrations Ee (10) {Consider the beams 1 and IL of #9. (26 joined by inextensional bags wich connec the tof pois 8, CD and Bo C5 respectvely, Let nd Kb theses matrices he upper slow team respec ‘ned or vertical displcements rr, andr From the defntion of the shes follows immediatly that the suse Tor the daplcemnemts ri tsand rin the compound srutur sven by Kok, + Ker eS) “This simple resuk may also be derived from the general Ea (160, Fo in this special case te joint dspacrment ee of the cone seuss fed the staining placements vy anv ofthe componel beans ae ihe same: Th . {x, 0 | fo Kir| Me 25Fig. 24 —Parallel combination of cantilever, Addition of sitfnesses = Eg, (161) applies to any compound structure in which the sineses are Aefined for atleast all common degrees of freedom associated with the Joining of structures Ind Il, Thus, in the example of rc, (25) he commen egress of freedom are the vertical displacements rr; and ie Feeney Dis, however, sill rue if we define the suffesss Sr the Gopee ees and the compete structure for both the vertical displacements Fes ano ‘yand the slopes ry ry 7. Then Ky can be caleulated bythe meth bees Breviously. Kyi stil only definable for vertical displacement the Cores ‘sponding entries associated with rg and vy being sero, Nataly weet Eine the sles matre Kanda Ws fr pone ee ea ‘Again the corresponding erm of Ky, are zero. Fa (27) shows te joni (of two arbitrary structures to give KK; + Ky, Note that ata joke pole Hike) we must deine the stasis fortwo dplacemeat, ste and directions, Forma (161) may, of course also be applied in obtaining the stiffness ‘matrix of the compound cantilever consisting of tlemenis and bree (25). Again, ‘we must define the sithess forall common defen, ah slopes a the its suming the ET.3 0 Be rand the shear Soon ay . (1616) Where the elements of the split matrices may be found from Eas. (143) and (148) forthe displacements, andr and similar equations fos rare, re Thus, hl o ol K= °° oe (164) lo afl x (te SES plas at rove laren eet ermal, 161) may, be generalized Tor any muhtere of componest Seams, and for any sircture in Which the jot dapiactmens rane as he srainingdaplacementev ofthe liens (Le N=, Tn such Pack the sitfess matric ean be writen ERE eet oh 65 ‘Note tha te only non-zero coeticients in Ky are the tifpessesk co sponding tothe displacements atthe ends or Boundaries of the atone The ibility marx F corresponding to (165) is FaR RIK CR EBT HERG) ‘The parle! between the diplacement and force method is undedied 26 further by comparison of Eqs. (92) and (16), The fst shows the case of ‘aver Rei rasan an eon i of adauive partial sfneses for parallel assembly A vey simp arsenic of Ea, (160) is even by the pinsoined framework shows sn pee oF ample Sb." Ths, the ines ofthe bar corespondig taunt lose tion A= (Faye eo Ee 7 where n= (EA, isthe stiffness per unit length of the rth component bar. The transformation matrix a, for deplacements inthe sand Poets a-=[-os0. sin] 168) Hence ata aa 1080) and o o |} oe | Killeen | ow [Seonta Dicortaine | - Tre tol Lisrtane Tyee | ace! L Jot in agreement with Eq, (6. I¥s enone prvi thatthe simplest method of alelstig nesses isto define them for as many degrees of fredom Ss are necessary {9 obtain simple deformation patterns of the elements of the structure Having caleulaed soch a stitness matrix ie will booome neceeeee ‘condense’ ite, to reer it to the smaller number of displacements {a which we may be Interested. This changes, of course, all the snes efficients, but the necessary analysis is easily arranged in mat Tort {or automatic computation. Let the original stiffness matrix be of the ove. imesmand denoted by K,, We want to find the matrix K rele to p-diee. tions only, where pn. We have, 169) Rokr where Ra (R oo Ry Roane co es Ral (Ry Ri) Loan > ) rth roto ra) steve in which we write Ast the p-directionsrequied forthe condensed matiix KK, may be expressed asa partitioned matrix 3s followsfr 7 Ky Ky) K| \ wm H Kur Ki | u i where Ky and Ky, are square matrices of order p and inp respectively Eq. (170) can now be transformed to Ri Kirr eK itr um BieeKr thar Ao, by ona he sue wih ies ned in pdeson ore } . (730) R, f Putting Ryy=O in Eq. (193) and eliminating #1 we find Remy Ri Ky Kyi ey wa) and hence comparing with Eq, (1730) KOK) RK K 075) £4. (175) gives naturally the solution tothe particular problem of ric. (24) discussed ‘on page 23. Another example iustrating the application of Eq. (175 is discussed under D ofthis Section a “The above method, i, of course, the basis of the solution of pity homogeneous equations. A parallel relationship exists aso inthe Tore ‘method! investigation of structures. Thus, in ths case, we have tind the Aexibility F of a redundant structure in which we know the Reilly FoF the basi structure The analyst i given under C below The Caleolation of Redundant Structures by the Force-Method We develop now a generalization of the Mucller-Breslaut* technique for the cakeulation of linearly clase redundant structures, Following fur investigations under (A) we could easly formulate mrmediatey he ‘espectively. The systems 0, 0p 2.1 04 «.--- 21 0 af obviously sel equilibrating, Since our stricture is By definition linearly clastic the true sMresses onthe uncst orginal structure ean be expresiee at ue to © ot Sox, 76) Similar equations may be written down for stress resltants (forces oF ‘moments). Thus, the problem reduces to the Setermination of the X's, hich as already mentioned, need not be simple oreesor moments but car be linear combinations of such (generale Torces) The Equations he unknown We de the following st of deformations in the basi system, Relative movement of ends of eut ith redundancy due to all external causes. ie. loads, temperature changes, ack of fis eve" atthe supports, ec.s =i tom Telative maverent of ends of cut ith (kth) redundancy due to the self-equiirating load system Y= (Xj 1): and k take values {ton The 3-coeticients are taken postive i the relative moves ments are in the positive dretion othe 3's mo EN feamework: Contribution tu yy Fig. .—Singly redundant, pi am Vat support and exons iengins ot bars Th be for hin est coe of bs rt ct te est ten See of a See ek tuna nactinnaee eee SE Spahr ee neta en BES Posen OOo. FOuhe we find from Eg. (Tah, Bie= fouectndy - am Bur ford¥, Buford JovedV=Buy so. «7 where a, (ow ea) are the steeses and steins corresponding to Xi= 1 (iH and on ey are the streses and strains doe (0 the applied loads Eqn (178) reproduce, of course, merely Eqs. (84) for the exiblity co: efficients, The total intial strains imposed upon the base system may Be Separated into thermal and other Seti eM dO ae oe Fav Me ooo 79) where na ef. ar intial strains de o say lack of ft, ve atthe supports ‘The feet ofthe latter upon dy i best considered separately a in terms ofthe imposed changes of lenath (rotations) and ‘gives. Consider, for example, the singly redundant framework of ic. (8) and assume thal ‘the manufactured length ofthe bars exceeds the correct length by Al. Let also each bar be subjected toa diferent thermal straining 9). We assume “urthermore that the intermediate support gives or sinks by the amount. [As redundancy we select the free; in the bat (1,2) and denote by and Nj the (tension) forges in the bars ofthe basic system du to the loadsdnd x, =1 respectively. The loading case; 1, with the correspond- ing fore applied to support C by the srustre fs show in #0. 28) ‘We find immediatly syan sess nApplying now the unit load method to the state X,— and the true total Strains (e+-7) and displacements inthe basic systim we dete (ue 9 aed iy " 1y-Entectm— em eorranr M48)... aan Nataly cin serail deduce by kigemnal extosing te con tnbution to bp ot the ital elonatags uO aad Ai snd te seek Hower ei od method a ae aga a and he ae Sioa! Gre sal eral for th 8 oes at en utero, Te cdon of ante aces an tHe duns inthe acl ar ara ee il tg eoneens Gc ePmiaton Bake Baly nese li nnn Bye Hebe Baka hoa Bis ddys Koad Ba BaMG batch cca Be Ado Bak tBaakyt ese $B BectotDae-O (182) ‘The solution ofthese equations determines the Yand hence also the total sees distribution after substiation into Eas, (170) ;To solve Eqs. (182) by elimination® is particulary simple when they are ‘gf the thre: moment or five moment types se for example the tube analysis in Section 9(0), In general, however, all unknowns tay appear in exch ‘equation and we needa syitematic and mnemonic method Tor the deter: ination ofthe ¥. The most convenient msthod for tis purpose the Shortened eliminaiion process of Gausst (known also’ as Gaussian a fea) pet owe pow we Sd ot dc te formulation in the present ‘long-hand" notation but may use immediately the matrix notation. Accordingly, we wie the system oF Eqs (18) DK4D=O eee (1822) where D isthe symmetrical square matrix of the Bu-coefients,D, the sgplumn matrix ofthe coeticents, X the column matrix Of the unkvows cand O a 770 coum matrix. The Gaissan elimination prowess reduoes ‘the system (1822) (0 Tx=1, . as) bere T is tiangular matrix, Le. a matric whose elements above (or tsratvely below) the principal diagonal are zero and Ty is again ‘column mates: For example, 7 o | ie o | ‘9 fe Osco (134) a ba on Lm} Ta gli of as (8) and 80 i egorar by station siaog from the fst of Bay (8) or im matin anguage eae find the inverse T=" of T and wee _ " MAT HAT Miscisnssesitystier 85) For the automatic computation techniques now availabe an in patiew, lar, for the punched card machines is usualy potebic 20 any Sight the Gaussen elimination process and obtain dicey ne foes {Band hen alo the column of , This metho is known gs the Jovtag technique and we restrict ere our cscusion (oth proces : Consider a system ofm independent equations ax=Z (036) Where a isa square matrix and Z is «column matrn. Thus, aa loy 87) bow ‘To gliminae in the first column ofa all is elements but ay and to reduce the later to | we prem Sr ae i ey manly 0. oo L tuliply a with the mateoe Oo erveeee0] ve . 0) | (138) J hich square matrix has, but for the fist columa, unit agonal and zero cross-lements We fing t é bama=| 5 ° where bw ay lay and boost eben bea === bre ban ater (1%) Lbs | re 4) ‘ext we eliminate the elements of the second cofunn ofb except for hy Which We reduce to 1, Sy premultipiying with 1 ° 5 o ce tee 8 ° —balby 0...0 (1862) ~bsibee 0, o1) 4 meee OeWe obtain 1 a | a | i fu | 1s7b) where - ~ babe cue=bulbe and cmb" for 142 (1880) “The procedure will by now be clear. Thus, tion sep we obtain 8 matrix g of the form the (¢—)=/ elimina «sre where His the unit matric with fcolumns and © isa zero matrix With / columns and (n-/) rows. @ i a rectangular n(n) matrix. For the ext sep fe. obtain the matt, we premulily with My which has column (—Fultoefult Uses sess Bled) (1886) land otherwise unit diagonal elements and zero cros-elements, The result ing hates is of the form 5 1 Giese he seovcibis OI No a home|” . ara) 0 Sh Iw 3 chasse where ~ ~ fate 88 han Bag BBE for eg (198) nds on nite as prenipton with 4 soln \ mM, 3 L (er has (1-1) 0m) set Mic Mee Pha <0) (190 hen lh nee ate MMe MM, «ape From wich we Govt unkaowe Kem ecco sa In practice itis usually preferable not to determine a-! expliily but to form fist the multipletion M2 and continue then premultplying to a en Tt is apparent that if in the above procedure any hu becomes zero the elimination process cannot be continusd. An interchange of rows 1 ie dicied but his i obviously inconvenient for automatic computation it ay>>00 no ha can vanish, Moreover, the condition a> an cee (93) ener @ oy i, a we ne e aS & AT @ tnd bad choices of base rystem and atte acatee Wapiti (0 exer wil ain ae uray ea tact problens ve Soa iat, cain pence See cule ek ace ea ea ot etal unown 3. Such transformation may be represented woe X=BY cooceetesseeesneess (95) where B is a non-singular square matrix wa. If X are initially single Forees or moments then ¥ represents zroups of fores or penalized forces. ‘Such groups of forces were fist introduced ty Mucller-Breslau" guied by pure physical easoning and this i stil the best method of fading them, ‘The transformation (198) may be introduced directly into Eqs (1862) eli yeas pBy+p,-0 BY+D=0 .... coos (98) where B is determined by matrix multiplication fom D-DB (1960) Physialy, Eqs (196) express the compatibility conditions athe cuts ofthe orginal unknowns % in terms of te new uaknowne YI the trans: formation matrix Bi unsyrametricl then the resuling matte wll ao be tnsymmetrical Although, in general, the simple substation of (195) nto (C36) can lead 10 8 slight improverent of Heconditioned equations the fect is usually smal. The next obvious step st express the compatibility gaat 8) in rms of he enraged dpc atthe cat Eorresponding to the genralzed forces ¥ of 199) Following our ds ostion on generalized displacements and fexbltis on p. 19 the generat: ized compatibility equations are derived by premalipying Eqs. (19) by Bras BDBY+80,-0 * as where D,-B'DB and D,,=8'0, 97) Its evident that the column matrix O,,'and the symmetrical mattx Dy would be obtained directly by selecting'ab Intl the generalized frees ¥ 88 redundancies and deriving the corresponding by, and By. from the Standard formulae given, Tn many cases it & best, when the equations ae il conditioned, to select 1 diferent basic system and corresponding redundancies ¥. the later are again satieally related by a transformation mi any previous choles 2 of redundancies, »We illustrate the above considerations on illconditioned equations on a P22 simple structural example. Fic. (29) shows & uniform continous bbeam of three equal spans simply supported at A, BC. Da twice fe ddandant sytem. We discuss four altemative choles forthe two fedu. (a) % and 2, are taken as the reactions at the supports A and B. The 1 matrix for this system Bu Bs [on Ba A remarkably bad choioe since Byy> >Buy (©) 4s. Me taken as the reactions atthe intermediate supports B and C. Then, s7 ap em a ;] 4 Stills bad choice sine all's are of th same order of magnitude an ett Ya ae aneralzd redundancies formed from Sate) by aoe 198) ‘The improvement over (b) and (a) i immediately apparent. (@) % and %2 are the bending moments at supports B and C. This ‘hoice ‘of unknowns is statically identical to, and Y, off), ut the bases System is diferent. The B matt is fang clearly a scalar mukiple ofthe D matrix of) Tie inl system (@ rocognived as a paral cas of the wellknown Thee-Moment Equation of Clapeyron. Since the asic system approns mates more closely to the actual sysiem than that of() iis leary te soe Suitable choise of al, ‘The diferences between the above four systems become even more Bronounced when the numberof spans is increase. Moreover the Se {Deficient of choices (a and (b) tend, fort lange umber OF spans. fo become linearly dependent ‘This discussion shows how important the choice of the redundant Eersrig th cogil ve len fe pce An exten ‘48 of simplicity is achieved in all equations only one unknown spears ‘The parcalr set of redundancies = Ya Yo Yous os Yuro=o= Yo {or which this condition esti i called orthogonal. Then all but the covresponding gies influence events eset ta Lard it iek ve = 99) TRE we introduce the symbol {for 8 to emphasize the special nate of this system. Eqs. (182) take ow the simple fom, Gu¥rbby=0 for fmt torn (200) and hence (2000) ‘This system ¥; may always be obtained by a particular linear transforma a eon) are usually more mn of Eqs. (182) these are well condtiones Sercrae sas esos nwa gl nd hence arene {agcous fo find the orthogonal set of redundancies ‘This fs particularly $0 ‘physical and not mathematical considerations indicate how to find hens FFor example, this is so in arches and singly connected rings where, it 30 Fig.30.~Orthoponal and novorthogonal redundancies—elaste centre of Singiy connecced ring DS fest ourselves to bending deformations and assume the E-T-B. to 1a a oionra a of findaaes i oad eng nf the pincpal axes (Cy, Cyst the ring neutral ans wetted With the ing Tenby 1/1 (ete ue, 30, The ongin C of ths sutem winch of ours, the centroid ofthe elastically weighted ngs Keown 9 the leas ‘gate. The transformation matrix 8 relating the orthogonal set of Pe: ddundancies ¥ to «set X consisting of bending moments normal free Agand shear force X, at some point i in the neation of 8,30, “s 1 | 8} 0 cod oa | (202) 0 sind cond In practice it is nearly always worthwhile to find the elastic centre and eliminate two ofthe cros-fexiites but determination of the principal ‘axes, unless possible by inspection, i not usually worth the rouble further points that the elastic cente concept i ail valid f deformations ‘dot t0 normal and shear forces are included whereas the principal ance ‘requirement becomes more complicated. Interestingly enough this solution was fest given by Moht® more than seventy years. ago, but appears not tobe universally known, for atherwise ‘i would not have teen nesessary to rediscover 30 many times. A more Teoent derivation and application ef an orthogooa) set Sf redsinganes (in general infinite) is the system of sel-equlibrating eigenloade descince by Anpris and Dunne t for theie general theory of tubes n tending end Particular forms of the 8 and By coefcients We getien now to Eqs. (177) nd (178) for the Scoeficients and give, {following ous expressions (180) and (181) for & pinsointed framework, some further expicit formulae for more complex stttures, ‘Sip:jointed plane framework. We assume the Engineers’ theory of bending stresses (0 be true and introduce the special notston: ‘No Sm My notmal fore, sheat force, bending moment in basic system five to applied Toads, Nw Su Mi normal force, shear force, bending moment in basic system due 10 Yom where (1 9m 4, coordinate along ais of beam, @, lemperature at neutral line of cross-section. AOA temperature gradient across depth fof beam; postive if giving rise to theamal bending strain of the same sign as that det Positive bending moment hi eae Tt ied ae 2,4 eat force haiti manbar die te +1 Aa oe Jermaton Came") eG. by by Fare (matt be tu aking 69 amen (hick sipwarcee by ite estan of oe 8 BeTeae be Ed P80 Fig. 31-8 du eo nial strains in ih ‘crore and pe Ode bbe £8. ys Ma, jointed frame and manufacturing oppor A presribed relative displacements linear or angulat) either Inside the structure (eg. lack off) oF at the supports give” ‘of foundations). cS eta det X cng onan Ee eAon,ehiiel teen aerate ea Ce ee rr a. 08, Banfi [ Stans 86M aw) Aw tom 17a ety om be ui oad eto Me faoare[aed® sca co» scopolamine Hadi Gt Srey momen nner ‘avolving S and offen also the terme in N- Fic. (31) Mlustraes on a twice ‘edundant eystem how the contribution of the presribed displacements ‘tor, i calculated. 2, and X, are the chosen redundancies and Oy Dy Aan ar ina Gr gar imposed Gaplacements ang from gees tn Te amen i car ierinamea teammate Rewer giaean marae rarer eae ay ‘ie pias Erierenma nacre are fee ered aieerarnemenms iiss Sy atanmnoae tan wommdser ete Se alien 0 ane ete A de iher inside the membrane (ck of fit of parts, frat the Boundaries (ive at support) & —Gistanoe along part which experiences Ay andjor A, ' 1 be By «It dre, nee 1 to Iltal shear xerain arising from Incorrect manufacture Figo Coun Coe dict and. tangential forces per unit length £ in the, basic system due (0 1 acting on the clement which experiences fh inthe direction ofthis. 1 thicknese ‘We deduce trom Ea (178), Bull [ements 5) ‘to rom E17, Bod{ [omens omit HOt endtn 4H met] idy eflfemetemJsOntdys [Lene ¢ CR ]eP es ecessse 06) “The immediate aplication ofthe above formulae i to major aircraft com ponents ike wings and faelaes, Theie mati formulation id Rerther below ic, G2 ilistateshow ona thrice redundant beam with shear earning ‘cb the contribution ofa prescribed displacement A to 2, i calculated M's inti cae an init sbenring spacement of anal ue to err of was asumed in all our above considerations system is statically determinate, However, nothi ven rests us to such a choice, We can delet in structure with a total fume of redundancies n'a staealy Indeterminate base system Wath (rontrenredundanciesby‘cuting’ only redundant members. Equations ‘St ee type (82) can then be written down for the ct r unknown, the Souesponding dyccoucients being stl defined as nour previous analysis in the basie system. In fect, to Calculate the dy. we may apply again Eqs (178). Simiary, for Byte may use Ea. (177) i we subatitte e o ‘where ys the true ftrin inthe basic system due tothe prescribed tak {Hrs This modification fy necessary since the base system ig now fe- ‘Kundan andthe mposed ital stesns arent ee to develop. However, both formulae forbs and 5, may be simplified considerably if we cere: berthacin the unit oad metiod from which they derive (ee Eq, (7) ony ‘he Strains must be the true ones fr the system considered—in Ue present ate the redundant basie system. The stfesses corresponding (0 the wait Toad may be any stable stately equvalemt stress system and may hee 3 at the basic or eut in the theory $0 farbe found in the simplest statically determinate system-Thus, we inteoduce the notation 4,ostateally equivalent stress system in redundant basic system due ott Bu BleteMy ana Bum fred Bum oad feed dy ‘The introduction of &; instead ofa: in Eqs. (177) and (178) may shorten the analysis greatly, Naturally, Eqs (178a) are again idential with formu tae (3, “The above method presumes thatthe strains ¢ and cy in the redundant basie spstem are known, Such information may be available either from previous calculations. ar the Hterature. Akernatively, we my have (0 Snalyse frst the basic system for the external loads (and’ot imposed strains) and the, r ,=1 by. the method given previously. From a ‘mathematical point of view the selection ofa redondant busie system tans that we Sve the pobiem of equations wath unknown in two Steps involving respectively the solution of r equations with r unknowns and (nr) equations with (r=) unknowns. This method fs particulary Useful if we have availabe information on the stress ditribution of the redundant base system ori the number is very Nigh, ‘Consider for example, #10 (33) showing 8 Tustlage ing with transverse ‘beam under uniform load p. The loading is equilibrated by tangential shear flows applied by the fuselage to the ring The scucture fsb times Fedundant and as redundancies we select the two groups y Ny Xy and 1 ay atte intersection of the ans of symmetry withthe wpe pat ‘of the ring and the transverse beam. Due to symmetry of loadiag and Strture X=%=0 age hence pote ees ong he emaipng eu redundaces ‘We may she he stn by det appknon of Eee Sh ahh Presa ae ke tome Budi tbat Bu Ma By Mot Be Re eRe pes) SERRA Regen} Sue tgeerta gp cpe) | wer th an are cleulatd wit forma (203) and (204 which theimegra extent aver tag ad transtene team, Rete aie Known aa ete othe te ee of he th scent 3 aha Having sed a 37) oe find MSA he feral arlere or MMMM ERAN Ye, SCR a Sass) (08) BoM ide Nia te in, where MMe ar dt om page 20. Airatey to this sana etd my sive te protien by Sng ony th eam ate a ‘Srey. Tenth srt son tee eaundan (Ysa) ehh Bn sen tat lf ke redendan: We ence Bea oe 5 ‘he normal fore. shea ore and ending moment inthe new assy tem duetepand > emcee an ase ha hey ne oe ‘Theses drouton ote a seal tes Youd ome 1782) 07) Manigtm Xe mXy 1 Nomtactetngts \ (20 mre Macanks J Tie equation of soma in the unknowns Xy and Xr nw of the Suet bg 0 1 20) Cake baaXs bag 0 f where we write £ instead of 8 to stress that these coefficients are diferent From the corresponding 8s in Eqs. (207) To find the {we apply Fas. (77a) and (178) Inthe new bas: system and remember thatthe virtual stresses de fo Y,~l may e selected in'a statically Geterminate system, ‘Thus, omitting the contributions of the normal and shea forces for convenieace of printing, we find bam [FM [Me fet any Son fae Meas sesseees QI) If, in addition, any initial strains» are imposed on our structure giving rise to moments my in the basle system the corresponding contribution tot, becomes Ta Mea Mea (20 Te efits of enrol an sea focs mayb le wos culty, the terms following immediatly from Eqs (203) and (208) and the agents leading (0 the contribution of the moments » @ o Fig, 3,—Stateally indeterminate basi system, Doubly connected Fog Wis useful to write down the Band By for a two-dimensional stress istrbution when the basic system is redundant. Thus with the Gefinion ‘of G; given previously we fing, Bue ff [erty -H nus tly (2050) so-tllle ett anata ee, ere a. et., maybe here not only the streses due to external loads but Also duc fo the imposed intial strains, (Remember that the latter cannot ‘develop freely inthe statically indeterminate Base system and five ise to some strainsres slate yo) ‘The use ofa redundant basi system arises continuously in wing theory. Thus. following Ebnerand Koller*and Argyrisand Dunnett is eustomay inwing analysts to expres the actual stresses inthe form, onto, sees GBD where the stress system othe choice of which is at our discretion — Satistes both the external and Internal equilitrium condition and. therefore the statically equivalent sttes system, o, ae the sei-b, since the basic system is taken to be stately determinate. When the deformations aise from p ‘ives’ Q at ‘the foundations itis advantageous to express Has Hoty. oA) 235») “Then for by’ we must substitute the matrix e' where om the n rows of which ate the forces due to XI, applied by the structure {ote foundations inthe crectons ofthe sves 8. Eg 36) becomes now, by, X+eH-0 esses Q8) we select a redundant basi system we cannot derive the elements of H iramediatey from the posed nial eran sings the late ae nt ee {o develop na redundant stsctre. In this ease unless we have te neces fig gration om revi cults we mut fat aby he ic system bythe method of the previous paragraph. Having found he ‘column matrix H ther equation nthe runknowss ke the forn 5/1, X45/H-0 : 2360) here we may write by for by sine the basic sytem snow redundant, “he systematic solution of (2) and elated equations wes discussed on page 28 but there are afew further pont arking in praca ealclaton ‘hich are best invest gated here, This, we menonsd on page 20 tht I often possible and Justified to nepet certain part Nexbties of be cements for example, n a ring analysis we can Usually ignore the dist, and shea’ flexibility This apples not only to the evahation ofthe external Fexiblcy Fat sles tothe determination of the sternal redundancies ‘Werte now the D and By matrzesin the spit fon D=D,+Dyand Dy~DuvtDy vevsesevneeess QB) where the suis a tnd refer tothe two exits into which we sen {ate the ftal Renblty of each element. An approximate lation 3 15 the unknown column % is then ‘obtained by enorng fe exits b Thea, D.X,4D470 oF X= DD -... 29) Occasionally we may require subsequently the correction x to X. to find ‘the tre column XaXte Substituting (238) and (239) into Eq. (228) we derive easily X= DUD 4+ DX) 2399) 36 np See Fig. 7-—Airerafe wing structure. Geometry and definition and since x is usualy small in comparison with X approximate methods fray often be used in the evaluation of the iht hand Se. This technique amet ticle the erston os compe tama ‘vnen subsequent smal changes inthe esis of some elements ae Inauvced ty modieons fo ther eas sectoral dineos oe ‘When the number of equations is too lage for performing the matrix operation ona digital computer than we may apply the following msthod which i basally identical with the idea of redundant bass System [Assune that a structure witha number of fedundancls we set ft a baste system with tr redundancies and that we write down the? uations in, in the sandard form (28), Dx+D,-0 . eas 24) 1 the pumbe is stl oo face for handing by the data computer we solve the problem in two steps: Eqs. 228) ae Bat putin the partioned fem r ro tS Dr Duet Py |_| Pu Bur P| ~Jo J Lee here the numberof rows in the mares with suices fand Isp and Pp respectively and Dy, Dy are square matrices. Eq: (240) gives x, Xu ew) DX +O yf Kr +Dy=O (2409) Di Xp4DpXr4Dy¢—O We split next the column mati Xj into matrices XyKEY ceeeccsensreseeeee ea ‘where x satisfies the equation te Dye} Darr O OF X= —DyDaypooee se ea) Dru X14Dyy=O oF y=—Dy Dy XK, ena) ‘Substituting for x and y into the fest of Eas. (2402) we find DyX +O —Dy "Dy, —Dyp*Dy:Xj]+Dyp=O Xp== yD’ Dy Dy) MDye—D yey Br7Dyn) 2) ‘rom which we deduce y and hence X, Eqs. (248) are identical with the latte compatibility equation for a basic system with np redundancies, ‘The matrix form (224) of the equation of compaibiliy is particulary suitable to ilustrate the transformation (see p29) x=BY coteessesseeces (199) when the equations ae illconditioned. Thus, by substitution of 195) nto (226) we fina By fb,BY +5/%)R=0 and premutipying by 8° Bib, fb,BY +86, 1b,R-0 5/1b,Y 46/1480... am‘where (ee also Eqs. (196) and (197), bywbiB and b,—5,B as) are merely the matrices forthe true and statically equivalent stress systems inthe bate system doc to Yau 1 2 “The form (24) of the equations of compatibility may, of course, be writen own directly when stating ab flo withthe group unknowns Y. Applicaton toa typical aircraft structure ‘We present now a detailed investigation of type of system characteristic of sireraft wings. Consider 0 this purpose the structure shown in FG. 37, which consists essentially of an orthogonal or nearly orthogonal grid of and ries coveted wih sheet matecal. Longitidinal and transverse ges may be placed atthe intersections of spar and rib webs with the overs. In addition the covers may be sieved with further longitudinal Sndjor transverse anges. The erssseetion is assumed arbitrary and the Spats may taper diferently im plan vew and elevation but the angle of {per 20 taken to be so small that eos 201 and sin 2020. The analysis {s'not restricted to stractures with continuous rib and spar-webs, covers {nd flanges and includes hence any kind of minor or major eul-ou "the geometry considered excludes swept-back wings with tbs parallel to the line of fight On the other hand swept back Wings with ibs perpen ‘cular to the main wing axis can be analysed by the present method as fong as we ave given the necestary information forthe triangular foot. tRotion, Delta wings ray also be investigated by our theory as long as the fd of ribs and spars conforms to Ive geometry stfplated here. Naturally, Frany of the restrictions imposed limit the apaleability of the-method Indeed we intend our analvis only as an exploratory and tentative ist fttackon the more general problem. We hope co return to this and siilar points infer publeations| "The problem of finding the stress dstibation in the shell type of steuctute considered i snely infinitely redundant, Hence iti necessary {o introdue for practical ealelations considerable simpiifiations. First ‘We adopt the statdard assumption in wing stress analysis of a membrane ‘Sate of stres, ie, we exclude any bending of coves and flanges normal to the surface ofthe wing” For the very thin wings now coming into promin- nee thls deallzntion if open to grave doubts and will no doubt have to be Teconsidered in future. An esvental characteristic of our theory is the {ssumption thatthe longitudinal and diect stresses vary linearly between the nocal points of nal grid of lines traced on the wing oer, This system of lines should, in general, beat eastas ine asthe arid ‘Of spars and sibs whose intersection withthe covers forms the best mii- ‘hum set of grid lines, The latter grid will often be sufficiently close if we ire dealing wit a multeweb structure and ribs at not too greata distance However, many instances oceur where ts necetary to seleetadgitonal ‘nodal points between which the direct stress taken (0 vary lineady Forexample, we may choose points Intermediate between spar webs of the rip stations f the spacing of the spars and the sheet thickness ofthe over are large. Similary, if the structure has few ribs we may have 10 Snuoduce new transverse stations in order to reduce the spacing of the rid inthe longitudinal diecton. tn ether case there need not be an actual tudinal or tranaverse reinforcement along the new grid lines, We call thetsuface enclosed betwoen tivo adjoining ged lines in the 2 and s ‘rection afield, and denote by "bay" a part of the wing structure Which lies between two cross-sections taken through adjoining grid lines running in the mdiection (ee Nic. 37), THe assumption of a linear direct stress Alstribution along the edges of an onthagonal and flat held yields from ‘overall equilibrium conditions a parabolie shear flow distibution along, the‘edges’ Naturally, nsither the linear ditest stress nor the parabolic ‘hear flow variation are, In ganeral, exact and violate the interal and ‘undary compatiblity conditions of the held. This isnot setious as long 2 we Lex the spacing ofthe gid cy reasonably close. Moreoer, we Simply further the prosiem by neglecting the quadratic and linear terms Inthe gear flow und considering to be constant within each field, We note that for non-orthogoral gr lines (apered structure) the uniform {Shear low ofends agnnst the eqllibrumconditions even if the direct stress [Seonstane between adjoining nodal points. The errors introduced by the fssumption of uniform shea flow are, however, practically insigneant Foribe ceo of src cone here when th nodal point di tances are small Ifthe direct stresses along the grid lines were known we could caleulate the fraction of sheet atea to be adéed to the reinforcements 0 form the ‘auivalent or effective Ranges. This applies to the cover, spar-webs and ‘swabs nd yields an idealized structure in which the fields are only shear tarying and the ditect stress carrying ability fs concentrated in anges; fan assumption widely usea in aircraft practice, Neglecting the Poisson's Tati effect and assuming the same material for anges and sheet material ‘over, the fraction of sheet erosssectional are fo be added o the Mlanges| ‘ariel between 1/6 and 1/2 ifthe fields are Nat; the former value applies ‘when the eld isn pure bending ins own plane and the latter when i is Under uniform stress. Sine the stress datribation fs unknown we ean at best only estimate the efective areas ofthe anges but may use an eration proce fei guess proves dani: Hower thee prose realy cumay and lengthy and a direct method, obviating the guessing fof ange areas would evidently be useful, in particular atthe root or thet Unstittene: eut-eut Longitudinal tlanges en continuous at junction |B Longitudinal flanges interrupted at junction Nea Fig, Geometry of erica tny for determination of mumber of structural or londing discontinuities where the stress distribution is moce ‘itielt to estimate and the Poisson's ratio effect more pronounced. Such “Emsthod is given here a the end ofthis sub setion butt fst ve davelop the tneory under the assumation hat the efactive Mangss.areas are known, 4nd that they are constant betveen two adjoining nodal poins.* For the ‘Webs, when considering torque and It loads, iis always Su ont ef the web eros sectional area to the longitudinal and tran flanges at the intersection of the spars and ibs withthe cover “We summarize now the main asumptions underying the Mea structure selected for analysis. Thus, our system consists ofan orthogonal ‘nearly orthogonal gikl of spars and ribs with top and bottom covers. Ente age conan arabeesenadining ial pots and cay. ing only dieet stress are assumed placed along the grid lines in Tongi- tial and ana detons, Foe te tins eng aso hat the flange arens are known. The direct stresses and hence also the ange Ere taken to vary linearly between nodal points All sheet material for eves pare and wee nine purely Sea cng fl ar com ant thickness within each angles of taper of spars in plan view find elevation are assumed to be small. The shear deformability of covers, ‘Hosand spats is nchaded ad nto in the analyss. For the stresses and ads {nthe various elements we adopt the sign convention lustrated in 1G. 38. [Naturaly the idelizations and simplifications introduced are strictly only pecessary forthe calculation of the redundancies, The basic or statically Equivalent sees system may and should preferably be determined in the (uo aetual structure Degree of redundancy of idealized structure ‘We proceed next to the enumation ofthe redundancies in our idealized scucture. In addition to the simlifeations inoduced. previously we Jgnore here the bending stiffness of the Manges for displacemzots tangential to the wing surfaca, This is, 20 doubt, suciently accurate forthe pretent exploratory analysis. The wing stuctre supported atthe root and free at 3”tho tips assumed feed by riba last a he rot and the ti, These ‘ibs nad not nsenariy const web wth flange but may fake fhe Terma ast jomed fame orsing However, ndepensenty fe seston ff teri we may alway subntate sn uiaens ear we with fanaee $f wing srscutcw oubuved ins umber of taps of which we soe 2 pia intermediate one in ro. G9), The crons-eeton ate urction ‘cares the ip maybe slfone by a erie across tome oral cls fia G9) inde aso thee ongtacinal Ranges which are contin tothe same junction it souls be noted teat i thre chang tamer slope Of the cover ata longusinal Range te ates mot 9 onneced fo? spar ney Wels the Flowing notation ‘B=mumber of longitudinal eftctive flanges which are conmous aos thejncion te are nat intemued hee ‘Nemimber of closed elt tiene by rib tthe tp end of he by. “Then te numberof redundancies ring rom the geometry ofthe bay Bo3tN—t Hence in 2 ebular structure ofthe pe shown ino, 37, ee atthe ip Ande ter fly uiin athe root ot peso dipaeemenes hte Mail lonitadina argc, the total mumber a edundances mB (6-9 +0-D) : en sf certain of the Manges are not held at the root section the number of redundancies reduces accordingly. For example, ifthe Footsection #8 the aircraft centr Line and the wing fs subjected to anti-symmetrical loading the number of unknowns reduces by 2-—3, 8 being the numbet ‘of longitudinal Ranges atthe root. The number in the square bracken (G47) can, of course, vary fFom bay to bay since effective Ranges may be Interrupted a¢ such stations. Also the number V of stifened cells may be made diferent in each bay by the addition or removal of spar webs However, wien & and N are the same in all bays and al he flanges are held atthe root formula (247) becomes simply n=alf-+N—8 ara) where a=number of bays, If the shect cover is misting between two ad Joining longitudinal Manges ina bay andthe cutout m not provided witha Stoited closed frame to restore paraly the lost shear moss ofthe feet then the coresponding sel open fa tis bay and by dehntion {Sot included in N Similars there no eb or equivalent feime n'a cell atthe section consider this cll excluded. tom the mumbeting for N: Note that spar webs need not be continuous throughout the length of he wing and may be dcomnued a any nation, Formula 24 the cross-section isinely symmetrical them redundancies of Ea. (247) split into two groups i) +w-n] n-DIG =D) cone at ore tn te gente tea ee tren Sts cra what Sand tte Sete he pipe) sn om 6 heater fn war aw) gag a le ii ST ee ea graiie emt oie een gece FRE ero ere Sie Anan Ses pce Oo fearetea ae rerdoy Esta Sa us a Sas Seremban Weed eae Baer ee site pas ee ev ae a iepettabeoeneaBeg en. 8) “en cnt tp gh fel nee orl eee ena ares SGN art atte simply bX ©|_o ’ : to x-betoaR-+by | | seen and hence using the second equation of (261) ee ETT Dib 20) where on “The stress matrix § follows a8, ‘Se [by -bD-tby fly] BOB eases 283) “The expresion in the square bracket isthe matrix B which we writ in the partitioned form i as 4 Te “To find now the goluran matsix H. we put che stresses in the additional Clements to "9, Thus, the matrix S must be 265) ‘where S, ave the true stresses (orcs) in the original structure. Applying Eqs (260), 264) and (265) in 263) we ind fe fla [ml rR | | pb (256) jo bl ba “which solves our problem completely. As mentioned already the method is Beh alten or hnding the alferation ofthe stresses ina structure trough eben introduction of ext-out, such as acess doors which usually Seam to materlze at lat stage of design, Another partly weil seem Ao jon oF the new approach may be found tthe analysis of fuse Apes nit windoy-openings Naturally, the degree of redundancy pettated by the ling’ of the cut-ous but this 1s of no importance {Be the automatic computations envisaged here, A more refined wing stress analysis “Tho above general method of wig strss analysis suffers from theserious dele rented snitaly that the effective flange areas have fist to be Slee J'Gce the stress distribution on which they depend js unknown. fucsied iy feasible to apply an tration technique but this is ot only evessarily lengthy But also rather uninspiring, * eae te foes dificult we develop a method which eliminates the erninaion of the elective Mange area al works directly with eetive Heese rhe method has the further virtue that takes fll account ange ees ratio efit which may be mportantat the root and at other orUeural and loading citcontinultes, The addition of 1/6 of the web sretatthe anges is always silently accurate for lif and torque loads are (6 tained here Hence Out problem i restricted to the wing surface sone Pe. previously introduced essumptions thatthe loads are carted in the iste Es ete bya gr apstem of effective flange loads and fields ‘eal carenrying (orm also the basi of the new method. We assume ‘urefhat both the cirect stress distribution and the effective flange loads also thetarly between consecuve nodal points. However, our analyaiy Jee, Re pamoume tat the so-called effective flange areas—hich d0,not does not Gar developments—are constant between nodal points. The Ente fot again taken tobe constant vatin each fel. When replacing Tae any warping Tek sresses across a gig ine by efletive flange oS aeise he nocal points we introduce the additional assumption tha dads lange aves ond thigknesses do not vary across this gtd line, Since fring stores pate thicknesses and poswbly Range aces may ary pasethic iis sugpested to take for this particular cakulation the mean, Just ther eas ant ihcknesses on eithar side of the grid lines on the other FEN nen there isa cutout on one side ofthe grid line or the ange is hand when (he corresponding values should be taken as zero, These rerum ave not necessary forthe purpose of the analysis But ease Gimelrslees of notation; moreover they do not affect seriously the te oes computations. Contrary te our previous practice of num Sein fungstone eters wen breot oss ets ith Sue ow the equation connecting the elective ange Toads at otal Goin inthe = and ¢ girecions ofthe idealized structure and the odat Pes distibution in the plate material 1 8 more convenient 19 ‘teat iat point and fr this purpose we siet the point 9 inthe grit ‘Sistem shown in 10.46.Fig. 46—Equivalent flange loads in idealized structure ‘The following notation is used: all values apply to nodal point 9 Pu Qy elective ange loads in zand s dzccions 2, (actual) area of longitudinal ange} (aparsweb ares) (actual) area of transverse fange+ (ib-web area) Young's modulus of sheet and flanges respectively longitudinal and transverse Mange stresses Jongitudinal and transverse flange strains Jongitudinal and transverse stresses in sheet effective elastic modulus of sheet effective Nange areas due to plate in E me Ah Blase Aah dy ve EB tebe cin an Nate shat the material of Manges and sheet is assumed to be dierent Weave, “aterina-Kouten 28) The conditions of equliviym for the actual and idealized systems yield incontunetion with Ba, (203) * Petals + Aya Ags +0Agw }Oearaas em FOnd Aga Ansel +oatAagtonsrAnay J Oral Asatte +eadayt Onan en AR Agt Asad Oat Avetounr Anas | ‘These equitions ar exprested more concisely inthe form, TJ ; fal _ | fa, | mbes]. | the Ol laa uy Pay em [es] tha | the 4 where the matrices L areas follows: Ps 2a Asa) 2st Ap ne | en Dat Arad Cyaan | U } 1 tye |e Ae ° en ef | etae Ae J C ‘The matrix Lyyp (Ly) is obtained from Ly, (bg) by substituting 10(18) for 8G) Equailons'earresponding to (272) thay be writes down horsey other nodal point. We see immetiatly that Laake en Lo sssee GMa) yhen r and s are not adjoining nodal points ofthe rid, We deluce also that Eqs. (2734) are the general formulae of the Lemticsforadjeining Nodal points in the z- ands directions respectively (Consider now the column matics forthe Range loads and stresses at all p nodal points and that, S=(PO,P.0s PQs 1 . G19) CS eee From the set of equations ofthe type (272) we nd, . see 16) Winere Lis the symmetrical partitioned matrix Phan ees | | bn be be sesseeess QM) ty be t rom (274a) the submatrices with suffices refering to non-adjining nodal Points are zero. Solving Eq. (276) for swe find ms and hence also em OBB S cc ceneeses QB) where is the column matrix of the fange stains atthe nodal points, ie. OM enbaennseeesanbatgiessensesstitg) —ciesecesers QDR) ‘Thus, once we have determined the effective Nang loads the flange $Ereses and strain follow from Eqs. (279) and the direct streses in the sheet from Eqs. (269), No guessing of elective ange areas is involved in this procedure but we have on the other hand to invert the matric wth 2p rows and columns. Itis apparent that if we knew the effective flare areas BC. at the nodal points we could immediately write down the itr verted mattc as a diagonal mattix whose elements are the Umit Range Aexiilties a the nodal points. Infact, thenary 1 ° EG, | L 4 Consider now the by andy mates ofthe bas syste, We amphase nS oRe acca tt pen eto al Be sete om pure aia tthe ane aes se uninoe, Th an cere gutta altel wine fom an Engen they ot Sea et ha ans ess aay seo he Feng foun ac he yatemntexaii i pba bes sar Ta inutile glu wit he apie TSS Athi Wakiy often of shar ows and antes set coun she spl sher fread era: Coe {nt te al ape nthe revs meted we wr ete Sch cma yn oy mane partner no m3 mI J bu | be |b b= | b= | (280) } bee ki |e by uw us sere tmais ys yes Bolt os pins The serge eae et ace ie bean ct nate Se Sa ease Say weap the bi te fe Se ag a eee Sa oe ee OE wey and pe HOC YZ) ses 8D ei oi i a angie pinnate omen cnc tienen Sat oes er Tees ee tes ae 3 cet en og nae Rage Meee ae ecard Sela came cake palpated cea remeerr eer pop epereror ts cane eis tcuaumgsroctngs Opa oO ni vara nas 5 and since we assume that both ange loads and strains vary linearly between nodal points we find, wus] o> was] wtal | [*]eoa) | [5 613} CS ay6.dj3| 7 t ‘The complete expression of 5, is arranged by pairing the terms involvit Tos expe remo of ican i as reso eed at sates tan Bore Qala PaQalba Paulo HP QilhaePaQalbsi[Ss]+ any where the I matrices are, tl - 4 ind 0 ho: | (283) © dass I (2832) 1 bs 0 asl" fp Aa] Tre mfg ete ol by ing Dy rey oe a a fe ORs erase Paani ces sel mtg meni Sarea aa Soren - as) we can express Eq. (282) concisely a8 Be=[PaQnes++ Pa Qe PoQeMe 36) Observing tht the matrix (Pau. PQ P.sQid fs the ith row of the by matrix and noting Eas, (281) we find that the Santsibutions ofthe ange strain 0 the D and matrices are i Deabite y Dum byl bok. sn We conclude thatthe Mexibiity ofthe flanges at the nodal points i given oe i 23) [ote the structural similarity between the | and Lmatries [tis particu Rah pronounced when +0, The total Benblity of the eiements of the 4 5 fo 0 0} eo & oo) t-| 9) Jo-e & 0| Jo oo «| where the flexibilities ofthe cover, webs and ribs are as before, "We nd forthe matrices B and Dy. Dab and Dy=b/ TAR 225») where by and by are aeranged as in Eqs. (280). ‘Ssing Eqs. 2250) in (259) we solve the problem completely, PRP EFisemene introduced by the L matrix need not of course extend ‘over the complete wing but may be resticted tothe root and other marked Sherags of structure and loading. For the rest ofthe structure it may stil SotNRene to estimate the efecve flange areas and to use the simple oem (277). 1D. The Analysis of Structures by the Displacement Method “The analogy between the developments forthe eniblities and stifneses sien der 8 and'B and sommarized in Tabs shows cleanly that parallel Bien unde ds of stracuses with forces a8 enowns there must bea cor- Aecponding theory with deformations as unknowns, As mentioned inthe Femeeton to this section Oxtenfeld™ when investigating, frameworks sr te rt to ra ate f ach ay analog at, euatons Mas NS ena counterpart of the asic 8, equations given by Mueller- $e Seorces as unknowns. In more recent times Southwell and his Dupisave ued his relvaton technique to solve the elasticity equations art Baste difference form with displacements as unknowns fora great Baber of problems. Hod? has applied the latter method to difusion and arn problems in aivrat structures and has solved also the correspond tet Peon sirecty, Lately Willams has outlined an analysis of win oa ee stanard oF solid type by introducing the deflecions ata ite geil of points as unknowns; hs technique, which sintended for use ies sbinaion with the tomatic digital computer, neglets however the shear defesions, which may have an important infusnes, 8irae np erokn ier ceca seine Aimecnca anata efter egal cent ah ce ine alg au ar en emer cee i gus titi es oa Re Stine ar tee Suey oie tymatarnk Geena She sn org meaeeena Saison eceald ee Gs Seon ae acta eh 8 ce Re FE eoek octet ecard Sar aie ens Semste or trees Soe wei mentneiotgeraragccne sce ie aden ile Sta ea as Tp et nt ue reigns Me al Mame May + PH ‘e coo) if = Pa? i own. aw “The out-tbalance moments onthe joint ar then Put als® _pih® oe ae e Lea en ‘Consider next the system with eee joints and no transverse loading sub- {sted 10 the loading bythe joint-moments aul Ran esta) ‘The superposition ofthis and the previous case yields the true solution of| the given ‘stem under the transvere loading ‘To analyse the second Droblem we apply Eqs. (138) which take the form ars ha (29 hurrthannk, J Toe slfeses hy are eaily found a8 (se also Eas. (148) Eh 4E1, 241, ky PY kyl oty 293) Eb 481, SEL, fa TE Which assumes that the horizontal beams and supporting struts have the constant bending stiffness EZ, and Ey respectively, eof silt jointed frame (292) where Having the rotations and rand using the stifineses ofthe individu slemene sonained in (93 we ey ie the actual moments structure, Thus, introducing again the usual sign convention siving port live ending moment when upper Ribres are n compression, we Rad Tor the bending moment Mat the junction (I) of element (13) nd El, 261, FF sees (094) This method forms also the basis ofthe Hardy-Cross or the more general Southwell relaxation technique in sifjointed frameworks ‘We develop next the general theory of the displacement method. We introduce immediately the matrix notation and asuine thatthe srctre consists ofa Fite number sof elements whose sifneses ke toveatre slsplacements atthe ends or boundaries ofeach element te known Vy ‘gcder to show most clearly and concisely the striking analogy between ite force and displacement methods we presen them side by side inthe follow, ‘ng TABLE 1; most ofthe information with respect to foes has Been eee reviously under C. The complete duality between the two theatse ie ‘of cours, a direct consequence of te twin principles of virtual displace ments anid virtual forces from which they deive most natralfy We believe thatthe analysis has not been given previously mn thes wencraliee includes ab iio any eects of initial strains like temperature, ack ot Sit and give’ atthe foundations. The great advantage obtained ‘a deeper Insight and new theorems and applications by developing ine theory on ‘the most general lines is 100 apparent to need stesing. My TABLE ‘A COMPARATIVE PRESENTATION OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS BY THE FORCE AND DISPLACEMENT METHODS ‘METHOD OF FORCES METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS External forces R Flexibility F Displacements fork " Feat See also rane t Joint displacements © Sunes k Forces Kr See also rane t “4se TABLE II (continued) Unit Load Method Given the true stains « inastruetute the kinematically related displace- ‘ment rata given point and direction ean be calculated from (2982) bernfoedv ‘where dis a vitwal or otherwise statically equivalent stress system due to Unit foad in given direction. Statially equivalent stesses ignore compal- bility conditions (See also Section 6 andi. 13). Unit Displacement Method “Given thetrvestressesinastructure the equilibrating force R at a given point and direction ean be ealelated from \ Re foav (2956) were Zi a virtual strain sytem due to unit displacement in given direc- tion. In what follows we denote vctal stains a8 kinematialy equivalent Stenint. Kinematieally equivalent strains ignore equiliérium conditions. (See also Section 4and wie. 8), F.¥a. (840) Fa. (145) ‘Statically Determinate Spstem Kinematically Determinate System Internal forces (stresses) on elements determined from Internal celative displacement (strains) of elements determined from (96a) SBR vear sees . (296) ‘where mattis b is obtained by static reasoning lone, where matrix ais obtained by kinematic reasoning alone by displacing = Onejoine at atime sist Keeping al others fixed. Flexibility of individual (unassembled) elements ‘Stiiness of individual unassemBied) elements Ke Internal strain, Irvernal stresses, (2978), vets=0R, ky kar cor) External displacements, External forces, (2983) RaaSua'kar 2980) Flexibility, ines, 29a) Kyeatka 2998) (Of Bags. (121), (122), (125), (126) CF. Bas. (183), (188), (189), (160) Statcaly Indeterminate System Kinematially Indeterminate System In the elation In the relation (2964) SobR year (2964) ‘cannot be determined by statis alone Fiexibly of structure needs 10 be considered, entering as compatibility conditions ‘On the othsr hand i the iAternal strains v are known the kinematically related external displacements may be derived From (002) roby winere Bis merely a statiully equivalnt (veal) matrix due to uit A's Hence fexiiliyy ota) Fob Eq. (300a) isa special form of the Unit Load method (Principle of Virtual Forces), Fic. 48a illustrates the matries ® and 6 on a particulary simple ‘exampie of singly redundant system, agpaseroaosa) seein ot ao taraasaaa} Fig. A(a) —Trve and statically equivalent sere ‘eae She: pin jointed framewo f-Bas. (1250), (126) ‘cannot be determined by kinematics alone Suipss of structure needs tobe considered, entering as equim ‘On the other hand if internal stresses § are known the eq external forces may be derived Irom Raws beating cece (0008) where a is merely a kinemsicly equivalent (virtual) matrix due to uit ence sitess Kaitea ee cor) aq, 008 isa special form ofthe Unit Displacement method (Principle of Virtual Displacements. Fig, (486) illustrates the matrices a and & on the same example asin io, a, ww {000000049 oof ts (A oe00000000} Fig. 4(G)—Trve and Kinematic equivalent placement syste In e pin-jointed framework OF Eas. (159, (2606) 4sTABLE 11 (continued) Problem a Given a st of forces R, determine a set of statically indeterminate forces X necessary to satis the compatiblity conditions, Find also the displace ments rin the directions of ‘Complete force mate (6023) cee RO) By putting X—O we obtain the so-called basic system which statically seterninate within limits of idealization. ‘Stresses in basic system (2023) Stresses due to X (with R- (Cota) Where by and by are obtained fFom statics alone. “True stresses in actual sructore (2058) Sa 5y45 “DR EBX Strains of elements (6062) YofS—fb)R- 410, ‘Compatibility condition in actual system at points of application of forces X : Gor) byvebyM,R+d,1b,X—0 08a) Dx +D,-0 where Ma). = Deby —by(by'f,tby thy ‘True strains 7a) yotS=tbR Displacements due to R (Gone) F=5v=BfOR-FR where Giz) FF, —by by(by1b,)%b, fb, and Fy=by {sis the lexbilty of the basic system since we may choose 1) B=by Cf Bas. B17, 223), 2220), (224), 225, 22 (210), (228, 223), 230) Problem a Given a set of joint displacement ¢, determine the set of kinematically indeterminate Joint displacements U necessary to satisfy the equilbrim ‘onions. Fin aso the fore R in the erections of. ‘Complete dipiacement matrix uy 08) By patting UO we obitin the so-called basic sytem which is kine matically determinate within limits of Wealzatio, Stains in base system vena. . (6030) Stains due to U (with F=0) co seseese OMB) ‘where ay and ay are obtained by Kinematics alone. "Troe Seas In setualstuctore vawtyaarraU sevens 086) Forces on elements Shy —kayr +ka,U (2060) Equlibcum condition in acual sytem at non pressed displace Problem Given ast of cisplacements r find forces R, sess and strains ¥ From Bay. G00) ie) Hence Gis) Giss) Gita) (Once Fis Know the question of sail dterminacy or indeterminacy is Irlevent in ths proslem. mse 7 a/S-aykayréayka,U=0 core) cU+cn0 . see 086) (6096) 106) 2960) were aay —ay(kay tae . ene True stresses Smkvstar oo... (7) Forces R due to ¢ R=S=2kar=Kr cess (8004) where Ko Ky ay hala, ka 79, ay on») agi the stiles ofthe basic ystem since we may choose ene) Problem b Given set of forces Rfnd joint displacements strains vand stresses S From Eqs. 300d). R=Ke . : 14) Hence (ise) 166) GIT) ‘Once K is known the question of kinematical dtcrminacy or indeter= sminacy i irvelevent in this problem. Problem ¢ Given a set of initial strains H imposed on free unassembled elements due to temperature, lack of it, give" at foundations, find stresses S and {otal suains v when forcet “Total strains of elements 8a) . CCompattity condition in actual sytem at points ofa foes Srtem af points of a Xt G19) byv=b/ fb, X+byH=0 Hence, C208) X= (bth by 21a) —by bh), gaa Yan fb, Oy )B/ HH 7 Ho- Fa, (236) 6 Problem ¢ Given a set of intial stresses J imposed on elements with frozen joints (Ge: all Joint displacements zero) dus to temperature, lack of ft ve" St foundations, find strains vand suesses 8 when displacements ©. “Total stesses on elements Saka,U 43 sess G18) [Note that the column matrix U must here inciude all unknown joint sisplacements ‘Equilibrium condition in actual system inthe ditections of U 4'S=ay'kaU Fa, 5-0 : 2198) Hence, (areata) (6200) and yon ai(aykayay G21) S——keaay a4) G22) Note, okTABLE Tt (continued) Problem d ‘Assume that we write the total set of forces (ineluding the statically indeterminate foros) in the partitioned form req : in which Z is known in terms of R and %. We set now the modified lem (@) Given the at ot forces R determine the set of frst Desessary {0 satay the compaiblity conditions Tie the bask ssc doe puting XO the stress 6033) Sp=boR ‘are completciy known although the system is statically indeterminate. Similarly we know the stresses (04a) when R= 0 "Prue strewes in actual structure, 6088) oeeesseeeee S=5)+5,=bR HDX strain in elements (606) oo VSM )R 10% Compatibility condition in actual system at point of application of xa) “ Byv=byTb,R +b, X—O ‘where By isa set of stresses statically equivalent to unit X's (and RO) preferably found for ZO. In the later case the rows of By are the same [Es the corresponding rows of by of Problem (a) Thus 259) . X= = (6/118 THR “True stresses and strain (2968) SabR, v=foR where 6260) baby —b(5,,) 18, fby Displacements due to R (see Eg. (2002)) 2a) ees F=ByvoER where 28a) Srey By 5, "78,1 and (028) - Fy= By tbe isthe Rexbility ofthe basi system. “Te matrix By is a set of stresses statically equivalent to unit R's pre- ferably found for ZO and X=O, In the latter ease By is idential with yet problem (a), CF as. 226), (2278), (229), (230), Problem d Asa hat we wrt the total set font dplcements in he pr 236) in whieh W is known n terms of rand U. We set now the modified prob- lem (a), Given the set of Uisplacements € determine the set of dspce- zmen{s U mesessaty to Salisty the equidvium conditions ere in the base sytert Obtained by puting U=O the strains war - 2036) are completely knows although the system is kinematically indeterminate Similarly we know the strains wea coun) when r= 0 "True stains in actual steucture, vewenaarhay (6058) Forces on elements Sakykayr+ka,U = 068) Equilibrium condition in actual syst. a/Saaykayr +3, ka,U (249) where & ia set of stains kinematically equivalent to unit U's(and F=O) preferably found for W =O. In the later case the rows of are the same Sth oretponding rows of of Problem Ua aka) 625) “Tre stains and sreses year, Sokar 2360) where aay Qy"ka Rey eee 10260) Forces Rdve 1 F (ee Eq. 3006) R-a)S=Kr eam) where = Kya ey G280) and Kaiya 629) isthe siess ofthe basie system, “The matrix ia set of strains kinematically equivalent fo unit's pre= {erably Tound for WO and U=O. Inthe latter ease, i identical wth aot problem (a. Condesa of fests ma “pe elton af the ely matic given under role (a) can ae schon oe sompte Rest atte ee Wana ss cates ten a8 " F Furl Fry Fa Par Fu | weet fo fpses W(X) only sad was denoted by Fy(D) in problem nee ens koe ne hy ote ata structure under he ores then (318) FoF) Fen Fer Fore [Naturally this condensation may be performed in two or more stages and is then equivalent tothe mettod of problem (2. Condensation of stiffness matrix “The calculation of the stiffness matrix X given under problem (a)can be developed coneeely a8 a condensation of the compete stiffness matrix (or the vieplacements rand U. “Thisstiiness may be writen as Kir “where (I is for displacements © (U) only and was denoted by Ky(C) in problem (a). Evidenty ijt Cy ‘Fhe sles matrix K of the actual structure forthe displacements is then! KK) Kyi" 31h) Naturally this condensation may be performed ia two or more stages and is then equvatent tothe method of problem (2). Cf. a.0179) aTABLE TT (continued) Elimination and riidation of structural elements ‘Assume a se finial strains, writen as column matrix H, in the struc. tural elements tobe removed, of such magnitude as fo give 2eo sess in retultant system ‘Write uh band by matrices of the complet structure in the partitioned fom (3323) wes ‘where the sux 4 refers to those elements that are to be removed We find (333) : cee He yD by ABR and hence forces in the new steueture (34a) 5, =(b,—by Db y/(byD- BAIR In this process the numberof statically ‘indeterminate forces X has been reduced toa degree depending on the numberof elements removed. In the inverse process of making infinitely rigid certain ofthe structural clements we have merely fo put fy~o for the affected elements. The ‘number of statically indeterminate forces remains the same. Cf. qs. 264, 26, (268) Rigidication and elimination of structural elements ‘Assume ast of inital stresses, written as colum matrix 3, inthe struc- tural elements to be made infinitely rigid, of such magnitude as to give ero strain in resultant system ‘Write the a and a; matices Of the compete structure in the partitioned form a r- a la | ox) us where the Sufix refers to those elements that are to be made infinitely ig. We find JalauCayr ase xb) land henge strains inthe new structure YH (8y ay C ay tay eFay tar os) fn the process of making clements infinitely rigid (sti) we introduce Kinematic relations between displacements and hence reduce the number ot unknown displacements U accordingly. In the inverse process of eliminating certain of the structural elements, wwe have merely to put kyo forthe affected elements. The number of Kinematially indeterminate displacements remains the same Generalized Forces Generalized forces given by rar 4d [R} [eo] jr! (350) sees - | x} low, x) ial uo “The equation forthe unknown X is (3360) DR+B,-0 where osm B,'0,B, 392) and the flexibility of the actual stueture forthe forces Ris tty) FF, By yb, 8,(8,DB,) 78,18, where oo Fe By tboB Sb By—b,84(B,'DB,)-1B,b, fb. isthe Rexibilty of the basic system under the forces R 4 Generalized Displacements Generalized displacements given by ao] |r | | 6350) Julien! jal wy ead “The equation for he vnknowa i CO+E-0 (336 where E=AVEA, and GVEA, ox) Then vee cw) were Faas AAUASEA) A/a ha ais and theses ofthe ata ttre forthe dpacements Fl RRA HRAIALCA Aa aA oo (08) where, Keates, way isthe stifness ofthe basie structure for the displacements FHE application ofthe general theory with dlsplacements as unknowns {a ieeworks— both of the pinged and stijointed types ‘Straightforward, For the sti jante system the method vsparticulary simplewhendireetandsheardeformationsare ignored. n fact, for all frame orks the determination ofthe matrices © an Gy 1 tv once we con- WGer all posable degrees of freedom of the Joints. See for example, the Beiimns Se nnos: 3h (24) and (48) investigated! on pp. 23, and 45, ‘Thich show clearly how elementary the matrices a and stiffness Kare whe Tie brea up the structure into 1 simplest constituent components. We Fed ot therefore concen ourselves any more here with frameworks, ang [ewan ‘our attention to the membrane type of system charastersic of Sreral applieations, Essentially, a major aura structure like a wing Siesats ofan assembly of plates (Res) stiffened by fanges along their Sane Te held may be a curved andlor tapered surface but we ignore here $8 nese eects sod consider only reetangular Nat elements of eonstant aan ass or convenience the clement formed by the plate (sheet) and ts {ourelge members denoted by the term unit panel. Is assume that the flange areas are constant along each edge. th uae — . « 5 Ae lr | “hk wn Phawe i heen 6. J s t 1 Fig. 49-—Stitioesses of uit We determine fest the stiffneses ki ofthe unit panel shown in 1c. 49 for unt daplacements in the sand directions a the four corners or nodal points of the idealized system, The siffess of our element & hence an Beg natin, As in ine case of the force method icf necessary for the racticl evsluation of the ka to introduce simpliying assumptions which fathraly, concerned hefe withthe state of deformations, Thus. We Tinearly between the nodal points. though this idealization offends against the equilibrium conditions its tect upon the siiess fe not pronouneed as Tong as we Keep the unit panels reasonably small, Neverthles, it is inevitable tha the stress dis- Tipstion derved from an approximate deformation analysis should, in [Beneral be less acurate than the one obtained from the approximate force Fetiod in the same ged system. "We denote for the purpose of the analysis ofthe unit panel the dis placements paraliel tothe rand z axes by wand w respetively and intro- ue also the local coordinate systam & € Consider now the state of strain And strese arising fom wait placement nell cones GAD) wo f(s) ou winege the sun. 3 indicates that these daplacements are due 0 ¥y "Fhe strains and sreses inthe sheet are™ £ £ } ) eo a) ve'(,_€ | eZ) | aah vt oan aloe fang: sins and loads are 20 inte ala re obtained forte string an seis ue to a carne ero eae ule Spacemet state: dak tetas Reeth form af eva Where the integral extends over sheet and flange. For example, for the iS Red with est we obi, Ed 6B, Gil 5 bun St AP et tan Ef 0 9 “iy £8, Gil oo tan +f Ea | Ea bo J and ve Gr ae HE ae : ann vet Gt ba GG J Its simple now to write down the stifnesss corresponding to any other Wei ems cment Far convenience we exprest the foal stifhess matrix inthe form ke tkebky OM) %where the sufies sd finicate the pata siffoesses for shear strains nd dizect strains in sheet, and direct strains in anges, We find sion in the direction ofthe height ofthe web, The corresponding formulae aay fe obtained by puting rand tyr whkh app wen Cy and "The siesses ky and ke, contract to 66 matrices and are r 4 on Gt Gl Gh ow or woe ar z ou Gi _Gt Gt or a woe wer 4s + ou Gu Gt as or or i i i - Gt GH GH Gi Gr Gt GL Ge wae ee | as) Gt Gt Gt Gi id Ged Ged Gd i a a i GG Gt Gr Gd GaGa ow ES ae Gr G1 Gt Gr Gu Gd Gu ou a a a a Ge 7 ad re 3 6 Gia Grd Gd Gud TT oT FT | ear f f af ea Af Eat ie Et Er Eh Bk et Bn | OH =e LE 4 - ee a we vet eh eu en EM 4 ae at L } 5 a Bey He 9 5 9 0 0 | | f 0 Fe 9 Hh 5 9 9 9 | a Bo Ho 9 0 0 0 0 AR 9 Fe 5 5 5 0 | FG | oa 0 0 0 0 HE 9 k °° 0 A Be 4 oo EC, _ EG 0 0 0 0 Gee 0 09 0 0 0 0 fC EC a | In assembling the panels of ric, $0 to form a wing structure the sti: nesses (343) and (348a) may be simplined consigerabiy when applied to rib and spar webs. Thos, for these caes we can always neglect the expe 0 Gl GH Gu_ Gn Gr or WM eer OE Gn Gn Gi Gn Gr @ WoW we Gl Gl Gl Gl G@ oe .-| 7 ow Ww Ww TF » Que Gl Gl Gl Gi GG a eM wt a Ge Gd Gut Tr rTrT oo Gr Gu Gut Tr P rr Ey Bu Ey Er yg ver vw Ei Edt Ee Ele ° ryrey °? Ey Eu Eu Ea vo vo 9 0 (3469) ey BW Bu Ew rrryre 0 0 0 9 0 0 6 0 06 0 9 0 0 [No contribution of the anges is called for when evaluating the sti resus ofthe webs since ks Best included in the 109 and bottom panel Forter simplification of the stiffness matrices for the webs f possible ‘when the top and bottom panels of our wing sroctare are identical Then Torverieal ads alone the horizontal displacements ine to covers are fntsymmetral and the sifiness matrices (346) and (346a) ay be cor lracted to 4 4 matrices “We illustrate now the application of the unit panel stfinesses to the difsion problem shown ini (20). The plates reinforced longitudinally And laterally by silfeners or area Bland C respectively, and edge members of ares. Displacements in the v and «ditections ae defined at all nodes ‘ot the grid formed by lateral and longitucinal siMening. Naturally the rid’ does not have to be sesteted to this definition and we canalways ‘hoosea finer one if the stiffeners are widely spaced so thatthe assumption ‘finest variaton between adjacent nodal points ean represen adequately the sisplacement paters. Using the stifhess matrix of the unit panel already derived, the setting up of the complete stfhess matrix follows {uite simpy. 1 is ony necessary to identify quaaly and easily the ise placements defined for the unit panels separately with those defined for {he assembled panel. The complete stiiness matrix is obtained as (EQ, 3990). Kaka were Kis the atilfness matrix ofthe unassembled unit panels and may be ‘wetten in the diagonal paritoned form any a9eis the (88) stiffness matrix forthe unit panel a8 derived previously, ste Eq, (844).* To preserve the symmeiry of formulation, the tiinesses of the reinforcement elements are included with the pancls. Thus cach of the areas Bor Cis splitin two and B/2 or C/2 aseoeated with the panel on fetch side, For the boundary member, of course, the whole area must be Jncluded withthe panel it bounds. premgeneen | “LTE, Fig, S0—Rectangular stiffened panel, Assembly of ‘matrix from unie panel Since the terms in thea matrix are ether unity or 2er0 thee formation is particularly simple: Writing ain the partitioned form a oa ceoeeseees G48) 4, is the sub-matri of 8 rows and 30 columns relating the isplace- ‘lens defined forthe unit panel (0,49) tothe displacement a defined for the complete system of ro. (50). Superimposing the unit panel on ‘anelg ofthe complete assembly we And that the ctections 1-4 5,6 Fr of the unit panel coinlde with 13,25, ad the sub-matex a i thus Wee AS TST Dee Bi KD 4 00 OO 0 0 Ovee..0! 00 Weed OO Dec Ob Oe OO Oe 00 O..0 0 4 0. ow) 10 O...0 0 0 0. 00 Ord 1 0 0, 00 to 0 0 0. 00 O09 0 0 All remaining columns in a, are zero, ‘As typical terms inthe complete stiffness matrix the stifesses associated with aiection 15 are, fora uniform panel with dB and C, the same in cach bay. eu 26h + G50) or aaa knaa han Faas All the remaining k's associated with 15 are here zero due to symmetry. J. Ris the column matzix (30 rows) of forces applied atthe nodes then the displacements are given by FoKR ‘Naturally, loads may nat be applied a all nodes (joints) in which ease it may be desirable partially to solve the problem by eliminating the dis: placements where forces are not applied and to se the condensed matrix (Sceranten.) Finally we apply the unit panel to the assembly and anaysis ofthe eee box type of structure ilistrated in fio. 51 where upper and lower plates are connected together by longitudinal and transverse webs. Any stifeners ‘onthe plates ae assumed forthe present example tobe along the lines of web-plate intersections. The structce stake tobe symmetrical about the horizontal middle surface and we consider the application of vertical leads ‘only. With these assumptions tis only necessary to specify three displace: ‘ments at each web intersection the vertical displacement and the two {lations of the web intersection lin (ec. 81), Ta many caes the webs may be too widely spaced for the assumed linear variation of displacements between ther {0 ive satstarory accuracy It then becomes necessary 0 ‘nroduce further grid lines intermediate between the actual webs, the is- placements being defined at all nodal points formed by grid line inter: feetions. Where such nodal points do not lie on web then obviously We define there only the two cotatons, see Vertical displacement does not aifect the cover plates. Naturally, farther lateral and longitudinal rein: forcement ofthe plats can ag the extra id ee ‘The analysis of such a structure under vertiet! loads follows that given under Problems (a) and (b) in Taate i, Thus, we designate the vertical

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