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    ingenieria en minas

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    Guibal 2001 - Variography a Tool for the Resource Geologist

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    ingenieria en minas

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    16 views6 pages

    Guibal 2001 - Variography A Tool For The Resource Geologist

    Uploaded by

    Ricardo Sandoval
    ingenieria en minas

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 6
    Variography, a Tool for the Resource Geologist By D Guibal' ABSTRACT Variography isthe step that quantzaively, and ina very generalised way links the geological character- istic ofan orebody (or prospect) and the resource definition, After recalling the most important aspects of the variograms we present ther uses in: ‘+ validating and comparing various types of data: + optimising the sampling density through careful considerations ofthe ranges and anisotropies: and + helping to define the geological model (domaining) for resource evaluation, \VARIOGRAPHY, A SCIENCE AND AN ‘ART’ ‘Variography ithe calultion of experimental variograms and the subsequca fing of appropriate variogram models. The proces of determining an acceptable and coberen model for ‘ati correltion sls fered toa strstr modelling, ‘We wish to ¢ the experimental variogram with & model that capures the main Features of sph variability, ie the tubules that are important forthe estimation of grades ia space Not all features of the variogram have agua inportance fothis tsk. How we mode he variogrambas serious implica tions when catimating.Consoquetly, the isk of varography ceaal tthe practical application of geostatistics. Geological idexs about grade distribution ean sometimes beconfimed hy varingsaphy Hecassevarograph reflects the actual spatial distribution of grades, it can be 8 powerful exploratory too forthe geologist. The integration of geology an! geostatistics enhances both aspects of study. ESSENTIAL FEATURES IN THE INTERPRETATION AND. MODELLING OF A VARIOGRAM. Geostatscal textbooks may leave the reader with the impees son that fing variogram fait easy tak Ta any ease, specially when dealing with precious metals data, this not time! Having a ystematie approach is important when first Setting out to perform varigraphic analysis. Infact, fing ‘Variogram models sas much acral” asa science, inthe seme that itis pot am activity that can be completely reduced 103 formula. Repeated practice ufiting variogram increas the pcttoners skill, Having said this, we present some (hopefully usefl guidelines thei with variogram interpret ionand movelling. A numberof rkvant ticles which are not specify refered wo the text ane leo listed in the reference st 1. ct, MC, Tee ic, 5B Cnn, PO Box ‘5. Poh AEE: uel steomas Remember thatthe experimental variogram san estimate ofthe ‘underlying’ variogram. As suc, some regularity, due ‘o atstical uctstion, i generally expected. The numberof pais foreach ag in the experimental variogram. “The number of pire contributing tthe Fit lag he Fst point ofthe experimental variogram) can often be quite low. This will depend upon the exact sampling pater and search wed Consequently he frst point may not be very representative Some software anotaes the experimental variogram with the umber of pais used. So long asa listing i avalable, we can lect see that pois at short lags are eeliabl. Although ules se dificult to apply scl, fewer than 30 pairs i very unlikely wo he reliable in any mining simaton, Not thatthe numberof pairs should be considered in propor tion tthe size othe data st For an experimental variogram ‘ith 200 pairs at lag No. lg 1 might be considered dubious ‘ith 100 pairs. Similarly, t distal lags, the number of pis decreas, His easy to sce why: with neeasng distance there comes point where only samples atthe very ees of eur area am be ure, It can be showa theoretically thatthe variogram can become dangerously unreliable at lags beyond ooe-thid of ‘he maximum sample separation. Smoothness ofthe experimental variogram ‘Many factors can contribute to ematie variograms, Howerst, to types of erate warigrapy can be distinguished, Inthe fist case, the experimental variogram is soothed in a gular up-and-down fasion. This may indicate poor sletion ‘lags of posible inclusonfexclsion ofan exteme valu. In any eas, the statue is still visible. IF we exclude oer Sources of regularity this vasiogram aight be modeled i an averaged way. cua. (On the other hand, we sometimes abscrve a genuinely noisy variogram with no obvious strturing, nor clear ‘sawtoothing’ behaviour. Inhis case we have to reson to some indo obs vasiouaphy eltve variogram) ortansforma tion lng, Gassian indicator ets Joumel, 1989: Rivard 19874: 1987 for further detail). Shape near the origin Wis ritical w assess the shape near the origin corey, ths tells ws much about the regularity of the behaviour of the ‘rable and plays an esenl role in any estimation, The fist pins are sometimes suspicious or unrepresentaiv. In mining applications, especially for grade variables, the shape athe ‘origins nary always liner, This some reason why the sphor= seal mode is 0 popu 1f the experimental variogram suggests a parabolic shape car the engi, be very cautious. This is unlikely to happea. with grades, unless they have Deen composited over large Jengts (or instance. in large open pit operations composites ‘corresponding to the bench height. In any case, resis the {ecmpaton to fit Gaussian models! The consequences for ging canbe sri: the Gasson mide! represents extrtr snail continoeas, smooth shor scale behaviour of type mot con for neal grades. Ifyou ae convinced that topographic ‘varahle (depth to a geological surface, the water table, vein ‘with is Gaussian thea alway it the mode witha nugget effet Gin deo avoid instability ia subsequent ign). ‘The slope of the variogram nea the origin is erica factorinsibsequent kriging, Grester weight is generally given tothe expetimenal points closes the origin when assessing this slope provided tht these points have a reasonable mumbcr ‘of pairs contibating. Discontinuity atthe origin — nugget effect Along withthe shape and slope atthe vig, the proportion of ruget effect a eel factor in modelling the variogram. “Most grado variables have some nugget effect. Te proportion ‘of nugget elect relative to the sil soften called the relative rugget effect and is measured asa rato (se Figur I): © Gost “The tative nugget fet soem express ws a persente ase Note als that the reatve nygget effets dependent upoa ‘composting length (ie fora given spatial grade distribution, as weuse longer composts, is reduced), For this eas, taking 50 account he peoposed mining rsthod the mana sons ble compsite lengths peefomed, eg the lich eight i anopen pit situation. ‘The muggst effect isthe same in any direction being defined t very smal distances relative to the sample spacing), although the behaviour near the origin may naturally vary case of thi, in mining we will generally we the down hole ection to set the nugget eect andthe se this vale foreach ‘ofthe other directions, Remember also tht the mgt effect Incoporates several very distin! phenomenon: sampling er, locational enor and shon scale stctres ae the most impor. 100 Fors = E oso 02s 0.00 9700, 200. 300 400. 500. Deiance Figure 1 - Example ofa simple variogram. Isthere a sll? — transitional phenomena Answering this question sometimes nota easy’ you might ‘expect. Whon a experimental variogram seems ws contin ‘vownly, we may havea nar (or unbounded) variogram, ba ‘ually, ve may ot have yt reached the range ofa transitional model. For example, we may be reeictng the ane opom ‘which we calculate the variogram to severely Is als posi- ble we have adit [Note that, so long a the shape of the model we choose is the experimental data well, especially near the origin, the diference herween choosing alincar or aspherical model (with a very long range) is negligible, ue sil evlis not cleat defined, then We often wse the ‘average? level of factation. IF this coresponds 40 the ‘atance ofthe data (it should ia the stationary eas), out confidence is increased. Although the sill shoud coincide with {he overall variance, this is ot always the case for example ‘beeause ofthe presence of long range trends inthe dats, Note thatthe level of the sill forthe longest tracts in a nested model has lite impact upon kriging weights. So — in most ‘cases — ising with great provision ie not nocesary Assess the range If we do havea transitional mde! then we ed to assess the ‘ange In general the range is assessed Visually, athe distance atwhich the experimental variogram sabilses ata sill. Inmany ceases, the range is fairly clear especially for experimental ‘arograms that closely approximate a spherical scheme. In ‘ther ese, it may not be 0 easy. “The slope isin general conrlld by the fit few reise points ofthe experimental variogram, nt those close to the ‘ange. Careful definition of the anges of shorter strctures {whom more than one reponse srt is evident) i ery important hecasee the short scale ste ofthe varia 6 4 cca inflence on both the kriging weights and, conse ‘qty, on defining appropriate search distances to we when ‘esinaing. Can we see a drit? aif may not be easy to detct in many mining situations, Fira, at lags beyond about one-tin of the maximum avail. able sample separation, theory indicates that the variogram becomes increasingly unreliable. So a comtimously ising experimental variogram may be quite misleading. Again, look at the repescntiity ofthe prs. Assening a dif should also ‘be made in conjunction seit examination of a posting of the data, oF «contour map, where tends se often clearly visible, ‘Look fo thos tha might clearly be responsible of aystematic Increase inthe variogram. Some software will print out foreach lg, the number of pss, dhe mean a he pts and dhe “di his being the mean val ofthe pairs fortis ag OF corse, systematic intease in this stati for dtl lgs stl only significant if we have sciont pairs. Even where a convincing cae can be made for ‘dei foe ager lag. this may have litle impact om subsequent ‘ging This is because the shape ofthe variogram a shorter lags isthe critical factor in the results of any subsequent Jziging. From a practical viewpoint, by restcting the moving reightourhoods appropriate distances the rift may actully be eliminate. In most mining situations, modelling of drift is not required, IF is required, there are techniques available, but these are beyond the scope of this paper (See Joumel and Haijbeas, 1978, p 313). Hole effect Aol effect appears "bump onthe variogram Gaol in the covariance). Most apparent “hoe fet’ are in fact, an anefac ofthe sampling used, ack of pars ete Although hole effect modes exis their modelling i not common (Figuse 2). [Nevereles, itis importantin cae ofa genuine hoe efecto look for a possible geological interpretation (mes for instance). 1.00 075 0.60 4 (Variance) 025 0.00 0-400 200. 800400500. Distance Figure 2- Example ofa hoe effect na variogram. ee a Nested models Given an interpretable experimental variogram we wll sully cod more thin one model. Inthe simple case, we anses the ‘ayggt effect and thon Fi single, say spherical, moda! foe the structured component. In many cass, mining data present ‘more than one ange, Clear infections inthe experimental data indicate the anges of nested sphevical mune Generally, where several models are nested, iting the mode withthe shortest range wil prove cxitcal (Tom the point of view of subsequent rin. Anisotropies Wis essential that tho experimental variogram be ealelated ia Several directions inthe plane, and at geologically sensible rentations in the third dimension, im order to detect anisotropies. In the absence of any detected anisotropy, an Jsouopic mode! canbe ited. Avery valuable wool for detecting snsotopis at varius scales tho 3D variogram map. Theoretical models kis wort remembering that fing a hooretial model a experimental variogram is not optional, AS a mater of ft, sueegoent estimations will make wse ofthe Varigram fo the calculation ofthe estimation variance snd this variance, by definition, must be positive. The vaiogram mode must hus be sich that onl positive estimation vaianes can be obtained; a larg st of admissible models exists and the user should only tse these models. This is the only const: any choice of ‘models, provided it isthe experimental variogram eoacetly, will od to similar estates. \VARIOGRAPHY AND DATA VALIDATION [As slteady riety touched! wpon in our review of the Key features of variogram, tis clear thatthe variography can play avery useful ole in validating dat, in particularby comparing them to otber datasets. classical example i the case of a exploration where various types of ilholes have Been weed. IF within a geologically homogeneous domain, mixing the samples gives sew a vaogeam which is more variable tha the variogram calculated fom samples ofthe same type, then it is highly likely that here is some very significant difference betcen the various types of samples, Note that dese differences might simply be due tothe ‘volume effet: larger samples ted to show les variability than smaller ones. (A goo example ft is comparison between, small DDH samples and larger RC samples) the samples are fof qual quality. the mugest cffets of their respostive vringrams should vary with inverse proportionality tthe samples sizes andthe ranges should wot be vor diferent if the composite lengths are the same) A difficulty inthis typeof comparison is relat tothe efintion ofthe domain and its omegencity. In very variable ‘deposits lke gold ores, the varios types of samples cannot be claseed est the comparison becomes meaningless, because ofthe changes dv othe spatial comelaons. ouea. ‘The most interesting cas is when there are pred dts, for which the varograms canbe compared deel. An obvious application isthe comparison berween exploration data and nearby bastholes. OPTIMISATION OF THE SAMPLING GRID “The problem of the optimisation of a sampling grid hasbeen studied fra lng tine adit remains x topic of mur intrest for geologists and goossisticians, Several approaches are possible, depending onthe information avaiable Exploration, no previous data available ‘Cary. ao optimisations posible without some pir is of the typeof variogram for the variable. In hice, the sequen ‘ial method is appropiate. Start with a lage grid based on ‘experince and similar types of oe) an in lthe gid accor 8 10 the interpretation of the geology and variogram. The ‘rica points to determine are the mugs effect andthe anges: ‘lower sampling density canbe used in the direction of major ‘contauity large range). As Tong as no range i found i the ‘vatogran, it is clea that a sysemaic n-fillsrouited. Wis ‘very dangerous a this stage tory to define cher areas to be fuaes dalled, unless thre ae compelling geological easoas to doit: the lack of spatial conelation indicates that no such selection x goosaistically valid: non-seectd areas might be ‘more favorable than the chore ccs! ‘The criterion to be used forthe optimisation ofthe grid ‘eal shou be a confidence inerel for the global mean rae. This wl pet better when the density of data creases tnt such point where costly increases in sampling will only ‘marginally improve the estimation of the mean. The best method for prodecing confidence intervals i 1 use simula ‘ions bot this maybe too uncertain, complex or expensive at a ‘iy stage simpler altemative ito use the global estimation ‘valance, Which is avery simple and robust indicator of the ‘eral density ofthe sampling ‘The calculation of such a variance or equivalently of the ‘estimation variance of limited fixed ize yone is strightfor= ‘var an alls for no more than the application of one ofthe _lassical approximation principles of linear geostatistics, The ‘ital factors in such a estimation are the nagac effect and the short range structures which are often not well known whea, the sampling pid is large. It may be interesting to work with several hypotheses on the behaviour ofthe variogram at shor sditances inorder to get an deaf the sensivty of the com mended grid ti Exploration near a mine “This is sate where grade con dat ar vale from the sine, There arecxsentally two ways of sig the grade conta ‘tigrapty Extraction of grids ‘The principle is very simple. Use the grade control data ‘exact various posible exploration gis. For instance if the ‘ade contol grid is Sm m, its posible to extract I de ‘em 200720 mgrids. The varography of these extracted grids, as well sth coresponding estimation variances give excel- teat information on wht is the most suitable rd for explora tion. In panicular, through the exhaustive variogram of the grade contol data, access is gained tits short distance behay- four: Naturally dhe key problem in using grade contol daa is ‘heir reliability, Bast hole samples ae often of low quality. [Nevertheless because the same daiset is used thouahout the ‘udy. the comparisons between successive extracted grids ‘emai in general consistent and meaningful, We give a brit ‘ample ofthe application of thie technique t won osbodi, Figure shows the Fe bast hole variograms as defined on the ‘sole data set and this can be compared withthe Fe dill hale ‘variograms for the same rezion (Figure 4). Obviously. the scomingly bigher nugget effect onthe blasthole variogram i

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