PRINCETON MATHEIATICAL SERIES 2. THE CLASSICAL GROUP 2 TopoLoGICAL. GROUPS By L Potass (WINK USE OF THE TEASOR CALCULUS By Lather lee Eoeaart By Wit Maree od Henry Walla nPrn) By Aurel Winter (On Prepon)AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY WITH USE OF THE TENSOR CALCULUS PRINCETON PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS 1040Preface Since 1909, when my Diferetal Geometry of Care and Surfaces was bls the lense ele hich hed previously ban invented by Fie, wat adoped by Eintin in bis General Thewy f Relat, ad as teen developed futher inthe study of Rleanian Geometry end raiourgxnralizations of the Inter. Inthe present Bal he tensor faleuls of eutiean Space is developed und then generated so a ‘pp ton Romanian spare of any numer of dnensins. "The Uneor falehis ae hare developed i applod ia Chapters IIT and 1V tothe uy of diterntl grmety of steanesin Space, che mata ated ting quivlet to what appeas in general in tho st eight eaters td my former book ‘with nich aditons lio fom he inteetn ‘the concept parla of Levit and the comtent of the ent ‘adel “Of the any execs inthe bank ste invlve merely divest wi cation ofthe txt, bt moo tam cot ate a extension a Te wing ofthe book T have received Faluable assistance and trite fom Profesor HP, Roberton an rom ms student, Mess Trane Bath, Albert J- Clore, Dougias H. Crosby, dob Gis, Dold CoM, and in partlealar, Wayne Joo. “The excelent ine drawing: and halve lusteations were concleed and exgeutad by Mr. John, Lew Prinedon, Spor #7, 1040 Loven Pranuse Bison.Contents Tenth oft cure Tiger somat ‘Eater a One 1. That poe ae 1 Devoyebicmtane Bovclapes one paramctar any sno geen esre 1B, Gotraatont eon. Sears 1 Eau nome og tac 19, Aidin, eration ed mle of tase Conmeton $B. Sytone of puta eat egutoo of the Bint on ised Sasa e222 IsTRINsIC GrOMETRY OF A SURFACE 25, algo ie nmin carer vac Blamnt otra. 1S) Be Felis Terese, Gal di ismare ohana si Tenet eins Sond iar niin. Gea nai conformal crmapominnce tno sae ‘tates eropmioce to ane, suRPACES IN SPACE {© Nora cormtay af trae" Prnepl Pl of oral cae 4 Speacal eproenedon of = wears Gaanian carat of 3 ein gin oe Baie = BEESEEE SEScaueren 1 Curves in Space 1, CURVES AND SURFACES, THE SUMMATION ‘CONVENTION Consider spaco refered to sot of eetangular axes. Instead of denoting, ‘he covedinats with respet tothe axes y 2, 2 treme sh 22 ine by ering the sare ler + with diferent sper ‘expt to detinguss the Gadinaten we age abe ten to write equa. ton ina condened fora,” ‘Ths we refer tothe pet of coordinates 22, 2 nthe pnt 2 whores taka the values 12,3. Weindiente 1 particle pitt by «subset as for example xf, and when & pint {ie rer or ropmaetative pint we so 2" withoat x reer Who the axes are rectangular, ell the coordinates eatson. In thi olation parametric equating ofthe line thru the point hand with dveation umber a ae an sosede 613.9. "Thin moana tha (11) sonia three equation a take the vase 1,3,%. Hero isa parameter propertiona othe distance betwee the pole af and 2% and the distance when ware dzeton ose, hat i when a Taras, which we write sla time inthe form Eaten An equation of plane is as) a! + an! + 0! 40 = 0, ‘whore the at are constants. Ta order to write this equation is eon Aleta form we make toe ofthe sealed maton enrention that ‘nee theme index appr oa tre aw suberpt and aepersrge tha tr stands forthe sina the teas tained by giving te Index 8006.6 9 8%. rele of hia pent th aur Cds ow sry i wd Cran2 CURVES IN SPACE tent ah of eval, the ream ese the alin 12,3, By anans of "his convention equation (13) is writen wu ae tana “This conrention ix unod throushout the book. At fist it muy be troubleame forthe reader, hut in short me he will Bye to be Deforable vo wing the suai ign a such as ppt inde {dicating summation eal a duyy tnder Any eter nay be Us ‘et dumay index, but when aren avares mote than oe uch index Jes necessary to use diferent dummy indices -Any index whic a not 4 dummy inde and thus appors only once ina term i ella free ther ‘Sine wo itoneetng planes movt in, the two equations a) oe +a tat + bao, that ae tat tat band bel the the +b =o, se ogutions of «se, proidd that th ratios aa a/b ua ane ot equa i hese rls are equal the Planes are eeaident opal ‘cording sequal tothe abe ration o ot? ‘i equation (4) nan equation of «plane the snse that i pk ‘uta space to dmensloal tof pias, tis st having the property {hat every pat a line ining any two pnt of th wt isa pant of ‘hens this i Hoes peometie dfn fx plane Ta ike maser ‘ny fanetional elation titers he ones, dete by a) $e 2,2) = 0, picks out two dimensional st of points, by whith we mean that ony {oof the urna of « poi ofthe ews maybe chosen arial. ‘The tous opts whose coordinates ety an equation ofthe fom (16) incl a rf, Thaw an Dee tae theo, hare the os and ar constant, ean equation ofa sphere with enter tthe pine ay and ras» given by Pe Daan bt 1G pig be0 (CURVES AND SURFACES 3 Whenever throught ths bok we onade any funtion, it unde ‘soot thatthe fonction i considered in domain wits wt Bs ‘ontnuous i all ts variable, coether with ach ofits deities se ‘re involved in the deuson, ‘Sle a equation which does not ivolve ane ofthe eonnats does ot impowe aly restate om this coordina, aie an eqn ea ‘uation fa ender Phar as) se) =0 isan equation o elindee whose generator, of claments are pared to the ean each goowator boing determined by pale of yaloer stisying (18). 12 ae to etch values, the goneator ie defined by the equations ‘ose tng pil form of (15) a thin case. Te dee not allow that ‘when al thre eordiates entrain (18) that the aura not 2 ‘inde, but Wat if iiss evindr the generator re nt paral to fe ofthe ooeinato ate Later ($12) chore wel be give a mene ff determining whether an equation (1.8) san oquaton of etd. “Two independent equations a9 He) = 0, Melee) =0 defioe a cue, a one dena! loca, f oly one of the coodinaten fafa polnt onthe loess maybe chosen abit. A nei «curve, ite ono equation bing Hoa, a2 for example (8). A eve, being ‘one dimerona, mate defined slo hy three eqvatons involving 8 a0) #0, ‘which are cllod parame equations ofthe care, ‘Tho re 8 ets ‘rabetion of equations (11). The factions fin (L10) see under ‘od to besnglevald and suc that fr no vale of {ate all he Best Servaives aff equi ta ero; the lgieance of this roqirament sopeate in Too fa single-valved function of , abd ane replace in equations (110) by t= gu, there i obtaied another staf parametric equ Has of tho eurve, camels aay) 2 = Fielw)) ‘Since al the st desivative ae nt wo bese for a vale of a o.4 ‘CURVES IN SPACE tot i ‘equation £ ~ o(u) ba urge inverse” "Thus the nbn of ss of parame equations of « partial curve inf the onde of any function suing the abe condition, When, in pastel, om of the eointes, my = taken wx poramotr, tht a Fase, Pafeh, Poe, he forms of the fe dpending, of course, upon the curve, From the {own a (32) fll tat the eve le the intersection ofthe two «ser whose respective equations ate the fst two of (Ll). ‘When all he points of eee do notin pane the ear tad to bene on tard, ‘Th enon that a carve with equations (110) he plane wary, that al of ts pointe i x ple, as flows from (11), that the faneions fb mah Ut aa ag te=0, that ie oy tog + og 0 veher the et are contests. Dieretintng oqution (1.18) three fimes with respect to {ad denoting diferentstion by primes, we ob tain the tone equations ay) ap 0, af =0, ag Tn order that the os be not all sro, we must havo au) CCawersly, we abl show that if three fanetions £0) sai thie tendon, eastants a and ean be ound saying (19); and cone tery thatthe curves" = Fe plano. TF (10) i sified hore frist quantities Be, ondinaiyfnetions of ¢, such that ca =, ay 0, a =o 1B W218 Toro of oe oy a be Veep ie* ‘CURVES AND SURFACES Amuming tha the in thee equatink are functions of and dil ating he Bet to ofc equations with rect to, the euling equaone ate reduce to a6) Mish, us 0. ‘The Vs the Set two of (1.18) ate proporinal repetively wo the lustre ofthe elemento the last row i thn termina (118) ‘The same i tre ofthe Bs in (1.18). Consequently we have ot ot ob BOB 1 we denote the comsmon valu of these sui by o(, we bave 00 intaztion be ae, here the as are constants, Subaitatng in the ft of (1.1) and ‘carding te factor, we obtain es" =o. (On iatgeating tie equation with respoe to we obtain an equation ‘ofthe form (18). Hence we havet UA] A ewe wih quan (1.10) i «plone era, if and only ifthe Sanctions fai uation (1.18. ‘Wen fr the carve with the equations aa wo Feat toot the expressions for 2 are substituted inan equation of «plane (14), ‘ne btuin cube equation in for cach of whose root the eorreaponding Dnt ofthe ee sin the gion plane. ‘The emer (1.17) called Titel ebie Whom errata ental pla fm pit, Hie called ised ere of hen order eating an uation or cain namin lereatton eantne These ethno os therm ES acl ve prt Psat. ‘CURVES IN SPACE lon 1 rom (117) we have that the proentions of the cures upon the teoriiate plans have the repectiva equi deal = 0, Pao, as) deal =0, 2x0, dey dey =o, #0. curve a shows schmalelly flows for pave aloes of LZ rom (18) ti ee Ut Use eave i the interseton of the three ‘linden wha cqutions ave the fas of -cach pa of equations {118 the gensatons of thar evtinee ing pl tothe 2 Poand ante repel ill be fond tt any fora nd eatin ea be pt in sine for he moana quate yy ad def fallow (0 when two oF thre of the ios Have the sae ala tg) [2th he rape nes have the vals 2,35 uy) 8) ~ (ate ne shen therein iis bv th v3.25 heteans Consider, or expe, the eno ogetins from whieh i follows that jf ae eye >| Wwovliy av a afee 9 3o CURVES AND SURFACES 7 ‘Thus, denoting by 1/ the factor of proportionality, we bave ar! = ena + cont = av ~ a sued consequently (1.20) may be writen aot Apnvying thie proces to th et to of eatons (14) we have rane und whan these expressions or are subtutd nthe fist of equatione {148} we obtain a) eal fF = 0, whichis equation (1.15), a ne vrs hy forming the sum nda fy the summation convention arch of thon dependent take the vals 1,2 3. exeRCIBES 1 epee ie rma tot a gh © 10 tam Sata splat Ean ‘hve pe ible He dD = ls 6 Oe ct els = 8 ‘sane ofthe ns hon he pit the fisted ei 1.) ee Poe toh en rl rae thw planes with equations nents th cove (17) thas alate i etata5 ‘CURVES IN SPACE tout com tha el and E24 lle that an egos th lane ts tie thee ptm wc ha the une ne eae ene cote dese = He) 4 ees? = 8) = “eh plane pte rh the pein SEN stand ile hot he ae a fo ‘a aeistameeon oa dul eliadr ad gpl paul Taken ota he ee sa bas at tar arr? yim a he gan gd 2 on a Jeu ae on] eecspan = ears sd he determina in ented yo then yt © Pacts Zan = hte — tee Nem Fo ameontng sm ork FE tema = satan + a #0 2 LENGTH OF A CURVE, LINEAR ELEMENT Consider 8 curve with the equations en F=f, the ae ofthe curve between the points Py and Pa for which the Dramatic valor are ty and fTepetivy, Constr aso te(1 LENGTICOF ACURVE, LINEAR ELEMENT 9 inte punts Pi, Pa «s+ for which the vals ofthe parameter are fitegsor = The lingt ofthe chord PaPig ven b= VETO Fur VERE Un wie GER) DEH ED the mcond expression fr I flowing fom the men value hore of the diferent clean, wre dhe pine denotes the deviate. AE the unber of Itemcave punts Pp iors indefnitay and each Te appeoades wo, elimi of thesum of he fi the dei agra [VEE Ea at By defnition tis the Lngth of dhe ze PoP TE then # donot the Jongh of the re from the pint of aramatr tt separative ont of parameter fe have es [VERB “Thin gves¢ une of ts we dana by es 0, shee ¢ nval "From (22) we hive 2) aim GaP + Ga + Ym Eat, vie et = fhe ic cla lh Kinard ofthe carve Asrematkl inf there high degree of arbitrariness in the eine ottparumoter for cure In mia faiowe we stall ten nd that ie tothe simplicy af w rout the ares akon parameter. From (22) we hive [2 Por ewe with equations (21) the parame the Length of he fexne mead fom agen pin fend only if 28 yee a,0 CURVES IN SPACE tout Ric vient that «i deed by 22) except when oa oo) ELL ao nce undo ow, and in wat lon, that wear considering oly eal neti fel parameter, cht one sung eal ‘eal sls, then el sltion of 20) tier than constant Tete lots pen Te adit comple fonctions of «comple erate, theres fr whch (20) ha re talod sumer gt re or minal cree” ‘Thore ae tes i which advomble to omer ah uve, btu oben ata they are aot ole {a wat alos. Coaierseurve dyed in vrs of the ae parameter. Lat P sua Pol eoortnto tt pins for which the parameter hs tho vale sands + «By Tar tom we hve al en Keates) 12,9. Her ana in what flloms an x with ao or ne pn mets at the seo the parmter andthe psn odie dregtves wilh eect va tos; the purumeter other chan «, we write and sna for iaher derivatives. Tn Tie notation (25) i es) Dean Directing thie equation with epee oe, we have ao Eee ~0 1 we dnote by HU length ofthe chord PP, i falls from (2.7), (28) Sd (20) tat ey Fada Dae ee et ‘rom this alt fellows that ae P aporocbes along the curve the ralo of the cord tothe are «appraiseeI TANGENT TO A CURVE 0 A TANGENT TO A CURVE, ORDER OF CONTACT. OSCULATING PLANE ‘The quantiig ° ~ in (210) ate detion ners of tn line ough P and P and (2 —'=' Lar itedtetion cosines Frac (27) 0d (210) flows that <8 info pa stim 222 fos! tim ince hy dfnition the timing pion ofthe fine through P and P 1s P approaches P long tho eure i the tangent fo he ere al Pe be 11) Mh fe ie el nr gh of ee fon ict pt or el ind all ofthe quate are sz, which poo wa exc i Ava rout ofthis theorem we ve ws parumetvie equations of the tangent toa curve atm point 2” a Nad betd ‘hor X! are coordinates of « zepesentaive pint on the tngeat an {isthe data rn the point to the pot X'" "We deine ponte sense along the tangent as that for which din (Bt) ke psi, chis teats that & tll ine drawn fm the agin paral tthe tangent ‘aire with the coordinate axes anges whore corns ane 2°, Thie Same convention spies to ay Hine ans wth eure whon dee on eosin of mach Hine are ven tee quite ding Ue fore al it in we a on cin ih ath ae8 CURVES IN SPACE font ve denote by athe dreton coins of he tangent, we ba from the above lt and 22, when the parameter {any whatever, os hae “as eae a ‘he pln though point of = erve anormal othe tnt at the pnt alo te armal an the pt a quan fk rene as) Eat sao, whe a are en by @.9.* "Perma utinn of any in hough the point a «ev ae a Masta, wher ae dntin sii ofthe ine. ‘The quae of he dsance Si fin Pz) as ts ne en byt fine faet ee 2H. eowithe fee ‘When the point P is pont of the eure, ls cortinat bing given by 27), theexpresion (5) becomes ee [wero te Pane an yt “eee ] terw-ere] HEE ee Pot “Thad sof the oder fens the x ae proportional to 2 nein the iter ease both of the se of qugatites ar by theorem f.) 1, the cot 8 the woe. ithe esuntons ofthe curve are in tem of «gener parameter 8 (21), we haveninge ira funtion of « oad te eg (ay wee a a am Hence the taagnt at point fr wich sates for ome valu of m (2°1, itany he uations te 42 te os $25 4355 a2 2 tis contact of then onder ‘Dr dfnition the exulating plane of wire a «point 2) i the Hiniting pation ofthe plane determined hy the tangent st ad a Dnt P of the curve ae P appruschorP along the ear. Since the Blane pas ths Pits equnon tof the for as) eax" 2) hee 0 being divestion mbes of the nora ta Ube plane must be Sane a.) aa” = 0, Equations (40) and (10) expres the cond that the tangent at P linen the pla." Substtting in (39) for X° the expressions (27) for "and taking use of (2.0) we obtain aan after eben) [As P approacos B, that is 8 «approaches sero, we have in the limit $e, p.1m,“ CURVES HN SPACE tout tate ts) 0d (8 emt det wicca seer eee we x2) am Pe ee lemtttnaee an ieee — ‘When the curve i dined by (2.1) terms ofa geera parameter ie follows um (3.7) thats elation of the eselating ple Ie ie wee we, ;2 e 2 on |& G leo a te 2 a | Xe he tant» pit cnt of ih one thn he it, souattn {840 ited eet Tie som 181) a {Sip line ta a cunt nt ao for hae th tangent at oor pine te x2 | 2 2 | % |=o. jee ee ee |e ee ‘Wen curve is plano andi plane tin fr the plane 2 = 0 anion (213) equivalent to = 0, tha Hythe welt ple ‘i's plane eure b the pluie ofthe curve, Converts an al the ‘culting planes of eure ein, tho curve ia ple eae since tl tthe pnt of th eve nth planew CURVES EN SPACE tent 4. Fin an eatin of testing pase f the ited abe (ID a compare te rat with Bx ht oPMeldtane of spit Pas ave ra the eelting an at nary tun Piel eid ober ate n eat yao ayer are eg fu erw +0 — a0, eelosnro-eu en, ee eure, J) ay anton a. SNe tc panto mini neve ad any ‘nein ean neni) = cee Pri aeary panto sare te ung at anathema et cere a ee eee creepy {Snr pe the eye hase a ye he age {eth urea tis pit are prpaelr e st (eo Fndan eunln of he ating ae fee 4. CURVATURE PRINCIPAL NORMAL, CIRC! CURVATURE, et P and P be two poiats on curve C, 3 the length ofthe are ‘etsen thse points abd 8 the mug ofthe tangents at P and P, hat the ange tou tw Haine brvgh ay pont and hao ‘he postive sense af the two tangent. The Hit of 4) ay ae ap- ‘proaches sero, mennures the rate of change of the dieetion af the angen at "This Hoting vale denoted by’ fea the cwvatre aC at Pani espe, daoted by the rain of externa“ CURVATURE, PRINCIPAL, NORMAL ” their tition it fallow that «and are non-native, When © i 8 lane eure, the dition of eurvatre lee giver hat sally gen in the ifort ele. In omer to devi in form of a expr fr in terms of the ‘qanttes dein s curve, conser the ausay carve with the equations a xe ‘which in consequence of (28) «curve upun the sphae of unit rue With canter atthe ein. Tho avs of the sper at any pont off panel tothe tangent tC a th erred pin, thi, the ‘unt th thin tangent. ‘The curve fs ale the mpheral endizaés 1 le langenta o Co If we dena hy © the are of Fe folows from (43) an 4) hae aa wed ru dein ee sn | Soe 3 hath of ha hr eta in on th it pe mango Pa Po hit 2 iy in onsagumnee of the rel a the slow of §2 andthe fat that ‘Sound Se have a common chord. Consequently ae ulows fom (4.2) Sree as fERS. For straight Hin with opens (11 in whic ia te ae one he 10, which sede! al grt fom the act ht the ange {or stnght ne at cach pt belie uel Tn order to tan the ‘xprenon for wen the euntons uf the eutve are inte of & feneral parameter we obere hat fom (28) we have a1 det a g-h. Ge shore primes denote dflerentiton with tomwet tot nd from (2) a HD eee Err8 ‘CURVES IN PACE tout te second flowing from the difrentition f theft. Suattting (43) from (37) and mang ue of (44) and (43), we obtain wo BGT H rom (2) i follows thatthe line through the in 2 of «eure sd ih don mate 2 pepe tthe trae nt nt thor oe of an ends number of norma othe ears at the point, Ife deine quantities By an — it flows from (43) that are aretion cris ofthe positive ease thie nom” Hor eqintons aro «s Kerbs, here d denotes the distance of the point fram the pint 2 of dhe ure. This normal is ald the pineipol noma ofthe curve at the Point Wheo the expesions (48) ar substitu in the aquation £8.18) ofthe oeuating plane, the quston said forall vats of, in eomeqares of (67), tha the principal normal tpt Hie the exclting plane a the pit Henge the omuatng plane nt Pant of show furve & the plane determined by the tangent and ‘rns normal of the eure a the pont, The ce the eweuatng plane wth contra the poet ro) Katagadely spd of uae ps called the site oferta tho ours a the point {Fan its omtar th enor of early of the gure for the pant = “Evidently hi cl and the eure hve a emia tage a Bier’ - ohBINORMAL, TORSION 2 or ens! a dfn nf, Be. 2 HO na VETER 9-0 Ue =I 1 is usa ty ig that hp tog ete pt @ oe vhosts ce eee 1. Fin btn th he ure ea fornia 2 feomie #= [oon tov pil othe ea, 5. BINORMAL. TORSION he normal ase a itt Pichi oma the oan pine a Pics heal st Pv pps eietange tnt te rp noma Fram 3} fowe aa wel eel ee Get Eel» CURVES IN SPACE ton sr diction numbers ofthe hina In ono to fi dimetion o> ‘no ofthe Binormal we mae ute af the ident jeer ee ye ee elton at tae ol her ae Fle ae] Tee ge ‘The raer should vty hat hiss a deity whatover be the quant- tie nvovel without any use ofthe primes at inistng deviates ‘Won in parte the quate 2” and 2” hav the meaning wei to thin $21 follows ro, 28, (29) and (43) that the ear member of (5.1) ke equal to. Heng dnveton cosine 9 of the ‘oval ad the postive tees along the Intern defied by ema, 6 “Thasexprsions maybe writen in she form 63) wat a2, swith the understanding shat jj, take the valves 1, 2,3 yeti. ‘hoes equaton of the binomial are on Kad tata ‘Thosiqifcane ofthe cholo of signin (52) wen when we ober that the expen 2.2}, (2) and (2 for yay reper stosnch that Jee ot co) leo vlan ‘ie rou versace the righthand mene of (1) oq to ‘Tao rele (68) mane tht the postive dretions of the tanga Principal normal and normal of w curve at ouch pint fa carve Bare The muti! orientation ofthe 2 Scand anc mapeetiely (Fe 3)oy BINORMAT. ‘TORSION a From Ue equations Lesno, Lerao, Es'ao, 60 "Seen Been Bytes snd rom (55) falls that cach men in the determinant eqotion (G5) i eaual le euaetr® Thi elt maybe wren Gn wap ay, pede sj te the ole, 2,3 eytcaly ho. nen han th ar fle ta! he Nao a pu cra th srl pe ut these a nts thse tino a ose ce Fors Seen inno te ns gs 4h ae ih th rma sepa pre and 1+ the of a aprencintone heate eng of the etn of the bingrmal at the paint of parameter ‘nd envequencly tho rate of cage ofthe orientation oft crating2 CURVES IN SPACE font plane ‘This init cen be torsion ofthe curve ands danated by Sometinins the eorratut, ar ded i $f and he torsion ae calla Ue fat and cond areata restive of heer onder to obtain an exprwion fr r, mo intros the spherioa! Sndcais of the binrmo, hat the eve dened by 63) Xert "videnty thet eurve upon the unit sphoce with enter atthe iin, and such thatthe rus of the apece to any pint of the curve it [lll tothe pstveBinorma tthe gen curve tthe plat with {hostme value ofthe parameter ‘The ine eomen ofthe netic sen by taf en EEE ‘By an argument similar that use in 4 we have oo vanes In ake fad eprint 4 teri with mop Ey 1 Zev=o, snd bin im Evan E(t at! rom (47) and (82) we have tet oy = tom ih ad hi of float wnt 40) reduces to Era! = 0, From this equation and the fst of (6.10) we hae in comegunte ofthe send et equ (87) tat proportion tnd fron (8. a the Fetrf propatanaiy6 MINORMAL TORSION 2 Ivor —r. Thusar it dfn hy (8) to within sgn; we choose the sien so that we have oa pao ore vor ip rsiton to oiain an expres fa rn crm of he evsntivs of 2" In fet if we diferentinte (8) with repel to the ret may be writen in avanguence of (812) thie equation is multiptod by and warmed with espe to the reall hevomes i consequence of the hind of (84) and (67) ee 6s) om the deition of toro i follows that x zero for plane curve" Convery, fare at every putt of» vey the later ‘ple n secede with theorem (tT and equation (18). At pots {ire ay for which te dtr (613) fm the colt ing panei lt he aatinary, 1. When ee nd tf taper 10 1 ton en} of easel a ea here, ej. ahh vat. 2 Beal menue by 23) ad ia esttoniauan nk apes aio ths tino hou een oy ee renga wo! lew 2 Tha arate and tion sna, fin, Bx ane* © URVES IN SPACE tout 1 Forside bea doe in 2 ete P= pp A SRE from which iad at of Hy Bs 2 ftom at ta ifr oman. Bad wee Bayi Th eran and eon ft Haat, ates, eae ey sero oa Fae acl he thd ader with heave at pit ata a hela = = (eH 0) aha pete ee opens the care “i lt tn ma th dm th ot 1A mca and muclent onan tha the pig noma ae dad ane ta ne ure eepat heute esepindseltatsonbeathe cre ith by uaone iw at f ota, aa froinia 2 froma + [roa {an by gender6 ‘TH PRENET PORMULAS 2% 6. THE FRENET FORMULAS. THE FORM OF A CURVE IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF A POINT 1 the sceond set of equasions (7), tha Baste ‘4 j, bake the values 1, 2,8 ceil, ae difleretited with espoct {4 the rel erie by (610), (42) and (37) to 2 ee eet etre i St are eve ed eeeerret on How, (0 replacing inthe neon et of equation (61) by E uations (4.7), the weulng equations ace reduce to co # weet 4 Kat — Deeg th pro dma no Nw cae (0 BH (Se wo [Leon el ‘Wo oleervo ulloving agution (6.8) that the positive destiny of ‘the tanger, principal normal and inorml at ach pnt of eure Inte the mit! ernataton of the eorinate aan Tf then we tke {or oornate aac ther lines aba point Ph of eure aad mesize these rom the pal, we have at 6) fad, ated, ted, whee 8 a0 Kronecker deltas defined by 6s) af = 1orO aconling us = ford # 5 By Macias thoorem we bave that the cordial 2a any plat 0 the eurve are given by a) Poot rlernt dan + feat,2” ‘CURVES IN SPACE tent ‘tere saberpt sro inden te al ofthe qnntty at Fe. From (83), 4) and (0c we bave Ga, a= at From these reels, (2), and (6.3) we have fom (6.6) for this eoice Seana enero on 2agee di e+ 8 ete Eden ej - 1 follows fom thee cations tht inthe neghborhoad of « point ‘any, at which « = 0 the curve appeosimates a stag lin. Also 41°20 the curve with sinerrsing enna th ncn pane a the point from Ue pote ta the nage side when 7 > Gad eeversa Ine +O; the former cave the eee bag beefed el {nthe ater head wt the pat. AT a matory pointy th ‘then += 0 tho eure ems on the same side of the ost plane in the neighborhood of the point (provided de/ds 0), sine in tic se the wig of doesnot change With «fr suc sal vals ‘These rele flo i fet when we cond my the fit toms in acho equations (7), th the upper care Page 22-8, ws) 2 In which and rae enstants. This eve a twisted eae frefetons upon the tooedinate plane are shown in gt the anos big repetively th tant, pineal noma sed tio of the carve tthe point ofthe given eve whieh the iin tf tbe coordinate aytem aed ‘The cordiates Nom point the coclating plane to a twisted oo) x for suitable vals of and ». We ruse the question of determining wand wae fetons of ¢ 2 that the Feu of he points of eordinates Hb uta6 ‘TM FORM OF A CCRY 2 1X" cen by (9) shall bo an orthogonal trajetory of Ue osaating anes, Diferenisting (29) with erpel 10 4 ad taking tse Of (ea, we obtain atta ete nt a : oe Sine 4 se ieton numb of the tue 10 the dosed sean e must be suc that are peopl that tbe ie (foto an ase eT nse te parce Sli be om fess this gives the flowing sonitons to bestia eyl a oo Hyleon Bhwno Diowetiting the soon of equations (6.10) with repel to = and tubtitig fromthe At of (610), we obtain ou free! rom the thery fina oninary dle equations it follows that {he general solute of equation (6.11 may Be obtained by querer, ‘When auch sutton as een tai ad ates nthe sored sf eqstions (610), even diet. Hene we bave (Gap The etapa trie of hr selling planes of @ ak curse nb oan by quadrature, a 2 Gann, o2s ‘CORYES IN SPACE tent to vais i fo a ha ih hte he xe "When a he seltng lst af nee have «pn ney oo the “ i a twit care vera ob teapot ag Gf omen nh or Pe ena oh pip nam oy at pata for whith =A or = ‘emo, the 5, Nie renin a eB Ex. 3) aa fh ine 7 a eres tnt hm a4 oF a aig wecian te wot ye ». Hor efor eih f= ee «sas fle to be rm wh i ft hs alt = sty ht ye cer nine ah i na tn ese oe senefovar-ven ae jt ae te ete, eet hr wie coma ad we ane ‘Soave parler mk tht $7 = pare una s' e tondon1/ nd! te deat ie ofthe nor, Dati low Hom‘TH PRENET FORMULAS ” efefee ie eae yori of Eo th tant pl oh aang eagle he ST iether a sein itr = 0nd a+ shanna a mtn wf giao : en oe er out The ure ioe hones Teer om te ag eh he ‘ape ith the tat npn see de ~ aoe ee tn) ~ sin» CURVES IN Pact tent 22 5 cure nm iil para he pc mre sa ‘alate the mapective carves C asd © ad's and & corresponding sre, ote Bat cod eB o meee nay Sire ~ of by hypothe ie Ha “ti tine ht coma tng byte tg tong sh cating Ha fC ade supe 6 tae eueatt aneveyte (cums remem the Fr ‘rotor Olle at cs ott a Tier es, 18) " a= Joo hae $0 any fet fa a 2 froonta 2 frowoa, ae weer splenic on ern is thse sof eh susan tht eb ar taates(Es [va), {Ihe binamaingt reser a tenons anter ere, ad ony ste gen ure ane. =e"1 TxTHINSIC EQUATIONS OF a CURVE a 8 adr hat he incl arm a ere 6b Kar 9 o saat, ot Dae Bata arses Canin ondon ean oe by gudratie oe8, B2 1 INERINSIC EQUATIONS OF 4 CURV! ‘When ecuations (0) ae lsferentiated acessivly with eect sand'in each ean the deviation of m8 any ae eeplaoe thir ‘epresions fam the Front frie (1), Be a each dereatiee of z's expremibe ovary and bomogenenuly tn a, and 9 the feefiients big anetions of, and tel derivative of various orders With respect toe Consequtty the coucient of furter terms ke (62) as deied fom (56) tntve only tho vals of «rand tht letives fort = 0 onto the partie vrs (8 athe rg Jn th eordiaat yatem e Heys fr to curve the anes ‘a rf are th ame factions, Ue expres fr 2 foreach surve feline to the axer ene of the tage, prepa normal, and norma ofeach eurve a the pint # = Oat te same. Sine ether et of ance ean be Erogh itn esinedenen with the other bi 8 gi ‘mot, we bate: (7) Te eure those curate and arson re the me fontions re cin of the ae ve congrun From thie flow Ub ears it determine to within it poston In spun by the expeaions for cand in terms of Consequently ay SEH, = HO) sce oquatione of the eurve. Sine thay are independent ofthe oor ‘se eto tee, icy tre elle inte oan ofthe curve, "Frum the maser wbich equiion (63) were obtained, 1 fllows {at and dived rom those equations by mean of (1.3) and (8.13) sce power sree in the coticents bing vats of mya thle Gervais eratuted for ¢ = 0. Conmequel if we have my two suatons (7A) in whe () i now-negatvefantion af, the core ‘sponding equations (62) re equations ofthe curve for which 22) fv the intinde equations. AMthoagh this method of obtaining 2 a2 fete af « gives the equntons ofa curve for geen felons fd2 cunvns 1s SPAcr, tent ‘in expations (2.1), it pve thew equations ay infite serie. We tall conser anor appronch ote probem bid may erin Car Toad tne eprom for 2 "ha three st of quantities wand 9 utah the values 22,3 ‘anu son fret (61) tobe atone of the fllowing ayer of orinary ‘ferential equations where «aad ar given TaneGone of “ ee oe ay Haw Bete, Bem le we hav tres st of solutions ows ws aw of those ‘quinn, which sy brent 40 for 1,2, and pt 3) wi! po ewe S20, ‘we find by diferentiation that in oantegueac a (72) the e ate ean” ants, We define quantities by oy weal, of were thea aze constants, aden andr what onions thee as Tin be chosen wo that sid, t= ale os altaya 621,89, where 7 = Vor O acording ae = Jor t= 5 "This choic is made inorder tatu and! shall bo eto cosines of three mutaalypeepononar vestry. abetting frm (24) (5) and making abe of (73) we have a staf = a, 1 he detertinnt || iiferon fom seo, ‘ean eqntion in hams corlinates 2 24-0 of wxondegonerate tunic the plane. With espentt this cone a at ahah sya ung (7.7) ate the caoriatne of the veetiow isl par ingle, and ineequntly an eles suger of sel of of sai Fying G7) eah be found” For sich asta ofthe quantities a 39° defined by (4) ae slution of equation: (7), thai, ee eine tions (2), the sane of faring bom shown 0 tha equation (8.3) ale 1010 49.20" INTRINSIC HQVATIONS OF a CURVE s 1 hen we define 2! by as) forthe curv so afd # is the are ad dren coins of the tae font Moo fom (7.8) and (6.2) we obtain y diferentatlon equations (7) and (2, from whic i follows that cat rare the caress and torsion of the curv, anf andy dtection cosines ofthe prepa omal snd inal respecte. "Thur ne have show that tree ste of wolutins of equine (7.2) forgiven futioneeand of «lu by quaenturen(F8) to carve for hich cand rare the curvature and tason, povided Ut the de termine | ot equal to av. That there ae sl of soltions of squatios (7:2) ting thi ion fllows fom the theory of such ft of equations, oamely tht there exists «unique aaton frien fet of nial vate of yw and me" Sinen ery constants, fll fhat one has oly cone the inital vals ofthe tne mt of se Sion otha it al follow fron (7.3) that te detrninant of th ot equal to aor. Bleed [0+ sndeante siren by wih eed Geiddes) crt on a ton 2); ad any alton a 2) ie eprana Ettrmten mf euant 4 for maa anf cone Sire ar sealom of pation G2) nh dat ot eh ae oaatins and nine rot 4 3 vwEy evry 2. The ental nog f a epatin of ise bg 2we4 v, (23) by ply sb the 8. INVOLUTHS AND BVOLUTES OF 4 CURVE As shown in 8 the equations en Xin eae! save parametric equations of the tangents 10 the curve C defined by 2 (finch of the ze. For aprile tangent w ithe ditane Tuten the pints #/and XT wis epic i equations (8.0) bys Santon of the resting equation ae equations a w eure Pebase ointe eon the tants othe ven curve Dilerentinting oti {Bi} with epee tom ane he in sonaequens of (2) and (01), pe « ax = (48 to since ae etn nb he tng, eater re fs tote mich that its tangent at cach pointe pependoular to the ‘get 0 6 heough the point Ikke necenry al tlt that Since w= 0, hin orton eat =) Herne to wih om ht en _6 Invoueres of a conve 8 where ram abitrary constant, Hence drei an inily of auch Teves Teach deed by 6) Mash ena! fora particular vate of They ae cal the flues ofthe given turer rom (8) follow: that the length ef the regent of aay When # cave © is defined in terms of « genera parameter the fre given directly by (8). ‘A invouie when ¢~ ris pov may be desrbed mechanically se faons: Fuku ating of laugh fasten one end tthe point of the fuve for whch «= 0 ad bring te sing into concer mith the ‘ire; when the stings unwed rom the eve ad i kept tnt, the ter end point dees the invoite me ea fm 88). From (82) sod (Bl) we have @ fe ng (81 4 non nity ofa tent on ii ‘Duin Xe pl othe rnc arma to tec athe ereingPy ‘CURVES IN BPACE ton ICT isan invoite of curve C, wo my that C ea ene of tat is it ina curve wow sangests are normal oT. Seppow thea that we ‘Sart witha urve of coordlacis + and ask ie evluu lace the Punt of ar evelte ie nthe poral lanes to the curve fz equations Ee ofthe form an Mast iwlier there wand are fustins of «to be determined. Prom thee ogua- Sons in eoracqucoe of (8.2) and (6.1) me ave by dieeaision 930, epect to a) Teams lH en)es (Bow) Sino then quate re diet nubs ofthe tngent os evlate, {hey must be proportional to X"— 2 hme, to w+ ey whieh as follows frm (7) are dvetionnumbsrs ofthe Ine jaan th pints Xi and #2 Consequently we must have = Ife and (dtm) =2(l—w) ‘When the equation is writen in the form weal een sre See dat ie itera is ao) fount, rey fan xo wn fous snd cis en arbitrary constant, Subetting cbse result la (8.7), we sain wy ad gy pee oy orth aot thw us fan ve, C+ fre as anit of evluts. Sines te eure san invluto of ech valuta, we ave8 BVOLUTES OF A CURVE: a (82) A eww C hasan infty of eu; the principal norma ean ele 4 paral 1 the angnt oa he corerpnding poi ‘From equstlons (8.1) and (49) i fllons that Ue pots of allo thse elutes comesponding ts lve ola on the gives eure io ‘the ling called the polar Bn, pall othe Dinormal and rough the ‘canter of euvature forthe given point on che carve, Bforeover from (82) iefollows thats eis tho angle whieh te ine ong a psit on the curve t the conesponiing pot oa an evluta makes with the ‘nculating plane of the eure leh pont, Henee we ave 85] When eh oft normal acu C which oe tangent oa se 1 lend fruph the ane enle abou th eareponding tangent 10, he herman thar ev plone lngent air evil of From (611) an (810) i follows the its pom to choos 20 that the potest sorspanding elute io the osulatng lanes Oniy in cuca constant in with cate ~ 0, Unt hea he curve Pinte. Ia this exeptional ase Chis vate isthe lacus of the eestor ‘ofthe iro of curvature abd ie a plane curve, except whan the given furve iss cil, in which ease the Toes ie the centr of the cde “Tis volte i the ons which in the diferesial cel i calle the lute of the ple curve However, pane euro has ity of roe a ei equine (611) take all pale rate Brom the {orm ofthese equations follows that these evlites eon the ender ‘whose geoeatos are the oral o the plane ofthe given eure at [nts te eeluteia the plano that th volte for Which ¢ =~ Moreover, fro the remack precoding there [8.3] it follows that che tangents each evita ake eonstant alos with tho gonessors of {his eis and consequently thes eves ar einen! heieos (Gee 8 Bs 2) nen we have (84) 4 plone ere te han ile ha a ify of ele, ach of "ohh ae Ale of te olinde howe ight tin bythe ple of eee 1 he plane te ofthe care, RERCISES 1. inate of aan Be fet, 8) ae plane caren ih tug ar uv of soar note of he ser ei so ih te ‘tthe tanget, pencil nore, binotal, selthe urvatte and tore ce8 ‘CURVES IN SPACH tout sive = “Goa a “tte or be eles ae Be ft ore Feet an. Foramerate il the ary ietion eo of the angen, pn orm bora ed the estate a ais gion 6 [LEQ speerd}eeuson We baile beh tot + ome at ot feeelerhe— eter) wca[e()eranrs] 9, THE TANGENT SURFACE O¥ A CURVE. THE POLAR SURFACE, OSCULATING SPHERE, We or any crv the to parame and ae linia fo toe te prets equation ta agent, nam en X= 2) +a ve obtain sg natin in tho X".Comaenty (eth onus pin onthe ange to erve Ht sue, old the fe ‘fo ofthe ers, ach ofthat ae eld gern Gh aac When thcarve te dnd nec nel pra ter aston oh tangent sige 6» was tute, where now w ie wot the dstano of Ue pent X from the point xa Rina (OD.or TANGENT SURFACE OF A CURVE, » When send in (21) are given pustular values, equations (03) five the coordinates of point om the surface Thus the oe two ‘Genosooal, which anther prof thatthe lists fe marae, Il (04) oe replace by faction a, ey yh ing aston fe partie oqo of eure on te ace parla, i wre pat = em mb ca conta tha follows rm $8 th fureforeash valu ofeisaninvohiteat the given exes. Coneqenty sll the involues of eve eo ita tangent sutace, ‘Thy ae the fares whieh intrset the grate of th wren at vight ales thatthe involves arth wtRagynal gjesrceofthe generators Sine theres nly one sto orthogonal trajectories oa st ines, me Ive 104] The orthopna ato of he gnraore the tangent ec Accorng as win equation (9.1) has a postive or negative va the ‘oi Kiso the orion of the tangent dra Lathe pete dieto ‘CURVES IN SPACE tow ‘rom a point on the curve or in the opasite dition. Hence the surface consists of te parts uf sess, ene part consiing ofa the nt for whi v 20, te tbe ofthe pois for which ws Tha the curve forms eerton Bnnaey of tha two shew. Tider ta ptm ee of frm oth face in the neighborhood ofthe ere, we ral ram 8b that inthe negra of the point , (a= 0) the eure approsimatee the twisted ube 3) Bon ee ae ase, shred ar the curve an onion of these crv a the point Pes tho tangent, pineal norma, and normal at ing the ‘uoinae aes." Nai tha «thease ofthe ten ure tt nak feu, ne have that equations of the tangent race to the eure sen Go xeren ea(Eem) ae -a(f ees) i na ten hl =O th pln mma th fionanat thea ran eit pt HOST tion ct en a ee * 3 (nm elnnaing «fm he second aad third elon we ae tha the ‘ve ea smevbieal parabola with the negative halo the pep ‘oral for epi tangnt. Sins thi the stan at every dine Dot ofthe eure, that every punt st which ter ot i 0, (02) The anon ufos of cu vit of sets which ar tangent ‘one anaheralng heuer, and ha forma sharp, noel ore ‘The euro is aed the ge of wgraion of the suace. An ide of tho form ofthe surface inthe feighborhoad of tho carve may Be had from Hige Sand. "Ph Be wih the ations 0s) x foreach value of «the pla ina dein in $8, comeponing «0 the pln on the curve for hv of andthe Parameter at Sw tw!o ‘THE POLAR sunract a stance of point on the ine fom the comesponding center of eurvae ture, uma the polat 2° Since equations (08) invulve to ‘tener, sand aloe that the ole of the pola lines o furwe eon a mee; i ealled the polar roc ofthe eve We shal show tae this aac the tangent surface of another curve efi by 5) when ais replaced iy lta Fanetin of ats oo Be Lawer(E-ne “het am veto sams ft tne 4 he ve 8 for fren ini othe pl eros ota en eee {She th mp toh cove a fr ose no {te dnrton nt mt be propria Teqne ssi fades itu = =! Hae weave 193 The pe roof ei he grt of he ce th on west af: ‘Conside the pte with eer atthe pot of eordinates 7) foes give value of + and using through the espn pint 3° othe eve, that he pt Forti ale Evin the ele ‘Feurvate forthe pit cn on, and the gure of radian Ff = Sea se a een re sith heat Pt if + doth tae bon pe i lg terete ig Bisar the onder oe oder to obi this out we make eo ‘etustons (67), ‘The ccnter ofthe sphere eomepondiag othe Pint“ bxCULATING SPHERE * ofthe cary atthe agin ofthe coordinate syst usd in (87) i at ewan (an 1). tw ne tesa na a oars (1-2 (meting rf (67 ad ta 2 qu ta errant ar an pn hes wb hel itv ee [03] The ephere though an arity pont P of sew curve and with er gen by (2.7) he colt of he tied onder wih the eae a ‘Thin pee sealed the oxatin sphure ofthe care a the pint. Hiner have [05] The polar tine for @ point of cure i tangent the lou of the entr of ecu ephie of he eure a arspoing pot ‘The previous routs ae represented i Fi. 7 in wish the cure 4s the locus ofthe ponte My sy Af, =»; the points C, Cs, Ca, sro the comesponding eta” of curvature: the planes MCW, SMGCIN, = ate normal tothe euros he ln CP, CPs et the lta the Toews ofthe pots P,P, he cg o eae lon ofthe polar murtae “A eure al of whose pte He on apher aild & epheria xt ‘Tho normal puner to sich a euve pase through the comer of the sphere. ‘he’ cuardnaten of the center ate given by eauatons (87) te an at be sch inne a ita X= 8, Yom 8) foo tat y=! panda os) Peo 0, re tof hag have» = = 42 ad ane the coordinates ofthe pint are aiven by (07). Wh this vale of ve fubetaual in che eeond of (08), we have the flowing eoniin to te atid by p and os) mt £4) a0“ cunvES IN SPACE tent on 7) ots ete ine be i Sinden (2), ates sn hen hin 2) St, So ae. tan te tin 0) i al hr ll a oy pp enor ih wy pen cin hls pri ha Pier espeici acne inary Meme let Cer perenne So a et lg Tn nen sas hie. ea tii tr tft 2th crlting plane ofthe sure (08) a he pin += 0 thane 12 th mkch mt etant rae.) an egpmertorand ne pro ELAS Tia ie rae fhe mean po spe laea inane nn spa ic an ht esaing pe Ps nr sxtiin Fan ytceSewalhnanss ‘The any phere! cures of constant ereatre ate cir, 10, PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A SURFACE. COORDINATES AND COORDINATE CURVES TA SURVACE, gations (0.2) and (0.8) of the tangent surface an par surface ofa curve rapatively are pastel cas of the equtions f the fino on Faso) G29)0) PAMASIIETRIC EQUATIONS OF ASERFACE 46 ‘Suppose now dist one has Use such equations where re ooe-valued fantionsof two cribs wands If the uncions fare sich that it pole lint und from thes equations and btn & Single equation 003) yao, ‘hen in desondanc withthe dfn f «mace in 1 equations (10.1 fro equations oft surface. "This Mee re aed In 40 estaba ‘that equations (9.2) ate equations fa surface note ¢o dees wheter tee eaten (10.1) i whieh he ‘far fein the a ry equaiona of x nf, we deine qua tice A ths je at) i 22s aie 03) SE ae intone, a hg A he Jacobian off and f wth respect tow and a IE A” iintaly ual to are, then tere a fetional relation be- Ayeon 2 ad, Ut we 2) = OF “Taleo A = 0 theres a func tional rlaion es.2) = 0, ad thm Ue ts a aye ad yt furface Gee). It sre chown hat it A" = A® ~ Othen A= Hence we have {004} Three equations (10.1) re equations of mac, ifthe jasbin aris oa) ba ar oft lane oe ol ro, tai, at al of he dterminane of ode ta are detily 1s toe observed a jut roarked tha if wo ofthese deteroante fre teotically mr, the thin alo i, and the rank Tess than ew (tee B= "The dition ofa surfaecby three aquations i tena f two vaiablas 1 and asin 0.1) wae introduend by Gauss" Formedly a surface“ CURVES RY PACT tent a tina by singe eqution (102), until Menge med the prtclar for aos) P= fes2. "he ltr ha aeastger over dhe form (10.2) i the invetpnion of certala typen of maces” However, thereto of Cato ay espetseuperioeto lath the eer faethods. Tt carterary to refer to quations of the frm (101) a paromeire puains af © ron. J parol, the method of Monge is equivalent wo the falling 08) Poe Poe Pape, where naw a! ad 2! ae the variables and ‘nother iterpreteion of Uhoren (101) tat oad re ide dent vale, a thus tht the Joes i wo dimersonal. Wh Imeuations (101) a w se given parler vals, Ueserqutions five the eoornates of «jin othe sce, 8 ied fom Hace in the sarace hat the cadoping wpe However, one Corder the situation in the surface Tact witout referee tothe ‘veloping spac and sa Uta an a are cordial in ho are fafa pnts the sree.” An example of hs the eof atta a Tingle b eooedinstee i thereof Une cath “should be emared dha, iave limites and wom equations 1 the form (201 and obtains a equation of the form (103) Imay be tat equations (101) apply to olya portion of theme wih the olny equation (102) (ne Be 3). mene, in commence of theorem (1 follows that two ofthe cquatione (103) ean be saved for and namely to fr Which te enresponding A" wt idee ticaly tro, and wheo thse vals ae suet it the rid one ob {sins an eation similar to (10.3). "The equation dees the ar furface oF portion of trae ts equations (10.1), ad thus fr the oriinaten of x poi inthe sane a and are akg deo ‘Whe in eyaatons (101) ie given «constant value and Yao, he loca ra save an viewed fromm the enveloping epee eatin adage fon (1.10) with we paranter;areover, tr are the srace. Theres a infinity f such eurvs inte ure, ove fr feb fale of swe eal thr the cordate eure cant, a lsd the wena urs Tn ike manner teria of odnle fee = soni; and eal sno the Wesordinale carr Thy are the sralogue of te ines parle to the cordleate sxe i ve pi snferad ta eaten ase Wh the pane ferred to plat“ ‘curves 18 sPac: tow Yor example fr «ender (107 the equation (e 8, i. 2) Poe, 2) or8 f VEE at = 0 ivan equation of a curvein the ender whi ntercts the generate verte constant sng that the eure a elidel bela cach of ths eatin Fiat ‘84 taker the alu 3, 2, $a heey ze sontants, a equation of the family of curves in which the eomespondlag plas 2" eon spe fet the sac with uations (10) {in (O.) vate for a he expose 0010) we eet) (=n, where the pear depeden onetions of and tats coun) ‘we obtain another sof parametric eto of th ra (912) Fash n) W149) Cousoqeusy thor ve oneraiy i te eis of 0 cordate in terms of whi «fave dele By twa of equations of the form (10. We refer a (1010) as « transformation of enna inthe ufo Ue the Jacobian (1411) idnteally tere he mean the tere Funetiona raion betwees: the o's, ay Figo) = 0, and then from (GO. i follows thatthe coordinates "for m = 1,2 apply nly to the cuve Fu) = Wad wt tothe whole arc.” Another ie face of he ondton (0.1) i that entions (10.0) can he ase fora say (013) we eta whieh ations ive the soninates "of pat of coordinate” inthe weyetem. “Equations (10.18 dine th era ofthe snare on (1010, eho e parked that evn if (0.1) bok, there maybe als of "fae whieh the jacian ieqoal to veo. Borsa was there0) COORDINATE: CCRVES IN A SURPACE 0 not ug inverse (10.18), ad pea eonsderaion hs toe given torch eases" However, the distin which allo presspes tat for te donaia conse the conten (0.11) hal Cleats for sinh domain nat of thew -cordinate rarer ean intent. "From (1010) it flows that the cordate cree = en te ‘wayniem ha the eaten ete ty {inthe wsyster, and frm (10.3) that the eoantinate curv (nthe wast te the uations ee fn the waysorn, Hoover, fr tansfoenasion 019 wee) 0038) =r, ee) thee af ents cues, that i the to families of curves w= fone and = com Scot changed but the earns ar hed, = rly veri ® Bowen toate Pacis #00 ‘resins atanataiea ney ein, Wat {he rig amen at Sang oferta th gua a Be Sime iow oF” ‘CURVES IN SPACE Tent Jnr th ee mtn nd jibe a, 2, ere a ‘a hypra of ane abet whe > x! > 41> 0 a> Salat, at oats ott wtne and acount, hes ype snd phon whe eta th asian we cota eon 6. tes th ak of he aban mats (08) ew and of the deter inure ted order's etait, he auc a ener a, tant PLANE TO A SURFACE “The tangent at a point P tox cueve upon w tice aun Fa fox) was 1 called angen! othe sufoce at P. It is evident that thee ste an innit of tangent Tne to's surface ats point. We shal show that sina hase ins ein «pane, ealled the tangent plane to thesuace the ein. me die curve thogh «point 2 by Ue equations aia 0 seine fm (14) de aad aad a°RS Hoge stn of th angen a a eB) 2 ana 12), * eo the hee Fs «parameter, Bimintinga 1F 10 A SURFACK sn tions, 8 obtain It? xt x2 oe oy ans) jae Br Jao oo ee For partielar values of wand that at «point on tho wre, this a equaon of a plane, ‘Sine the equation independent of ‘he fmetons¢ and in (UL), follows at thi plane ent ak ‘the tangent nes tothe aurea the point, and consent ntion ofthe tgeet plane atthe pt At pins of thesia, itty, fo which tbe cofactors of De werent af the ist on tbe Aeterminant (13) are simaltaneuasy gual to aero the equation (112) ‘Snot defined. Buch points ae exiled siglor pint of the saree, fd all ofr pints ar ealod onary pont Tone we have LOLI] The tongent tan onary pint on weuface the eae on he ‘rfc hugh he point en plone; when he urs defied By parse Imetie equations (U0), uation (11.8) so an equation of he tangent lane a he oon 2 For the tatignt far to. curve with the equations (0.1) the egute sion (113) roto to a2 wae ae lee et oh hy meso (87 i Ect ah Since thc oquation done not involve the tangent plane at aoe pane ofthe urate tant to the wrface a cach plat ofthe generator {Brough the ven point. Comparing this equation with (13), we Fave in consequruet af (2.7) (01.21 The tangent plane tothe tangent ura of ere ete sane at (point of ger; nth oting plane of he re he pine Site tor tng a2 CURVES IN SPACE to In onder to obtain an equation of the tangent plane to the ol r- {aor af w cue, meno Unt in consequence of equine (6.1) we have ftom (3) es nc on (14) ura woe v=? ¥ 2) fee fle by gl tee a hut a ert erates I magus USS in Let - she! = 0. rum the form of the equation and the fat tha it dow nt insole w? wehave WLS). The tangent plane tthe polar ere of a ure i the same a bint ofa goneratr i he normal plane oh area he oie whe Doar tn a hn eorespnng generar of he polar ufo none to Sd eatin f the tnt plane toa surfed by weg canton (us Si 2,2) =, vee ama tha 2 forth sree ve exposed He form (11) {erm of two cordinatos Wado” Wher thee expos res ‘ned a (1-2) the routing equation fn Sete he and aa Conscaventy the derivative of ths Hetty wih espet oad? See equl ta ar, Hone we bate se Frm tho equations follow: at the quantities ae prapatol to the eofutors of th clement of he fst rove neato (113).° Consent sy cqution of tbe tangent plata he sruee 114)1 DEVELOPANLE SURFACES Cy sta punt 2 as) 1 Fad an oman of te tage pant he por with ations oe fornia ia Beh anda thro ath meet pe tpt ra {0h eds pre te Pit, a tins 13a shon tt te get anes Wal uit = et ‘hea pte a Fal eeatn a tng stat of i nee ‘ine al pit os gone a the ume pe. “har dautate nit hcqvsion U3) am enaton o he age pe i ro awn ao fom 8) and 22. ."Te'eget pate te tere soi ne 9, Ee. 6 Peony, Pawn, tae viare The noraal (othe tangeat plane toa murane at the punt of tangsney ie ath nat he suc atte pth tae ay it sad Sei psa eat esol ote Beem Beaten aa ee bent i Tucdatnce pane ne stant the tage flan oho mcs ea ec daa th 12, DEVELOPABLE SURFACES, ENVELOPE OF ONE-PARAMICTER FAMILY OF SURPACES rom the form of eh equation (11) of nage pane tow sia fli tt ordi ths eqtin vars bt of Ue paramore Wand wd consequently guberal there i = doable Infinity ofa CURVES IN SPACE tom 1 tangent planes to 9 muti. "Thi x the eas for example with sale, the argent phe at pint beng nora Ue rai of sho Sphere at the point, tone Ses geoeteiealy we $11, Fs 1) Howe ‘ter we have seen atthe taggect planer along geaeator ofthe {ange sre ow carve colnie, hi tangent pane fray generator ting the cetting plane of the neve atthe pinto ange othe Eton gunaata. likewise the tangent plans tomes oa cate, Song renrtor are the same sx resident wametrly. | Hence the fangent plane ton sgt srfnral acura cone, or tow extnder Involve daly one parameter, and consequently thee surface are he ‘rvelopes of a oneparaneter fanily of planer ‘Thay are called ‘aopblewufce, since any sich sface' an be dcop upon 8 Plane hat rolled ont mthosseteing or ratextiog any part of "Th evdont that thie oan be done with x ede orn cone, We deve co thaw that wih the exertion of eins ant canoe ‘every developable sifu the tangent sce of same carve.” We fonsder fst the more genera problem of finding the envelope of ‘necprameter filo uae can Sie 2,20) 0 Involving » parnmeter at wll a Ue 2b aa mation of one Dyrametar fly of stare, each of whieh is dened by (121) when ‘Tis esipved particular value. Conder now the eve of iatrse- toma he tan (121) and 22+ Su) = U Tor parnlar Salus of wand dw ‘Tha carve i he eure of fnteretion also of (0B) ad he sane Ret tid 2) fie 220) ‘hn anh vel a) = lo 2) Ye IROk hs pond ees dei” an SELTUN iS eh ae ange secre gprs tad ad an 4 ‘eran (2.1) (2) a! dal ae a cel ducactaeatanytuti (a yt note shir 5 al el EELS z ease ee ence2) ENVELOPE OF A PAMILY OF REREAGES 8 stall show, ar tangent to ome another long this haretrieti; hat ft each plat ofthe character Whe weane and eaveupe have the Same tangent pane Lat the enone «pinto the enveone be expesecin term of wand soe second parameter, way 2° = Fw). With thie ‘hon of uinntn the rodnate Cores = anata te shar fstrstce When thee expressions for =! are tied is (121), the reultig equations are entities fn wand wand eotacrtently the derivatives ofthis expen with rerpert to! and wae il torzera. Ia consequence of (12.2) we have af ae af Saar Baa From thae equations follows that the cfutors of the dnents of "he ito ia the eqn (118) of the tangent pane to te envelope a potted snr mann oh tt Pn esr tet ethan Eat. “Tie ation ote at ple tere (21) or ao fl 1. cs do eter i {oto that at cach point of a earaeeriate the corning tate (121) andthe envelope bave the sae tangent plane We cunsider now in adiion to equations (12.1) and (122) the oa haw Wey ay ear the commen soiton, x may, of equations (122), (122) and (123. Equations (124) are sation aft eurve om the envelope a We sa foes (121) lace they are sntons of (121) and (122), and for & ‘ale w= 0! che egrespnding pata the carve (124) is pat of the characterise" = We wis to show tht at tht pint the eve and te chwacteitie have carmon ange nt ‘rhe expressions (124) are suasitutad in (133) and (123) these6 ‘CURVES ON SPACE lon ruling oqutiong ar ntti and emsequenty de derivatives ‘ith epeet tow areca to zr. Te eonsequence of (122) and (123) ‘he rs offre iting (121) and (123) wih epee 1 025) par Dither <0, stare the pime indeates difeentiaion with pct tow! AC poi tthe curve 12.2) tbe quantities” aedieton numbeev othe angst to the curve atthe point, ‘A character = te intretin ofthe sree defied by (021) and (122) fr va of From (15) fallow that tbe tangent planes to these two sates atthe point #4 = fe) ae ee spoctvel Ea-pt-0 Da Take tog thse av equations of he line of interetin of ese foo plans fat iy the tangent at to the chrseteric wt = Prom thew ation and (125) fellows tal fae detonnarbery uf he tangent at to the characte. Coogan he earae: eration ae tangent tothe curve (12), and securing the tr ie the eve of the charters, Hi ald the eof rogrion Df the envelope Eo te surfaces (12). Gathering together time ests we he 1123] The eaeope of ameparamcer folly of sf i fuer ‘ohh eter tench ufo emily ong ar he caractertc “errexponding tthe parca nsf; the characteris a tangent fo a ae, ee of eres of the eno. What lth characterises have one ad onlyone pint commen, {hat wt eatin (121), (122 and (123) ata commen sl. tin on fora raters of hi pine fa dgeneate ed of reer. We apni the rents one-parameter fai of planes ith the 026) ax ta=0, whee mand ao fonetions of «parameter th the undentanding that a are not proporiona to asl of eonaantse, that bts the Planes of he fay aze not perl” Ta his eae eatone (1232)2 DRVRLOPAILE SURFACES w sl (23) ae respectively aan) is +a! ° hae the pins eat dient wth epee (126) {nd he a of 127) follows Unt the actrees ne ting es Tete deter 4, defined br 0 date" # «| oan 4 ‘| | ‘snot ident sr, equations (12.6) and (127) adi augue soe Ua (124), ad by theorem [12.1] the enepe ete tangata Of tha cure (124, als the eons 8) in (28) ar cnet I) are canstants Han fom (120) we havea =~ wa esse all of th plane of the Tamily pas Chena the paint ¢” Whe llth planes (126) have pot common, the envelope > eae, ‘elena the plas ave nen eammen, fo este ce he ine Ut otereation of the pines (126) ad th Seto (127) mst bo ine ‘kegendent of ati tat lite ed the one wth uations (122) font inc,” onan or hs that the ae 29) boeof rank oe tha tween we have 1122] The emelope of @ one-porancerfenily of nomparlid anes (4.26) for which Ay dn hy (28), not oly so th agen ‘uefa of care, or ace; tela aw a = — a were thee are oan ada te condi of Oe ere ofthe come Weconsidenest thease when A = 0, In inoue Hhereare quant tics, 8H eh that 020) War=0, Wal =0, Kal = 0. Difrtiatng theft two thes equations, me obtsin in ensequenoe ofthe thet am Woy coer Moje8 CcuRUES WY seact ton From thee equations and the Bit two of (120) talons that fate proportional to the corespending a, and consequeniy ase propre [onal to constant ey, the tutor of proportionality bing fonction buf in whieh ase the planes (126) are paral. ‘Sine this care har Tee eta fom tht Geos, ile that hear rmatante to that equations (1211) donot cit Since ear neon numbers ‘morals tothe plane fllows frm the fe of (1210) Bat al the plane are ral ain of dcionmuber *,Conmegntly the eavelope la efiner, o all the planes have ine in sommon "Theor case ase when the hee equation (12.6) and (127) do nat ave cone sltion, tht whe Che ne (120) ofa rel. ‘8s remavked aave, the plance pas throgh a fne whan the rank of ‘hematite tan thre. Hone weave [123] When fr a family of non-parallel place sa + a = 0 the dee ‘inant (128) enelly ao he ene of Ue plane i elder or [a the planer a ine in commen according a tera of he augmented Imtr 129) thre ln than re, Wereek now a necessary condition vpn a fame 2,2) in onder oat the race 219) WZ 2 =0 lal ben developable race. Anmume that te surface is defined by the equations 2" = ya), whare at» esta the eertas and 2 Somat et of coordinate curves. Whon thee expres for 2*ara slit in (1212, the resting estion kum Metin nd, and consequently = tina ae href= nd hess ovat gl, Anon Cette ane oth (232) pi tip ashen Since equation (12.18) dows not inva by bytes diate vith spec tow it eual ta sore. Therefore, i consequence of the2 DRVELOPANLE SURFACES 0 second of (12.18) we have ay wants vee % Fe aaa Sinn a! = const are the generators ofthe surface by hypothesis thee equntons are given in aeons ith (121) and (122) By (1200) sod Bua 2 whieh in canton ofthe iat (12.18 ede to aie) on (nm comparing equations (12.15) and (12.16) with (1215), wee that 2x7) ahs =, hres fator af proportionality. Tn arder thatthe thre equations (0217, and (1214) be constnt ei neesary™ thatthe eatin Se Sa ba Se ou fa fa fo Bl fu fa Iu Se lk pmo ‘ests in conse of (12.12) rentals. ‘Cosy this ein stad ad 2" = (2) are eq tins of the mrfae, that iy sainty (1212) ideally, whe se express fora are substituted i (1218) th rel equation ea entity in wand Hee thee east funcios anda of and ack that cai ae A= OH ofmo. 1 any ome ofthe quantities fe equal to zero ident, thon (2.18) | iota denial and the afar is ender whine generar age0 ‘CURVES I SPACE owt parle! to oortinate axe. Thor remains to consider the cara when tach fis not identically ar, ano write the egaton (12.10) ofthe {laent ple othe face (1212) bn the form 12.20) sete ~o hohe ‘The quanti f/f, and aff are fnetons of u! and thir form depending pen the Fonction) Ta odes thatthe rare (1212) be develope i eromary and suflent tat there be oe Srtinates wand ain the surface such that ffs fufy and 24h ‘Shall be foneins of aoe of the saw" "This mae tat thse shoe ‘ymntties must be fnetions of the sane feo, ayy Win Ich case" = YW) and we uny ater Faetion of wand a fic thatthe jae of thie foneion and tential ao I this onion nd, the mace i developable and the eee (ua) = cont are generate. Hence a slot evadien that {esurace he developble that was (12.10) ae salted Uo jalan ofeach pu of the Quantities ify aod 27h with respect tou! Sud beidenscaly som, The asbian othe first two hee qu (i — Ba L fete — a4 (ie 60 itu — 18d | hich is ual tot [Aas th A [ad oe HS 1m come (1219) an (1218 hn dering xa tos Devan the ot end (1215) he acon f=. aed each if {he gn fed ican bso fob eal tao Hence whee {1241 A mcnary aden condition tha 2) ~ 9 be on trenton of depo tras So ion (121) sl Srna he ation fr, 22) = Dor tently. Fi, 4 1 9we DRYELOPANLE SURFA a ‘Consider the equation amy “y whos the o's are constanta. Evidotty any solution ofthis equstion| fates (1218) identity. Alo (1221) & the condition thet the ‘ome to euch developable surface be perpenleaar tou Bae with ‘dnetin numbers Hens we have [125] A necenry and leet comin that a esfcef'2,2) ~ 0 bem andr fe Barf ston of equation (122) fn which the a comnts. ‘he ptr sure alo ele te pla droga “Tc uo te ple nv at fp oral tere a sol aes wo pets cn pote Xen fot nt ore a rar and mation ee freon ae (= we ane Be 0) = Yi gh armenia rte ere pat mpi the dtp maa whoe cunves 1s secre: tout 5 Let wo -wno sere ether of urn fC he the oposite ‘Seeing rare, rte plstlnoge the xastig pam Cad he Solera he aly re he ccting serecusprer Transformation of Coordinates. Tensor Calculus 13, TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES, CURVI ‘COORDINATES nthe preveing chapter 2 = 1,2, 8) denote crt coordinate of ce fred fo vetanglar age, "hate are many auch ordinate ‘pte, andthe rlonbetwavn tro ach sytem and 2 given ty equations ofthe for aay a ole "The coondintes 2" refer ty gtof rectangular aac whone ogi inthe ajtee eV abd ayo} ate the divtin eoxinas of the 2” aie With respect to the system. These dvction-cosios saiy the ions" (3) Lolad= sa, Letat =a", share the quantities yan 0, called Kroneker dele, ae defined by (133) Sands = Lor Oorting oF = kor jw ‘Moreaver the determinant of the quanti a hat stad ob a3) latl= ot NEAR, oe 1s equal. to 414 we dene by othe ctactorof afin the determinant (13-1) divided by thocaterinant then (35) sof = af, ofa! =a, ‘beef aio called Kronecker delay, ae dine by 50) 8) oO eonding anf = ert v5 yee pao ‘TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES (Cx, 1 The second st of equations (138) is equeaent to the statement that the aun of Che ut ofthe elements ofthe 7 eolaotn and the oe facts of the eorspendng saments of the # ctu equal to Ue ltermiant or tero ageing ae = jor = jt then me ulty ‘station (81) by at and sm with reget tof we tan az) ita! — 6) = baie = a “Hloee the tae" = const. ar pall planc for which the quaniie editeton amber of he normal hee planes ia Ue pte Hoever ithe rat et of equations (13.2 for = a nt atid, the anesthe Parser are nt mutvallyporendinlr,sfllown fine the rec following equations (131). Hene in this cave the Payee Mique syste of eos. ‘We consider next the cate, when the deterinant (£34) i ual to sero. Tn this ene equations (51) i the 27s ate constant only when {he thre determinants obtain ela te een of «co In che eterna (134) hy 21 ~ Bye" ~ 0 2) ~ B repecively are qual to ze} Consequently heave the quantita 2" are defined nly at punts of ce Toes with these equations, and ths are ot ‘onda fer the space, TBqvations (132) deine the ince of the transformation (1.0) Momuver, equations (151) dee the fave of th tatlermatin (087) efollowe fem 18.8 Polar eondnates ematiate another type af condinates frequently sed in space particulary in astunary, "With teference oa eae ‘onnuatesytom = pola cooninaten are dfn by (38) Pez sinz%oos", a= singing”, a= cons ‘The inven of this transom i oof PeVER, Pec oo (a9 2 aVE vive rr hee oon otha «ithe dnance ofthe pin te) from the in of the system; 2” Ue ane whith the tne OF ten wth he Pax and 2 the tte wch the poeta of OP tm the 22 lane make ith he pos an ‘ro flor tat te los = emt are phar withfis) TRANSFORMATION oF CooRDINaTES 6s secant; the loci 2 = cag. are ight alr cons ech of which Ist veteran the 2a for asi and the oe =” = ent ee planes through ie 2a. We ell thee sifaces the connate ‘fe in the 2"aysem. In ke anver the ordinate slcte of the a’aystem defined by (3.1) and (13.2) are planes, wbich a= shorn re mutually etognal oleae equations (13.8) srt ‘uation (13.1) and (138) ae patina ese of equations (03.0) Fave ee, whee theo ate one-valcd Suuetions af 2, 2%, 24. For any such Tetons) these ste equations of tsformation to = gine at of ‘sorioatee 2", 2,2", povided thatthe fneton are indepen. they ware no ndopnnt tate ol be a, te elation the forms Plea) =O. and in tht eve (E210) ate ook oyun of a ‘wansfomation Of apane they have swag only at pate of the Toots with this cquaton, oF equations A nwsgny abd aufldest cetion that he Tones! be idependeat i that tht jcaban, nal | Jet at ae | | act ast ca fat lar am ‘not dentally 210 6 (1.19). ‘When this edie is eatsed, there may be particular vals of ‘Tor wh the jcobian He zoro, bu in general thi snot the exe, that abut pint for wtih) 5 | tessa domain for whieh Ahi nogny btde Forsch vaso quan (1330) a Be tae fors"wedenle chs ohn asm ase 22 ‘Those squat defi th mer of the traermaton 1330). Forenuatone (34) th jesbin (81) i te dtr (13.4. ‘When dominant ct lt sr, i and egos 1 ine! 1oo TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES Cx. 11 (082) ar the ivero of equations (13.1) and give the coodinaer 2 {ora pint interme ofthe 0! th pi, For equations (158) the Jacobian (15:11) i found to be equal to (rein 2% Bnce ths quantity ie ot dentally tr, pole oor rates apply to all pointe uf space, but they ae a0 uniguly defn swhan 2 0 or when sin 2" = 0, tat, at O ora thea aain Thar N60, 2” = Dani 2" and” ean tale aay vals that i all he oo route sirfsom 2agne. and =-eott. pass thro. or soy Pint on the as, 2 can tk any vale that salle ordinate “oor. mecl inthe ann” In thre coe the condi 2°50 ie point ands" = 0, in. But forall ther prints equntions (18.9) bold and are the eqations of the iver ‘Whi the expressions (1.12) for 2 ae substitute in (13.10) weave Ba ele ee) 0, Which are denen nthe 2a flows frm the definition of (13.12) ‘Sine they are Westin the left-hand rember dows na vary With ny ‘ofthe 2, and consaquenly the derivative with repeat to cach 2" fax to sor. Hono we have ao! a6 ay ba” aes a" where kin dommy index. Sinee and for jaw independent, Uelet-hand mamberie-F1or Gacsrling t= jor 2}. Aonord Ingly the equations may be wees (319) fae where are defined by (15.6). Since é and j tak the value 1, 2,3 {hare are ae equatiasin these (13.1), ‘we cosier th epson (12.10) for a ubatiated in (12.12), 6 buna analogously 0 (13.13) asa) ea When th jacbian of the transformation (13.1), namely 13.1) onotd by| 2 |, multipied by the jacoian ofthe inverse (1.12, fone obins fm consquenee of (18.1) » determinant in whieh exchfis] TRANSFORMATION oF CoonpINaTES tlemeot of the main diagonal ie -+1 and evry oer smn i sr. ence we bave (319) 8)-\€ thats ether jenni the resproaa ofthe other. Thus the relaion between equations (13.10) and (1.12) ie sul tha Ger eth at of squaion ft inveee trxformation ofthe ote, "in equtins (1319) we evo ed vl and lt tke the alge 1,2,3, wetavothree equations of the ist degen in 23, 2, Solving these quate for those quantities, we obtsn (ee Ex. 1) and 22, (19) = Although wo started thie section, Interpreting 222 ertsan eo ‘ordinatas in space, and took quai (13.10) ae qustons a «tans Formation from sah eornates to ny other, in darting the properties ‘of th tmntormation (510) and te inverse (1312), 0 tne has bre Imade of the fact that = wre curtain sordinate, "Theor sl he rela of this ction apply equally well won aquaion (1310) give ‘he rlation betwen the ordinates of any two peer ‘ever in spmes, Ths, if av any set of coordinates, equations (8.1) fod (138) deing «transiomation of eondinate; bat Interpretation ofthe new coordinator thre two ent ven above piles only tothe ae when» are ertsan eotrdnatn. consider now n connection with teaaformaten (12.0) second extortion a7) Heaven ete, It boing understood at the Jacobian | 22;|ie not idntelly seo Whe those exprelons for 2 are sbsitated in equations (1.10), he rsulg equations denote by (319 Bale 25 2%) ‘line rstormation fom ito 2, ela the radu of th rane {omastons (18.10) and (1817. Since ast _ ast act waos “TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES (Cx. 1b ‘follow rm the ral of matipinton of ete | asa 25 || 22 Jae ae Toe" sn hone that te iesbin a the product of two trsormationn of Geondinats i the pret of the jsnns of thse tannoratons Wersy that tanfomation of eordnetes are the group property Ly wich womens the prodct of any wo ach tenfomaton ok tanornation of coon Tf areata corn cach of equations (18.1 fr a parti= sat fe of ane eideny gn sation of w erie i spac and for tho gti vies of 2, and 2 ch ae oqatons of tree suas space inertia nthe pin with these corinne athe ‘Payaten, dts above Inthe ene of Uncat exeationr (1.2) ad Polar coordinator (028). Tn lke manner for patel vals of rusian cortinates = equations (1.10) are equations in the o> ait a th plane Uru the pint = parle ote cordate planer 3 = 0 Tz! and 2 ar any comlinatn whatever, onations (13.12) for ticle rls of +, 2 are eguatons of thers, dfn Fr tem ofthe cornea wich pase Srl the pds 2 =) thd siilaey for oqutons (3.10. "Another way f ean te above omar statin ay eoodinate syoti each ofthe equations aay Bed tod Bae for partie value of the contants cn an equation a suite for ‘nich ote f the coordinate sa constant for ll points ofthe suo, ‘he valu af the other two coordnats determining « partie point fn teste, "The ogntions (15.19) ae equation of seaces which sre the anal of planes parle to the coords plan of a = “ngelar eouninav atom. Ae Une constant cin ay one of tho ‘ustons taker om a eaniadum of eal vals, the equation it = ‘uation of family of sfacs. Thus each of those eauntons ‘Sr eating fan ends number of endinate face the 2= ‘ater dtd by (410) oations of the coordinate nacre are ete 2% 2") =e Thore paner one and only obe wfc of each Fam thrugh ach pnt nape Tor which the Jacobian of the nse foanaion from careian coordinates tothe ecorinates in quer Is not aero” At punts where the juabian vanishes the new coordiatss fre aot wniguely dfn, su romarkel nth ewe of equations (188). ts thatsi ‘CPRVILINEAR CooRDINATES © Any two of equations (1.1) fo pariular values of the ore ‘uations of the euve of intersetian of de eoesponding cooniate foo, Along sh curve the raining coon ia paranetr thas is pamete for (ay) ne ofthe curves = é and 2 = & Worl thar eurves mda ures, and parila a zteardc tate cree one for which alone vate and te wil eve aa Jara ler‘ ervesat the analogue of ines parla vo Ue sordiaata ‘tein cartesian coordina." Since thew cures are notin gonad ‘might lines, tho coreaponding coordinss ar clad exon, "Fm tr abowe dacumion follows Ut whatever be ie xorntes _Hinguona!theloses dal by an uatton fe 2 2) = Onsen, tnd the lous defined by two dadepondent gations (2 2 2) He, 2, 2) ~ Own curve. This equivalent to tho dation of a fee ne 4 Gvo-dinensional oes, and oa cure sas one-dimensional Toca (oe 8. nd at of he lastname atria] de by the eo 13 a 188 owe ha oH ‘8 umn helactine tant |r 1816, a Been 4, Prom (12.4) 0) tan anata = Jolla. 5B eng Cand est alae one een hatte elt fa laa suena a ke Hee ER SS, Si eis 2 Cerrar w =-[S2550 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES — (a, 1 Eg Ae hy. ne or sae, 52.218 8 sores, 4, THE FUNDAMENTAL QUADRATIC FOLM OF SPACE, ‘We have aoe in § nt fr «curve jo ape define by equine of the form «EQ eels i rm ton (013 eal the fundamental uadraticfrm of ypc, Interna any ther coordinate pte hae rom (12.10) asa) te a Bae, sn frm (442) uy EP ae (at) masa, vias 45) he DS from which follows that of = ‘ine the coordinate ptm = ray whatever illo tain ny corneal 2 the fundamental quate form ie ase) ad = aw! te whereas ames inthe ize andj, Watt) = ay When arial, Ui coordinates = re cart, e have (43), andi" equal az) oy = Ba, dm By dade8) FUNDAMENTAL QUADRATIC FORM OF SPACE 71 Ti the eof pla ovens (158) we have frum (14.5) ass) a= Le oh = nt, = Oforé 5 Hence polar coordinates the fundamental form is (A) d= Cae (9 (ean 2 GH, Wo sve now tod the reason betwen th cont and the fundamental form in any two coordinate sstom =" and 2" hace te ment of ngth dt dosnt dspead pon trina yam, ‘the fudmentl forms in aay te cooniinate setae are equal. Henet wwe bave ee seni ae nt br (43) re (Maer we ie ee ee Sao eaee uw cn, Ino ot ea 0 =a =a Fee Ls dl ctr an itis Pee ee ene semester a at hae ane ee —— irom 041) 2 a mh ot ad weieccnmnng 28) fe eee ah ds api Ga ae am econo whe teste un oon te, i2 [TRANSVORMATION OF COORDINATES [Cx IL sonnsting the a's and a's which ate equivalent to (14.10), but in ince form. we dente hy’ a and ete determinant ofthe quantities a and a reapectiveyy we have from be Tule for the malipeaton of dele” oe ae) | ae Jae| ase ae aes! ger el 7 8 ae Yor the values dof the es that eho the comnts ao carta, ‘he doterminant is +1. From this esl and (01.12) we have 1081) Phe determinant of he nefits of he fuamentl form of eid ten eyes in any comdiote atom is pte, Sincoa # 0, funtion: a are defined uniquely by (41) ayo Infact, om slung thas equation fro inthe mannce which lol to (18:10) fam (8-18) weave hia) ot = fal = au oom ang) oe Sine as = ay flowstom (118) thate® = a thai the ant ora are ayer athe ini, in thie ace eupereripa. In Drala, when a = hy, webuvea'" = 8° (co §15, EX. 2) Ta danots tio detrmioant of the quantcis yi fllows from (1423) hat the proder of the determinate asd ogi to the ‘etermint fr wh sah element of the mai dingonsl 1, and ‘every ober clanent eae. Hence can eniie! For any other eoadinao system x the cant af the and snontl form ae given by (1410). By ans of equations ofthe frm (1115) tuneicns a ate ungudly dened We shall show that the falowing rations hold between tho Functions a and aia ghee 40) = In ac take the easations eeu = a,8) FUNDAMENTAL QUADRATIC FoR OF SPACE 72 rhich azo of tho form (1115), and meats fr eu capensis of the Fo (14.12), we obtain hati in ae! now wo mulply by 2 and sam with reeet tw bave setae ge ae a ae oe Oe ala Fe ten) ae 7 ae ae" 1.5 eo ean write th hore eqtion in the Since x equ to 2,92", wo can ite th above on (eM Bana) 8-0 oui aig estenepe parcthers ar ae eve 1,28, ace 2 | we ve on dang WO oe ey = Mututying by «and sumavng with npoet tom, wo obtain ally aa. ak aes woo, (de + Bund 0 aie fo scot, the are biog detach bY 8 = POO, Se PO sue Es" [TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES Cx. 11 Seg ih in et en ait @ ee centnaene + ama + enema w 15, CONTRAVARIANT VECTORS. SCALARS ‘rum tha ogatins (19:12) of transformation a coon, namely as) a ele 2,2), ve have 183) 1 a sa) at = ae “Thus whatever be the cooninates two stam in transforming from ‘oe system to the other diferent under lncar homoreneon [Panformaton, the vodfients Ing i geaealfonctiny of the oo ‘ordiatn inthis sense a trateformation of conditates induce 8 Tear bemogineous transformation of difercntials of the cools Metin 182) mad yan i ih as 3 staves ean cf €33) ws Bare 1s the inven of (12). Equations (153) aon et, uation (18.3), ‘hich were abtnned fom the aver of (151) fim (133) we race eye = BE, ech om (81), weave ow mast =e, 28 ae , 84) = eae asa) a = 28 aa = ae" ene the st of Induced transormations has the group preety (2 #13, 12h (13.3) ar artexiny condita the derail dar ies on number fission ine the drstion bing tha ofthe iesenment with end pinta" onda de'* The dierent de" grow by (152) detomnine the sano diction a the ystem, ence dee ton ia independent ofa soordnate ratem. However, wborts these ar arte coordinates the dirion determined by fl de theatme everywhers fn spt he correapmntdingvlace of do gien by (083) dopand upon the pint at which the drt conde unt aw to being constants. From thee equations we aban i thine eptlonal ease by interaton equations (151), in which ease theo. trlinats 2" ar crus or oblique aod a equations (13.2) bald for ot.” Conmsqnty, although for any taaeormadon of aren ‘ortinates nto ater twarnates by equations not of the fem (11) ‘centiat de" dtrmie etn wt pol, th: arena dition hambery of Hine i apace in the wnte that the sme rales of de" Altrsine te iveton of elie a every pik of as the eae wit ‘ict of cartesian coordinate, In Bb ne ov tat form eve with equations (58) Fos, ‘whore the ouontnates x ars crea, the qontition o 8 ro-# ralaated at splat ofthe eurve ate dimstion numbers of the tangent ‘etor a the pI fra goodie nyt 2 wept at roe ve bave iy consaqunenf (152) c ro = vo 30) roo ‘Thanh quanto §(0 datermine at cach point af the carve ite tangent veetor is the sytem, We conser now thre functions oferta coordinates x whieh we denote by Na)."Tho values of these anetion a neh pin In space6 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATIS [68 1h nay be taken as diecion nurs of velor athe pint. Sich a ‘tof veto eal sectrsel, If we pat as) a= a ‘whores in any function the hove vaso to dienetini teach Doin of epee ar alo diretion numbers af the veto determined by Aha the point. Consider for any othr comdinte sytem 2” the etic af the 2" denoted by 2") ad deli by (38) ern ‘when then therght hand member are replaced by their exprions| inthe 2° which deine the transformation nf eoneinate=.” When We ‘compare thoe equations and (152) with (152), we me thet 059) a= p'@, thatthe quantities "(29 defn inthe 26 the wots dined by Na) tea Jost as oqutins (152) were binned frm (153), so ‘cuatings (158) are equivalent to one Monrent, sud hor gens 188 sd (60 at eran tant orate on aca ted Meare Fre ts eatin bare wie) B= ten Be cee my un by ana th ew base income! 83 ey wt wien amen a the enn (1819) ae prope nd coer ay laa an te an Shick inthe eetiveaptems determine a ech pine Up vector {estoy ae inthe relation (1510). "he quanti Nand N° a‘alle the components in th stem and 2"systam espetivey a a ‘otravarind rss thus dined here is contraatiant vector at ‘ck pint inept, that i a veetor ld. Whn the eworinatry are fartorian, thoy a dzvtion samben of the wretir; trie geaetrie ‘Seeiennce in anyother cordinte system shown in 610 ‘rom the forging dives tracer that x cotearaiant velo is nied debieed by is eneponents in any one cordate apse, tod then its mpoaeate in any ee stem ate determined. Hence ‘one may asignaeraryTanetional expen to i the 29st, For example, one may take se constants, and then in genera the ‘eomponents in another coordinate rate ae not emtantIf the ‘oneinates 2 ar earn and eX are constants al he vee re ml since they hve te same dtction nambers- But eneal ‘oirinatecytem constant componente dono deline paral vectors "At time in the elderaton of zeoete problem one ae a equation ofthe fom (1610) eating erin guanine Xan "| in'any two sonrnate system thin xe we nay that the grometse fntty thus defined anally iy nteavarant vector whine om pment are and Xi the rapetive eonedinat stone T fantiane and" dein point of curve and not throughout pa, at equations ofthe ore (18), X are ald vo be the tmp ‘ent of conteavrint veetor at punt of the euro am example Mord br equations (154). \Consier the dfeestil equations eae ae (sn) ee hero X aro the compinent of « conracaiant vector, From the hoor of such tne flloms that tis tga ree by tv funtion: of the fem 81am, Meee, ce the e's ar abiteary estat” and hat fe fae two inde Pde funetons wich are solutions ofthe equation «asin Boo or each pao value fe and equations (15.12) are aquatons a @ curves ‘Thrgh a pint in space for whieh the fanetioe fj and Js in, 2p 8, 20,1% TTRANSVORMATION OF COORDINATES 104 1 resigned thre pases one and only one curve of he fay. Such tvorpuramntr family of eure sellad a "Pow the discuion of equations (157) and (18a i fellows that in any ther oorinateystem 2" the equations (15.11) te at det det veh ee integral consists of the equations in the 2 obtained From (15.1), when the 2+ are replaced by the functions of the 1" ich deine te tranafomation of coordinate rom (1811) and (1819) weave oo % ES Burno rom thee ogutins it follows tht when the sare cartesian de su sonsequely 2 are dean numbers ofthe tnntvertor at 8 Dnt to the cur ofthe cngrucnee (15-12) trough the pint. Hence Many coardnetesstom ate the componente sich a angrat veto. finan funtion of and th fone of baie ewes ate ceplaved y the funtion of” which define tha tresformaton a oorinates, we have say Se 2. 2)= 70" 22. her of thos fanetions elle the tangform af the othe. Prom ‘hie eqzation we have fe af a ae cs8) ae aa rom thie rst and (15.10) we bave 15. Bf a ys Bo af ae (1810) a ae oF Hinge the transforms ofthe soatons of a equation (15.12 ae sai ties of the uation as “% Any function fs, #,#) adits transform in any other cordial system dee ther reapetive ordinate sen an eaity called 3 tear “Wheneve i cnsieriog problem ane arrives in eo corde tite systems a quetiie which are wansorms of one aubor inthesr seatans ts sense of (15:1), oe sy Ut the entity so dfn i star. For ‘arlene ibe the at und last sabes (1816) a ne tomo wy twat mig air in ay eter oortnate apse the soma expen i he ease ef, er ‘Piel thin at een gn (LO) are mogentons func af the Bat tyes SS ny ent tn 0 8430, ae qorta aa peony aes innit % eer are ny facons #2 which ae 3a att "EVs cesar vrs cgugocnt in wheh Aor = 1,25 0 os any Faas =, Ha A, ay = Yanan arse tat sunt 6) eben rot i“» TRANSPORSLATIDN OF COORDINATE (On. 1 fe gution 26 1, nahin | 0 ae wt (GH OF A CONTIRAVARIANT VECTOR, ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS es Xhe the compmients of coneavriant veer in ay cordinte system 2 and ender tbe quantity a), where ay are Ue eoetients tf she fandamenta form (116). In emergence of (1.0) a (18.11) farang ater coordinate system 2" hae, using 3.1), iv = ofan Be 28 ae ar on “0 We ae a Be = alana ian noe fr any eonrerariant west th expen Ai ear (eco 13}. Tn cartesian coordinates aN? astumee the fom 323 ‘asfollows from (142). Ateach point it isthe square ofthe length af the linear how orthogonal pejetions upon te coordinate te re Nithar iM ate tho retanpda omponents of the eee. Hence wo fave U0) 192! ave components in any curdinate sytem of contrazariat eco an ay ae the eeu the fundamental form nth enrdnae gem, te quantity, oars saga of Ue lng of te Uineargmen whose ranger components ae the erasponding Ns in @ taroan cordate yam. nee in any coordinate watem a set of componente 3! fine at ach pat in apace a vector wine length and dition are deternad tir at Prey ne all se what the geomet sigolfcance of he ermpnonts in ay pordinte ater ‘When in parscln, are suc sat a) an =, ste sty thatthe esi i anil seco In his eee the components Mine cartesian astm ate dretion esis ofthe veto teach pt or wo vetor 3 and we lve 03)0 ANGLE BERWREN TWo VECTORS a 1 follows diet when we prosed ss in the case of (161). ‘Thus ‘tatM resi the coneinates ac erent, In wih ce the fompangnte ae dieeton nuaber ths alae be SONAL. Ie any died hy VCE RBIS he eng expo {tm ine athe snl of tet vero Hens we Bae [062] 17 Nand 3 ee the component of tao soatrmariant wes in any inate stn, the angle (2 SD") boven the sore aunt 6) cw 7 Viento) ‘Ae conaiaty we have: 1003) A neesary and mpi condition that at each pin he cone sarint score and be perpen ht te equation 63) sai ‘eon anit in When the vectre3{ and A arenotprpendialr at every polatin apace, that ls, when (103) ls aot an ident, they ase prpendieu at each Pint ft surace whose equation a hoa agi by (163). or an 2evorinate curve di" ~ 0 fort; consequently & fork fiacd and = 1,2, are componente ofthe contravriantHretortangeat tothecarve From (184) wets that the angle ats pint between the fengente tothe 2 and stmordinate curves ven by uit ae Vieuttsonti) Ven enoe we bave {00} tm any cordate apt the eovine of he angle Bozeman anna exe und am 2esordnat are tay pat is egal ote al of Vay the pnt. Mata point au, = Ofori = 15253 andi j, the threo coordinate curves are mutually perpendiela, and vonequonty a Ue pint the ‘aagene plates to the Ue surfaces ace mutually perpendiule. In Iieease we my thatthe oordinate suas through the point see frtogoal ws ane anothar a the point. Ite tation existe every2 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATIS 64 1 ‘sin, wey tha he corn suas frm ply then fly GFeurace Hence we have [185] Phe count surfaces fora gion eordinat stem frm a ply rthgonl gto fsck nly if the ices ou 8 fe fan mena guar fom inthe cornae oem re qual eee ‘Sepp nox that we onside any vartrX and nd the ala whe tan with etch of the wears (060) %%0,0; 0,380; 040,38 ic ae tang vostro the 2 2% and int cvs Sores If dente thse stv tage for = 1, 3 have fom. aaz) fa 00 8 “ Va Since he nats the vector 6) aco Vaux, Vent, Vea {hes of he eto gt oon th ine of the ect si meqeene of 063) anv Vaan hats, Vig AW wih i the ang ofthe vector". ‘his mons that the ween Nata point Pie the diagonal from P of the praliopipat whossides ar the ants ofthe vectors (10). Hence me have [avg Para atacariant sto Xn ay connate system he geometric ‘gions ofthe componente i ta he ah of te ear ae pot P ithe ia ef the prayed chow eps rine ements th Pat ‘a pon, ample Portia eursc ta of Ue rapee ioe Vas Whe he corinate cursos trough pint are taal: perpen cul, che paraelopigrestanaie, btonly Wh the coordinate: ‘re catesan ath gt of eetbogonal projection of He ength of the vec upon the anges tthe ours ron he pnt 1, Whe apn tft pla cont (th moniter form wip hen te1 COVARIANT VECTORS = sow that hy fo HY os lace anayatye = Exit e" 7, COVARIANT VECTORS. CONTRAVARIANT AND COVARIANT COMTONENTS OF 4 VECTOR Given any fnton #2) any cota tm, we base ony oe, shee ie tho transform of he given ffor the tosformation af the 2 Tnurany othe eoneinatn 2 Whes we empane tet ith (510) wae that 2, vecoriatheierepectve cootinate systems, However, they do belong foranew das of funetions and of the and 2" eapetivey (vit Indies ws ubscipts) related thos aay y tnd arnt mgr of emit 1 me he yee tins lated aimless fone by 2 and ume with moet ars) we Thich shows that the mtn is eu vitsshown ta be the ase With contrarian stor (oe ExT)se ‘TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES {Cx, 11 “Two nts of fetions Nand X ofthe xe and 2" at a in (273) speci tote the components in thelr mapeair condita of arian cy, tha bing vector at each pit apace. We obaeree that the idon of eatant veto ave writen su subst wheat for a cntraariant vector thy aro writton ss superset and that the paral devties enter diferent manner in (18.0) and (17-2); It at in exe ese Ue dusny indo applios oon cordate fd th fee index to ite oer. "Ar teased io the eave of ont arian vervry eovatan vetor compo detained by tc ‘ponents in one coordinate ersten, and te eapononte in anyother fytem ave determined hy the shove equations. Alka whenever one ie no mater bow dered, to sete Tunetion nt enatone (072) or (173), me eels that the nly under consideration ie ‘covariant veetge For esample fa (17.1) fell that for any foci os edie Hd he ti with eet to 2 ofthe tanto of fate crments in thir empestve stam fo evariant vector; this eovariant vectorial Ue pad off Hrener we bao INT) The groin of «wari conrad tr 103 end 3 a components ofa contravasant veetae i eoetinate ystare 2 and.r, we bave rom (1410) and (158), oe a ah Be “ee ae, We note dat tee eulons ae of th fom (172, whith bas hat the near combinatime a, of the corpinent af te gen eta variant vector inthe systom, and the linear combination onthe ‘Pasnea ate components in eit Yepective sytem of ¢ covariant weetar Tn this eenae we Bave [172] 173 ae te componente fa contanriant wet, a ee em nets of «earn wee. rom (1416) and (173) we bave aa" ae ae ae ae a ary waa! az) yak Sm an|) CONTRAVARIANT AND COVARIANT COMPONENTS 5 Comping thi seul with (158) we ave LUT 17s and Xa te component of exarion cori tr ee fee corinne spent, ahead a9, are the components i ee eve nylon of «contrarian el ‘Wun we apy his thor to the ovarant sector of companents ‘ap, we have in consequence of (113) haya! = a that ia we obtain the veetor 3 rom wbich the coral vetor was ‘evved in acconanee with thors (17.2). Simiey, i we ae with ‘ coveant vector, find the eorespnding contesvarant veer by tacore 173, and thon fom the eocsponding covariant vector by Ueorem [17.21 we ain the onal vector Th view ofthe sbove rita wer sty that and 2, ar the cota evil aa arian! compete msporivel’ a the ea vector, i are) Aw em, Naat, sithr of whieh sot of equations, # we have seen, imple the ater ‘Wen the encnsta re ertsinn, in whith ent a the coresponding totes and eovtiant components are eal (Gee Ee 6) andar direction ution of he veer a how in B15 Tn eoasequnee of the ret of (18) and (1413) we bate (77) aha, = aa adasat = staat = aya Since th lst of thse quanto i a sears shown in ‘quntty isa cela. Pom thie rt an! theorem [16 [UFl} The epuar of the Length of et en caarian component ce ese equal te salar 0, Ty and gi are the envaiant components of to weet, and Nk fei, thet semestive cantare empancnty by peer ‘iar vo xt wd (12.1) we obtain ars) hae From this real, equation (17-7), and theo (1:2] we have LUT] The angle # 180) ten the vcore a apa of ts tre tse curio component are and a gen by Ah ViF ode ened 16, the iat ] we have ars cone% ‘TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES (Cx. 11 he grmoti signin of he contenant component of wee lor tated in tboorm [G61 Now we drive the ome igi face of the covariant components. Th expsoqumor of the Bt of {17.6} we sy write (187) the form an Vow Yan! sere be ange mic the eto point ake withthe to Shae curve though the pin The efttand manor of (1730) {be igh of the erthogenal yoenton ep the ange othe coors cae ft eg te ester atthe pa ens ware U7.) The omer sigicece ofthe csriant components ofa scor 1 hata oh point Phan he eth ofthe rogonal projection Of the cor wpon the tangent a P tothe ordinal cure rough P I 415 and 16 we introduced the concept of» contrarian vstor uu dative proper uch yetara AL th ging of he prose Section we defo te eoneept fw coverant vector. When one som mrs eustions (15.10) and (17.3) giving th relations Leewoen the empontnt of the to pes of vectors it two coadinae stems ne tsherve that tev are emeatialy dierent and might cone Set the lo veers ar diferent entidea Honevr, it hts heen shown with the aid of ti coef ay of the andarental frm tat the te fates are infact dete, tha isthe doting componente thick have dient goose sgieance ‘Were i ot fr the exec f the frdananta form auc soul be Sompelod 4 tet contrvsiant and arian vectors ‘fron gmeti vnttion ‘Thee are types of grometey in which uc form ocar a pat ofthe theory, and thew gnomes de tintin is made ‘Conier in cnntstion with the shave remark ovaran vector ‘om (172) an (153) fellows anaequene of (18.1) thst dado! = Ade, that i, Ade male, Hence the equation ara nds! = 0 ef the same form in any coordinate sven. Uf and dare 0 sels ferential saving tie equation whieh are ne proportional, ie fotines foe he oiatons Deda =O, rede = 0,87) CONTRAVARIANT AND COVARIANT COMPONENTS §7 And (17.1) that any olin of the attri of the form ts! ada! + nce at cach peint in space evry dreton de! satlyng aqution (OTAL isin the plane determined by the paint andy th dictions and dr Commonly wom hat eovsiant veetor determines ‘plane a each point In ace Te not trap that rsrey esas of the form (1711) adit an ntti acon, that iw neti of he's that (ee Ex. 8) ara) Oude! = de, shaw git some foneion of the 2's. But whi such an Integrating Taotr exists ¢ = const. ean integra ofthe equation, and we have as equivalent to (1713) the equation 8S! <0 ‘hie x Ue condition that ach et of dierent sing the gia equation devominte at pont tang to th surface = cot. through the pin Hence wh the equation (1.11) ads an inte= fring factor the planes detent Ihe seo ae Hh ane ‘lines toa fail of sre ‘pone iow thal we ivoke the ste proper of wpe ba spon the fume form ayaa and tat replace in (1711) by aN otaining yale! = 0 In earsoquoee of there [163] ve have tht he ditions do aati= ‘ying equation (17.1) arepurpendienlato ha vectar Consequently ‘bench pont the gven a the covariant eonpenents of the neal {othe pane determined by hy. When fortermore the easton admits ‘integrating tata, a the eovriantennponents the normal Co the srfacen p= cob. Hence we ve UWE] When a crit sor he gradient of fection oie ome ones are proportional othe compnente of 2 grin, the ctl ones of wear ural to the ufos y = ott Fg Stow tht eqs 07.2) pate he gop pop, ad a4 | asecetun 5TRANSFORMATION OF COOKDINATES [Cm 1 es platy, soa span tbe vector wits 4 for tno ante of queens ie re ae ® 2K = an ser he ty and} fo A= 2, a he componente fe independent ‘esa fon Gc 2th snc ‘culos hl for fone tas tne sont vce OPS Mock, Sete hee nspndet cotati vst (we 5, 3) i ee li a i evan | Sy he Crk macho stam ees om ® fu Ban = ot sthoqoa ret cet ssodtapam ‘Comper eit equaioee GA}. ra gution (712 ae ba A+ gi et co secant hat gto (1.1) al rt 33) TENSORS 0 18 TENSORS, SYMMETRIC AND SKEW SYMMETRIC "TENSORS The aquation (1.10) comectng the solicit of the Fandamental quart fore in wo cootinate stems area the typ i oe as Wile) = nate 26, ‘There is smlty betwen thar enations snd (17.3) in the ase that the indies are serine in oth sans and tht the deiatives (seu in slr manner We sy tt Sonetions sand bof the 2 fd 2s repetively elated ain (181) a2 the components inte repectveeoaninate systems of «coverian lor of te cond order, td that corrint ystr vt covariant ana ofthe fe ode, i ‘el eae the onder belg equ tothe nur of substi, Also we Fefr ta the eerpa fn each care tx carinii. Simla equations (LU) ave of the tye ea rey vote ‘hare tsa slaty between these cytinns and (15.8) in te ase {hot the inion ar spears in both caer ad ht the deiativee eeu inne manner We uy that Cations Und 6 elated in (182) are th components in tht spective coordinate yitans of @ oncmerin! eso ofthe meando, ath entavaranteetor EX coutnarian tensor of the ie order Azo we rf othe mufers serpin each case ne conrvarian is TE snd a are the componente of eontavarlant aud 9 covariant sector repetves follows fren (158) and (17) that fee snail — te ve = 149 9S, Wesay that fanetions and far the component he epective one systems of a mized tenor ofthe sod ender. Te com Bonents have one contruvartnt and one covsrant nde, si 0 we m9 {hat the tasor i entrvarant of the Bat one and eon ofthe fest orien« ‘TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES (Cu, 1 rom (181) we have oot ao yas! ae an oe! casa) ae ae ae ar" an arm = hhh aie man wave em (83) an (83) ads ss a 9, an aso 28 98 y, ‘These ele show the repos character ofthe equntion of tenons ofthe soon one, that all eoordiatenystoms 70098 Equations (178) and (181) are partiaar cae of the eiations : : art act ag ase Wyuoe ba non a as, pene ga the baud stg functions of o's and 2s reapetvey and having me Tudiws (alscps), where m i any pee integer. sand sting thes equations by means af the tsasformation squats are sid tobe the components in the x-\sten and ye respectively ofa arian! ter of hm nd ‘uations (128) and (182) are particular eases ofthe equations ass) » ae" ae aa er ag a the Wend 8s icngfuetions of sand 2's respectively and having Indios (nipenerpe), where mis any postive integer. ‘The b's and W's walang thse yuatons are aad to be the companens in the rays and "ays respectively ofa coraaiand lar of Se mtr. ‘rquatons (188) ace a ytiulae case ofthe equations ae" aes ae a ae ae ae ae the D's and sheng fanetions of 2's and 2"s espetvely and having per no: and mower ins, whee and m are ponte inte ‘The atl a teyng thee equntios area tobe the compan 89) wessis ‘TENSORS o the says and apse rspetvely of «mn fens of oder ‘men conaariant of oder m and srr of oder m ‘Wo’ observe that n each art of equations (187), (88) and (189) the number of mts of pata dvivatves entering in the etion® ie tsp to tacorderaf th toro, ba the way whi they enter depends ‘pon wher the ines are eraser! (eemcrps) of erst (Gabel). Ta the ate of say as dnd in $15, cere age no ch et of dave the ene euation (15.2) whieh expresses the avin of «fonetion and ite tensor. Hence tae called tenor of ort ie "When ne apps to 8 fuser of any onder and type the procenen sed te eblain (18.0), (188), ad (ESO) Cram (1), (182), and (183) resets. one blaine uations whlch are the iver of (18), (088), and (188) repetvely- This shows at the equations giving ‘he eaton between the camo of any tenor i tro oornate artim are rein! charater, and thar that no ene cooninate ‘stem fas a predation nthe deBston af ater. rom the above defmiton of tesa follows that ent may choose subitrarly the earponents ofa tens in oe eodinae sytem, and the the components nay ther corinat yom are determined by (085, (188) oF (ISD) Goes. ). requ in theconsdeaton of ‘rorerie problem oda with premeteo entity and nd that ie {Gnaltin) components in two ceondinalesystoms ae Tale a it (0827), (188) or (18). Thar we ay that we are delg with a tenor orale at th egnning of ts tection we bevel tha atone (Q10) aro the type (18, and so we ny Rat ee coin ofthe fundamental quadratic form are companents of covariant tensor of the second ord, o Diy that cya evant tens ofthe secon frder We rll tthe ceria mete lor, bese ate Ia So, Wentom into dhe dotrmination of ar Teng, magalsuds of vets andot ans, Ta ike manner we il the contrarriant mai tn ‘eeaae uf the linear homogenoais character of atone (187), (085) and (180) andthe inven so have 108.1 1 al he componente of tor are ou to seo inane eine ‘ut, yar sun or in ery so Such a tee called tr tor ‘rom the frm of equations (187), (188) and (18) it elear shat thorelade dor (poten) of te naoeplays alein Ue eaten Tay be, however tht inthe eae af etal Leo when to eae ‘arant (or covariant) indies ar intra the ew component fe© [TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES [Cx 11 ‘cual to the original one. In tis eae the relative order of these Parone inom ix inmates. From the Torm of egastons (187), {Gs8) and (189) 1 flows that if ein x tee for eran nos in one ‘untinale sytem ith tue for the orreponding indies every Ste Foe example, supp hat aan ae = By GS) we ave as" as! mio a png # a (810) = Bipot When the native ander of out moe indice i rath we any atthe tensor is symmetric with reset to Cet sad, When the relative ger fl he oe ema the teal to be Syma tomar. ‘Thy the mie toy and aw yieatrie Terao A general tener ofthe ses onder, wether ceva oF ‘ovat, bar 9 dierent evtiponents, whee aye tenor hae ‘aly 6 diferent components ‘When fora tonne smponents ots frm ape anther bythe intecinnge of two parila indies ther vatravarant o ovata, Afro nse, the terse i oid to be sew sym wih ego ‘et nde, tan be shown that if 8 tense sew symm fn ny two indios in one connate syst, has this property In every fystems For empl, the tons by skew-symetie inthe frst to indo we ave (18:10) with ius signa the second and third mecaere of thew eqiatons When tenon, whether conta ‘vadant or covariate ssw-aymmetie with ropes 0 every Plt of Indios, iti ala sw nym a "From equation (1412) and We defition of» salar in $81 flows that eienot scalar When ane hie tw fetone Wand bof the 2 sd rami that weer = wes) te sy that bisa ratte sala of weight pT the determinant fe components eof the covariant metre tensorial ealar ‘f weight and rom (14.15) and (1412) flows tat the determinant ofthe coatrwvarane mute tor je relative scalar of welehe 2 A relative salar of weight i ald wear deny Tinsinlar manner thes ad 2s are ach tha ised of equations yas? (282, (188) and (482, we Dave equations with the tutor | 25” ieJN) SYMMETRIC AND SKEW.SYMMETRIC TENSORS 68 the sight-tand marmbers ofthe equations, west tht the 2 a Bis fr the compound epi cana cytes nl of taste Dat of mle umsore of weight p of the order ad type determined by the characte of thine. Tn consequence of (18 18) and the above ization concen the reeproal charter of equations (1827), (188) and (180) alow hat the responding equations or lative fengors are repre or tfrnton af exerts or wih the ct | cc ve~vild| 1 the acai ia ncgatve, by a ange of te sig in ne ofthe equn- tions af the transformation the rnultingjacbia is patie, Hence there Iso les generat in undertcding that equation (1811) Ils ‘Thus v/a salar deity. From (18.1) abd the dfaition ci lative tenors we ae (18.2) 17 KET oe Be component of rat towne of wiht», Bo "g/a!”ar componente of tenor thes cy = oh whe 9 aaa nee “tu-aymmatec tenor al the compocenls having two, oF mere, ‘ea ah eoaveradyy I bypit = for an astary acon by 1. Sipen ae |95| = rset ewe rotoro TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES (Cn. IE ‘Meter hen anon) genie lcriast {Bye compat fai aeatnea toe at strata yet and gen eign, stat Se sotctr oy 1, ADDITION, SUBTRACTION AND MULTIPLICATION OF "TENSORS, “CONTRACTION, From the form of equations (187), (188) and (18.9) i fallow that ‘the atmo diferente Coors of the sume type and order fo 8 temo of the same type an eeder ‘The same ie tru of any Bonar homogeneous combinti f tonne ofthe sane type and ort, The fcents ing eoptate of salar Te take to tensors of any type and onder, and form all poste products ofa component of ene tensor ands compoaeat of the othr, Ire ein a lenaorwhoee cde shen of he cnr he wo given tensors "The numberof contravatant, of covariant, indies oul to tho sr ofthe numbers of eontavarant, oF covariant, indies of the five teens, or empl, ne have fem (189) wy wee sud thus We are components of a mun tensor of ono 5, cont ‘avant of onder Sand covariant of order 2. This proces is peer, 50 bat hy multiplying the compoocats of any nut of tence we ota osu eld the prada! o lr prt ofthe es tenor bleh eomtmvarant aad vovariat of une wish rth rxpotve a> ‘the cotravasiant and covariant odor ofthe tenor ltd, Another procs fr obalning tensor from a given Tens, oF 8 product a fore, called contution. We have geod this poss it btainng the penit components ax conlsena vector in ea Vins (74). Tus the product ni of the mete tensor ay ad he ‘stor Smad tensor af the think one, contenant of tho Sst9) coxreactioy 6 ‘onde andcovariant of the second onde, Each quantity A of thi eso for parla vate oj ithe sm of ehive components ofthis ‘nixed tetor, and from (7-4) follows tht thse quanti ae om Ponent of«covarint veer hat by the summation of ne eontae avian and ve csiant Sno ee ive obtains toner of order 2 ice the contravaial nnd covariant oder bing each One le that forthe orginal tenor. "This por Sealed concn, It api toto any mized tensor, and we have 1.1) By te canrction of ey cotaariant (dor wth ay cwariant Sher here stained @ et of oder one contrat aoe le For ample, Joy og A Be 88 al 0 18 = We Sat ae a 32 Ba 02) se on ast (ihe ae ae ‘When a pantilr contention i api to the produto xo ens ‘he ting ter eld a sae ptf the we tenors “The proses of contraction maybe applied in more than ene way, ‘aad eave Than once, "Th fata (103) me have, nae, When, in pariuae, we apply contin twie to the product tensor ‘unh e obtain the sean 9,9 whieh by hearer [1] the square ‘fh jonah of the vretor N Thi in artis ex ofthe fllowing "core, which is eonsequene of thor [18 11921 When ax th re ofcontation of one mare pie of inne Phere romain wo fre ins, te reming quantity fe a ear. An apleation of contraction, which i ured frequent in tensor eae cule what reall lnewingeontravaran nex by mene of te Covarant mete tensor ae eving = sovarint Index by rican af Sbocontravarant mete usr a ‘his rocas was ubed in obtaining Use covariant component ofthe vetor Xan the eantraveriant come Donen of tie weer In eazeying out ths prose i ix empertant6 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATER (Ca, 1 ‘hat the potion ofthe index affected ot ambiguous. Ror example, sn have the flowing tenors dvd fom the teat bye Ba maths oA aly: bil abe 003) eee Wem aby UP = lain: UO = alain 1 dinar manner we lave BA = aah; bat = aati; hay = ead We remark that this poo is reversible. Thus om the Ek of (093) weave ota hic the tntr fren whieh was bine, A tne in order to inzate the poston fre which an indo bas ‘ban rae or Towered dot I plated tie orga pono of the index; ths theft of (108) would Uy the poniion of an index: Tnstend of rfering to the quantities Be, hs ana", in a0) 1s diferent tensors, we shal sty thatthe quantiles of each set are @ fet of componente ofthe sme tener. Any set of components deter ‘ics the tens, but in diene maneersecording to th eharacter of thins at wae see in 7 tobe the ace wih the untrvarant ful eoacant components of x vector, Whun we apply thie pre to {he tener Swe obtain ey = thet = a, nd henco we relat to ay and 0 atthe covariant and cantavarant Porponent respectvly of the mete tengo Tet now Bj and 62 be fonctions of and x epetvey, suc cat fax and BEY" are compavont inthe respective corinne nes (of tensor and and eorpmonts of» eoneaatiant vector.” From this hyputbeae t faiows that 122 ae a ae gra ogy! S22 2 98 0 aia 2B tet = Hea SoBe that aetav" ae ae a (sxe — 1 these quatone hold for every coutavarant vector Xan eons cusnty for any thee ledepndeat vette quality ix partessi contraction o ‘sequal to 2, and hence aoa mined tenor ofthe ith onder. By sma argument we have U0] 1 a of fection and Ef and rere fre awch tht 3 cA for any 9s ad re ompents of ino, Gre X and Noe empanen fo ara ter in thee renee wordt, thon Te give futons ar come ane of a toon. A simiarthecrr olde if is replaced by any nity tensor, nd s covaiaao eontraariant, index is cottatad with a contrarian, ‘or ovarian, indo of Hevea anetione. Inde, i fee to take 1 tear whic i th prot of dati! arbitrary vector in which fase the rot follows Uy eepested appieton af Tore 193. ‘hie He omette called the quote Taw of tener 1. Su hat ons he ny Mat hd + Hu bd secre nso a the met of Santen ener of Uh road ane by ap ee ns a St 8. 110.09 car ora an abitayeontavariant wen then hu a rier wy vm nd oy te. TESS Sepa ea a 0 he ed ‘Steamer hee sega, “emu e wnS ‘cumgonny hr eran ae th romp ef» eran nie ede wc teat pcdt oh at ty 8B)8 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES [Cs tL 20, THE CHRISTOFFE SYMBOLS. THE RIEMANN TENSOR [A mes equations involving th Sit derivatives of the eemponente of the mete tor ae given simpler farm by mean ofthe flowing ‘be aun visa Ye = 8 wa) i) =e ‘were tat frm Ur dation fi 8] and (4) ae symm in # andj. The symbole dined by 2.1) and 202) are ele the Chis {gel mbsf the fot and seo kind resectively.* We ow derive ‘equations involrngthag sybols whieh a of frequent. "From (202) and (14.13), namely oo van hs ne ms a(n im fn 20. we ae os tan ign etei ‘Doratiting (203) with reapeet to 2, we have aa atte wo, = Maltiying by @ summing with spect to A and aubstatng fem (203), weave Pa 28 ya Pa wm ag 208 PH , ‘rom which we have, in consequence of 20.2), mo else) fais cao0) ‘Tu CHRISToRTEL sYUBOLS * 1 we danoto by A the efter of yb the deterainant = a] snd Spply to this deteminast the ale forthe diferatintion of 0 ‘eterna, we Be 20 80 ch BO ae ge Aes ‘the It expression beng a comaguene of (114). Prom thie rent sand 205) we have B= a B= a+ d= 2h, steamy oan “a -{ hoo sine i is repeated the summation coventin applic that i Uh righ-hard member i he aut of tn stato | Das ies flan occur is expan svolving Chisel eymble We ow fd the relation hatween the Chal symbol of the ‘son kind ino etorlinat sates, Te this end we diesen ‘ch respect to 2" the equione = eee ee (2am) Sa BF B88 + a (Batt + Baten) FR i esate init clot oe bee +a(Siskon+ Baty): ee te- BEBE o( *) Be ie nee oe tere ro 10 net =n Me ‘where [nH formed wih ees to tenor of a)10 THANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES {Cs. It rom (1410) we have wre gute eS we pulpy theat- and rghe-iand member of equation (2010) by 07 22, and 22 rapelvly, and aun with epee to 7, We haven oF and conquest 02) Lys Malt SE Et ag = can fe) aha ha 1 the tlle whieh we se oat to abt. On comping (2110) aad Got) with (187), (188) and (189), we ee that eter i WH aor (8 ae components of «tn Ge BS. 1 forest equation (3.1) with respect to 2", and subtract tee neng aan nn od aero mene the lade and, se = (by -AYE w Ghat ‘reasons fom eine of the fora (3.1), me obtain te! oe at (oy) Ra, tooo SAB) fh -C) eo Ra 8eo “THE RIEMANN TENSOR tor (Cbeing dummy index indian suruston), al where Rpg isthe Sina expression inthe Cis symbol forte with epee oy 1 equations (2112) be multe by °2 and summed with nepeet toh, we have ae ae ad an es ee ‘rom the form of thse equations it follows that which are called iemonn symbols of he scond kind, re the eompanents of tensor fmstavarians ofthe fe ort and ovarian ofthe third ode (oe (089), Te is ead the Revmann lnsr ofthe four onder Bom (2115) felons ae Uke temor te akewyemetee iste nde j and "The quantities Kg wih ae deine by us a = tale, R= Oa ae clledRiomann ey ofthe St ind, ‘They ae the componate ‘the Rian tao with all foo nies covariant When the coordinate aysem carta he sufi ofbe funda venta form ate cnstanie, namely. Th thi ease the Chisel ‘ombols of either Kind re ero, a follows frm (20.1) and (20.9, From (20.13) eos hat a ths es he compeneto the ath tenor are egal to tro, ad by then (81) thet the eompenane te aro in every coordinate apse. Hence we hav om Fe 2 an [Bot] The Riemann tor of euoan Beep i a 270 fen ‘This dows not man thatthe Christel symbols in any connate sytem ar anal ate, tt tat the nein (3.1) of Hew erm fe ogy to W gy any smote covariant tonaor such tat the determinant ¢ of ga ct soo, that, nin) em lal #0, ‘quanto ane died uniquely by ery ene As in the cave of in $24 ca show at gS sy mmeie ca ‘eavaran tener ‘Silat to (3.1) atl (20.2) we can define Chistotel symbols by nan of und gn wich car tw dvb tins to te teM2 TRANSFORMATION GF COORDINATES — [cH ), taindoatsthisfact. Likewise a Riemann tengo arma ofthese sfnbol an bo defined by (20.18). Oni the Riemann tensor dined i nota ro tenor (so $28) ane, ( {Shewesrman oo mae dana nf af wa(21) PRESET FORMULAS IN GENERAL COORDINATES 100 eet pte w Yo o 2s =~ Raw ® Ran + Rt hy = = ae rete fe 4 nea : GO) Ge A (fh ‘ 7 eto “ith coordinates 2 ar cartesian and ar any goer eontinats, ‘eustons (20.1) Beeome ean 72 .4(9 aeraee es, 2, a10¢ TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES (Cu. It si ag i oe ee he Christal symbos {1 ao al or, foo) wea Wo conser now acre with th equations 2" = F(, Wha thee ‘xprosions ae substituted inthe uations = g(a", 2, 2°) ee sting the tre sets of eontietn "and = wo Obtain estos th can re of ed The dain ae gen ae ae aot (212) = from whidh i in een chat ae the component ofthe cotzavasiant ‘vector whose components in eatin evrtinats 2 are dion mba fhe tanga he eve. Dieting sin (2.2) Sth eee fe hve C2 Se alae ae dat a0 ae a a ae a “6 amen omy bn tom (lao de! at Ge oe ae aay fe! Sif rain sett thst am, ay by gt ae fm he ann of (3, amt £4 By ete comegsny om coon this le th (80 an (sy, ne have RF «is oof ota er +15) 5 9 are componnt of otranvan er, maning a ony Soda pm he components hae tif 1 th areas th params we Bae fom (21.2) and (8.2) wi ay = S whore a ace cmponsats in the 2” ofthe diyetin erin of the nett the give ure, ad connguatly of he nit Wetor tage(a1) PRENET PORMULAS IN 61 RAL COORDINATES 105 to the curve, From equations (21.4) and (15.10) i fellows ha tse ty . ae sy oe arp the cuntravarant component nthe x's of the wat veto tangent tothe curvy. ‘This el Is kenping mith the observation (15 that when cardhcenstom arena the eontavarant components ‘cunt ctr are dirston coins ofthe vector. According i 9" td 7 ae diction easins ofthe pina! oma and binoroal of « rv defined in catisan evontnatn 2, that i Unc contravarant tomponents i hos ordinates, the rontewrariat component tse respective alt vot in any coat aye 2 ary gle By an ee, yaar Dace ent 2 ae an gee, wha the euretare of the curve any eoortinats 2 in conse ‘que of (2) sud (2.7) we hase fom (213) ae feat at | te Taf te de teh nf 2.8) my Be ten as ae Lat = at me foe equtons (21.6) with rspet to and make use tye Frene foxmals (1) and utes (21) sl (0), we aban P heyy gt teat Bane OH ar te stn =~ aie ~ {ieee faethe Rete oo Wok108 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES —{Cx. tT rom thee reused (28) we Bare (212) When o exoo ie dnd én terme of poneralenrdinate 2 he rent formulas or 4 (sheet ot on Eelied | dt 2 [et ow, i Sociicyereremsicratdet re tate spi A ewe ern ating ey inca Cone ow the euation of atin i tan Zone 2 net ay ie ie ts ui nase min ld foetal VP iran ithe tht in foe eoint in chad mobs Sainte arth resins ie Theo ll ml ym inate they ascent omponmte soso Coca {Mesgnch note i wel orn mo peer ot ‘at meni oe i iw at =a 499, au) = 7 pondinaten gece mn a(tes(ee)- (G+ (eaeed sve te eamponents of sontamatant veel. From (2-10) we bave {hat the components of this veto a earvasaneoordnas are ol ieey COVAIIANT DIFFERENTIATION 7 1 pare, and consuenty they are equal tose in any condinate system, ant one obtains (211) in any coats rtm, ‘en we pennsays 1) a eB Bx 8) fE-G@)-o@)] [EEE nome(Y] [Ebest not 21) a napontn of comoaront enor spin cave 0), ® eles 2 COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION 3 teen iw te ht te dt a, aia aint eat SiS crates tnt SEns Specter an cee Secon eee aeeceas Seholratc irenente ear oui tat cea ae tite wh mae hea ea ved, i ht fates a (2) Ge on ae we at10 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES — [Om KL 1 cnsaqucnce of (20.1) the righthand member af thie uation ie ‘ual to te Lavan" n} de ~ ahaa] ar{ey eer Nee Hoos equation 222) may be written Consequently, f we define by a weet (ih, sand slaty X equation 28) in ayo we Heep by (180) 5, and, ae the component in their repoctive ‘nate nites of a mid tear of the sowed order. We ay That the component, abla rota the ontravarngt vetor NT covariant diferent wit rapt 0 ve diferente the quntions bong, Re ene en Keon se ea nent a(t ud sty fry Conant daze cumpanents a covariant tama ofthe soa order sbi si to be bene fr the ran relor 8h covariant diferetitionsey COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION 19 (Consider ext the eovaran tnsr by and diferente with respect toa" the equations en Ue by Maing we of equations ofthe form (20.1), we obtain Seo Mab meae [IE (Ge) had Bet BGs ey na Beng h orf ~ sft} Se ate ay tan tnt} a(t tnt td et ston a at SARE eat ene, i we pat cao) aoa noni st 0) Ham Bre wih—w (hh re misad tensors of the third onder, which we aay are obtained yr ovasant dierent, BY refering to (22.4, (25), (228), (228) and 2210), one observer thc in evar ese covariant diferention is indented by «covariant inde prone by senna; Sat each exsion contin the dra Uo of the urinal two with epost to ware ie Hind and10 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES [4 tL tat copending to end eontnvarant index there ig adda «term lnvotring a Chuistdfelsymbal and corespandiag to each covariant inde there ie abeacted such «term, All of thveexprosions are ‘partial exe of th followin ger ule for ovarian ilerentiaton 35 Emma (a = "Possess (). ‘Wie oguntions (20.5) are writton in the form can 7 — aft} ton, eset 25) at em eum ‘oe tn.) a pad wth 22, wee ta ean enna By 8K Aa tec tne 210) dori eis) Bean. Hones we have [BB] The tomors a, and bluse e utes i erin ier tiation. When the Chisttelaymbas are rad with respect to any tenor 4 sach that the determina g x 0, tho bore Raul exncening ovarian difceentation totd ually wel ‘However, i advise in sch a ease to us the frm eovnrian deeiation based pon ts ‘Two we ahold may thatthe rns of the Bt pare of this ston involve diferestiton based upon the music tensor ay, of sac. Shice we sal have onson Inter Louse covariant ferentiation 101 ‘based por the mare esr of pea, I dread in wat fl owe Ut we are dang with properdes of covariant diferentiation sed upon a genera tensor g rom the for of eqiations 22.11) i flows dat che covariant ervative of the nm, difereogs, of two tenor of tho sae ort fd type sequal vo the sam, dean, ofthe courant destinsay COVAIIANT DIFFERENTIATION a of the two tensors, We otider next the soatint. devvaive of the Prod of wo temas and in ptr the flog taeda = ue) etal h} toa A}) oilers eer ( tj) eta the we the ane athe ae for ora erent «rd Since a tor Ford by mallpeation and contention ist products, we bave in parle ai icra = Cin + but ne ‘The rests for thew particular enssiwstrate the flowing general theorem: (2021 Corian diferntiton of thr wo, irene, onter ond ner roe f tor ates the sane rules a ontnary erento 216) I we difereatiate covariant the tensor Ny dnd by (26), wo ave (GA) -Ce- BD) (8-8 a EGS) =f (ANG) un caw a (2) ~ a (Ge): is nesters ve nd in gene (221) byoonettBronnst = EE byonebanrllt12 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES (Cw. 1 has far we have boon dealing wit exvait tenors, We shall ow find the euteponding rn frconeavaian and ved tvs Tistend of procs det todo so we make tne ofthe fast that 5's, ~ O by a angumant sina to that which led to There [223 “Th, considering Nav the contrarian componente of the cor arian votar Ay te hate Nas @'Ma= da rom this elt, 2219), and (3018) we have Nae May = aden = Rua) = pal Ran = p'N"Rare rom enatons i) of §20 7 and thewand set of (2.15), we have ORs = ain = Raa Consaquntly azn) Ma Silty it en be sow that Og May = Oa = Frum multe of this typ and (22.21) we have the following general formulas Mas =A. (29) 5 ‘he equations (2.18) to (22.2) ae known a Rie ints afer les to whom hey are di" Tom the manner In wish tions (22.10) mere deve tows that, whe thee said, agen (2.18) fallow.” Stace smar ‘ec follow Sr equations (2229)(20.25), we bave that when oor ‘an dftestisson i won, Hie dentin Take tho place ofthe dna condone of integabty, that Ut equations nich 9 (218) ar sti (ee 2) "Altai the tensor clei a developed thas far has Bee i ers othe enrintes the rst apy fn geera to any numb of Cvordinater Tn the fruiting trotters the tear call Is ‘lied inthe eae of two soordinaton In Ganeral Relay 3cy COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION 13 pple to spaces of four dimensions. 1s use i fudamantal in Rie ‘nian Gennatey of dinero” aed Riven. travian at a a at fh nto of ites mr tt cee 83 ® a= Eehes Lapa prune pla corte Cee eee eel + tht geen th han etae BB nae Gaia aT GR Me 8he TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES — [0 1 ‘8, SYSTEMS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF ‘THE FIRST ORDER, MIXED SYSTEMS Tn thisscton we does Ue existence of slain of cert epson ‘fart diferent equations of the fst order of the kind whieh fue in Various geomet probioms; that i, whatber thre exit Tunc- tions ofthe independant Yarsbes which say the equations idon- ia (Consider the system of equations en oe ‘where they arefunedons ofthe sand tho 2s. Teis understood dns the folowing treatment appli toa domain ip which the fesetone ‘arocontinuous ad avo continuous darvasiver up to the ores entering inthe trntment.untons (23.2) are equivalent t0 the apse of (il deretial equations 2) ae = ot as, tu i ocen bon equations (23.2) are writen (8 n)aeo, snk oil ha qt el rei fe wena! Sng cain 8.) wih re =! nih st i i Ey Sages Bo Sh si Beat aot ye asa 7 oe te Sins the Iefhand member of thew equations ie ymanetele in nd it follows that the righthand member mont be equ othe expres obtained from tom interchanging Saad, that It necomary st the fnetone yf be such shat by coy MM My (BT) “The exons nosed upon the fonetions 4 by equations (2.3) re fated eniitone ef ine of equations CB.1), saening a ‘custone (21) ae to admit solutions, thar equations C3) arePARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL FQUATIONS 118, ents in 6" and 2 oF thre are maton tatwoa thse quae ‘hich must be satis by tobe slutions ofthe system (25:1. ‘When equations (233) aro Hits inthe ¢” ad 2" che wat i ssid tobe campy ntl, otto bes compte ptm. With rgd o muchapreme Dash” has stabished the them (23:1) A compete srom of equations (28.1) adil oe and ony one st af eltons ch that for xbvary ial sen fh the fantions OF rl to ehivary conta We conser next the case when equations 23) ae nt dentin in the Pu andthe 2 and ree to therm tx te at of equations Eee fm of hese equations, sy y= 0, -=- yy = 0, are independent, ‘hat he Jaana he wit eps to thes ivotHentlly ero, then eatin be ave forthe 9 a fusions ofthe od the slat of tee equation is unique Shen any oer ofthe er Fn indpends ofthe ave equations, and the exprestia forthe = arcnubttat this oqustice, thee resis aration tte the 22, whichis coneary ta the bypobas tat the =v are independent ‘Conmquely, if there ae more than m independent equations inthe st equa (231) donot adit lun, If hee ar exaily ‘mien eqatons # =, we diferente each of ‘har eatin with rmpect to =" 2, thon obtain mete er and in tom aubsttate or the dsvaivnc he Phe exes #8 from (23.1)! thse equations are sso Hentially wher the Ueltions of tho oquatonsg~ 0, sp" =O aresulnGuatd, then comms a scat of equations 283), an the ly solutin. TE the equations ate ot sais etna, equates (24) do not have asain the runs of independent entation inthe et Bs than m, ‘wiflerentate the independent ones nh rep othe le Fou (forthe derensver ofthe Ps ad dete the roiling rt of eoaury conitons by BI he number af fodepecdsn eqns Ith ace By and Fe greser that, hee Bn hon fetes {Bk}, an shown by the antment tod above tthe umber sm by tbe prom diserbed ave we deeonine wth thre naan {ich unique) or ot. hs ner ea than, weft Ae equations of the st Bs, subattte from (281) and dete the ening st of ution by Proeeding in tht anaer we get a sequence of sete of eqns 4 1 28 |118 TRANSFORMATION OF CuoRDINATES {Cx 1 1 al of te equates of one of chess wt arent equivalent to equa tions uf the preceding set, the st intrduces at ast ope addons) oditan upon the &. Cagsequnty if eqution (23. ar to adit ‘olution, there mut bea pe integer auch tat the equations of {he (1) act ae ated bros of the equations of the peal 1st; lberwse more than o independent nquaions woud be abe (sino, and thus there weld bea relation betwen the = Morea, fromthe sbove argue falas tat Nm ‘Suppose thn tat therein number (3m such tha he equations oe ta es) Brad ‘are consent at that cach of the sete intaduses one or more ound {ions ups the#s odependent of the eondiionsimpowed by the equa ‘Ge of the prsoding sts, sn hat al ofthe equations ofthe et as) Baw rosie in omsoguenoo the equations of theses (284). Sappase fat there ae pm) independent conditions imped by (2.1), any Gi;2) = Oter) "hen sence the Un eens tates ‘tthe Os with rqpt to the @s of rank pth p< mat leet ‘ve ofthe deteniian= of oder po Che matt wo dei tr, tnd eonsoquroiy the equations, ~ 0 ean be sla fr atlas one Seto p of the 8 ax funetiue of the romaising 9 ad eT 2p =m, equations 6 0 ean be sled for the Bi erm ofthe 2s abd thos #8 are a sult of equations (25.1), ee bay ath ‘he eating of the ote (2,0) and 25). ‘We onside gow the ease when p< m._ By stable weoumborng the 6, Hf necemary, the entnn Gy 0 tan be sue fa 820 a whic sol wo wate a follow wo =e Mow . rum thee equations we have by diferetinton weg =P tea. placing the derivatives of the fe by mane of (2.1), we have ean nen