LEARNING TO = LOOK 4 handbook for the Visual Ares SECOND EDITION By JOSHUA C. TAYLOR @1. AN ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF ART “hat st" or “What sit about ™ we hear peopl asking inthe pire sl- lee. No matter how “advanced” our vows, the subject mater of «plating fof piece of sulptue alvays in some measure engages our ateton, even ‘hough is only igh suggest. Tc, oo offen tix wit the recgniton of he subject mater that ur ensderation of the work tops. Although io stop tere would be eeetabl, the question "What ist?" is ot neces a i> petnet on, since the rsogition of objects and incidents usualy an impor tant nsrosient in heats experience. Much history of at is concerned with the rearieaton of jet mate that has become obscure with ime. But such anundentancing remain only one ingredient it's ot suet ilo char ‘eerie the particule quality of «work of art I were, «verbal desertion ‘oul be the exact equlen of «pining Clearly thre are ote ose in = tion, ating our experience and eontibtng tthe specie meaning ofthe ‘work. These forces ar visual and belong aproprinly to the visual aris. But thw cum the visual asec of pining in sf have meaning? This ithe base ‘gusto fo dacs in his chapter To hep fom confesing what we arma cll he subject mati of work— the identifiable objets, inden 7 s4F26Ne outside experenes hat Ne FS ‘ognize withthe more complete speaking asi were, the par for the whole Fimight be stu to ape the erm expressive content” to describe hat unique fasion ofsutjest mater and pei il frm wih characteris the ate Tae work ofa “Subject mae," theo, would be the objets andincensepe= sented; “expensive content” would refer othe combined efx of suet maletera visa form, This athe complicated relationship might become caret ine eto compat Iwo patings of precy the same sujet mtr, even ominaly ofthe same arrangement, which yet provide very dient exper coves two paitings which have, in oer words, the sme subject mater but ‘ey leet expresive contents ne Cracinion with Sins” (Plate pated by he Hala ist Perino tat nthe fieenth century, resent subject that is hardly newt The very mention ofthe tiles sufcentto evoke many feng based on past epesea- Hom we uve seen o on general ates owatd the event ie. But Pergio's lntng does mot simply pose a sujet to which can be tached any numberof {iret emotional connotations; would sem to quell te possible anguish ovat of suring which gt be aaoitd with the scene and to xis ‘erect and eal, compete relation othe emotional and phys! foees ‘eich might be expected Yo operate in connection with such sujet. Perupino fas tone resend subject anda statement about Me hs made we in 1 perilat way about the Cris, in a way we may not before hve con idee, tscad of being jos the repetition fa air subject the panting = ‘Sou the, he basis fnew expres Sines the particular ebarase of his fw expense seems not oe the neviable produc othe subj it behooves tei we wish to deus th pci power of the palting to discover on what ‘pends wha produces the effet of el, of lipid clarity, an atmosphere in ‘nich contemplation aks the pls of phys! violence For this we mistook ‘to the vr forms ofthe painting isl. So astantanously doe panting ee to produce its effet thats toseatate the steps by which th ets achieved and it mst be dite that tchasepuraton ivan arbitrary ove. Nonetheless, tay lead vs paste simple Tevet subject-matter wena tothe particular character weassoite with this pining, character inseparable fom ur visa expen. “To bein on quitters level tis painting shows ws, na landscape that secs to extend at eased pace dite ito depth, two figures standing on ‘Se side of the Cros upon which aed the igure of Christ, The vista seems Calm, progressing thravgh the repetition of gently eurved horizot} Hines ug (Btng ers of planes which overlap and repeat acheter. Incomes the ‘Compact, vertical forms afte figure seem somewat Koad, We lok fromm the figure of St ob onthe gt to Christo the Virgin, ao ack gin and Joc a9acy OF Te WORE OF ART 53 eth eight te pron ol ak pyc cont with oe thor ach rhe pntng,ianape rne fee em ke ‘pce ins ed harmony sds eet mn ke atte coniria on er yore monet cbr sritoccnhectm tte orks ml and he egy spe ply oh ti wcll iat oy wheter unger ol ines tang two toa Te meso et pelo ope 8 Sino qaqa iw eel rs han pea these iw inst oat ee ncar A nd otter ters tit gee ih conaing th oo tod bres ra bt bone Bar peer poe nog er ateton hansen toe tt ih ee Sem Dens of hema of rn hh etd, el in inprame te Ben elo Re ot yal, ty ete Inala bt dt an neomptned cy hie ling nd teu, Both sine of basa these one ay Seto studying cat on pe 0 wich he at ee Colona pina iin prt tech oer and aso ety peat tat fetter Taso provoke det extn ue we cont eat west i eves: we, el Hah Aa of nk hrc Ha! rag rd eo onto he ter so hat th sem occa heir sos a2 Ye eum ior wuld ion oe toa Se‘ery idee Instead thee ean equim of huts ust a theresa mare ‘laity ia the dtineton of oe he fom another, and helium and cla lity are part of our experience ofthe ating ‘Color, however, does more than simply characterize general the emotional climate ofthe work. The hues ocur i diferent relationships, sometimes red ‘exo yllow, sometimes ed nex 0 Be, and inthe background theres kd of sequence ranging from yellow through green into bbe. Thos relationships remade more comple nd varie, by the modi ofthe us nih abd ar, this ia wl ann saturation, Not for example the diferencias ‘ten the hy, the tunis of St. Joh, andthe robe ofthe Virgin, Corer fora ‘moment the ed robe of St.John with pie f dak paper. Not ony he hey ofthe paaing asl change, bt the pres no loner bea he sate elation to eachother. laszadof eu e's going ist the Sse of St.John and then tng othe Sesre of Chri, we sein at once upon the figute of Chest which ses forward, losing al cntat withthe lower part of tbe ping. Tis not {hss compostionalarition hut dramatic change inthe way weed about the Painting. in isexpresive content Further, not the dssbutio of iu aye Jo. The blu ofthe sky is catied though the lower porn ofthe pining in the tunic of St, Jha, in which itis sgl changed, andi the robe of he Vi 2 in hich is ery low in value and sturaton. The yellow follows a moce complex scheme lo the landsape itis broken up st contrasting areas of it and dirk that become les marked a the yellow fuses with he paca to merae imperceptibly nto the se. But thi complexity prepares ur forthe dramatic Appearance above of Crist whose ody the yellow ised to conta inp and elogesy with the rival i, From this Kind of study we might dra some sera conssons. Our ey tends to relate similar colors, Further, suong contrast, whether of bu oof valu, tendo tract ur attention immediately, while gradual changes seem 19 lead ts progressively Troms one sep to the ext. In this way ur eye ser 19 rove about the painting rom clo 10 col, fom ont of pete to pints of ese contrast or through marked squeres, following ptr which may ‘vary wth egad to poi of rigin or eoncetation bat notin expressive cha The nature ofthis pater, sensed as we shit our tention rom one pat of ‘the paitng to another, should be considered with eae sine, sin ou ese, ‘much fling canbe conveyed inthe experience of movement. AS We noted, our tention unites ciety three points: the figures ofthe Virgin and St. Jom and the figure of Chis. Were neo dagrar th lationship it might ok ike his: low temendouly extended the veri movement seems While the Crow vies the punting ito halves that are about equal in their atracionoeolo and ‘contrat affording the measured eet of symmetry the vertical movement 50 Instat that we eannot ings foc any tine om the horizontals of the landscape stich cu across the plating and attempt to la us plane by ple into depth. ‘Yet thes horizontals, especialy the starkly fined bar of the Cross withthe Ip of the cotrasing nsription above the head of Crt, Hold the verte! ‘movement in check 9 that again we sense equilibrium rather than a eamic conioly of fore. The importance to this aspect ofthe organization the fnsrption assumes by virtue of valecortrast and shape canbe tested by ovetngit with a piece of dark paper. That so much should depend ons all Aancleneatisindicaive of the diac of talance which diningushes thi pint Ing. dsicaey encouraging us to compae part with part and ejoy he jastass of proportion. To large exert, the relationships ve have just observed ae de Penden on our perception flit that ste comity of decor. Each gure ‘ems to contin within ie a vera ine contanting with he hoon ine ftandcape and other kments, Moreover, digooal espe by ox sit Jnatemon rather than being explicit in any frm sce to go for the head | St John to that of Crist, then down to Mary to become & part of great ‘longated diamond shape completed by the sugestion of the wo wedges the oot of te Cros. would be meanings to point out sucha shape exept that56 usasno 101008 In this ast symmetry gives new reson forthe sese of tabity and balance ‘ve derive rom the painting. ‘Our consciouses of particular proportion, 2 sens of measure, which de- ‘exmines our movement hough the Ire strctra lines of he palaig is de- petdent on great many factors. For etal, consider he shape of he pine {ng asa whole, Iti comideraby ler tha tis road, though not otal ato minimize completely the measurement of width. This sinportan, since the framing shape gules the elt of every form crested within i. Suppoe the ‘construction ies emained the sane But mee coaaied within ileen for Each of th shemss would be quite posible, but the eet af he pctars, (her expenive content, would be very silent. Scale ao plays its prt We quskly take at a module, a6 had of mesure, some Senile object or simply astrogly marked form, and judge the rest ofthe space in compaion iit Nt onl are we brought los too ef far om the subject, bt we can fee oumales ot in avast xpunse oF play crowded in a coal space. x Ul ut to charsterz the pln simpy throught precise adjustment of vert and horizontal sractral ines within the determine format would bet i= ‘ore mucho particular elo. Although the figure of St.John may count Jo axatys8 OFTHE WORE OF AF 57 roughly a verti movement with eard tothe whole itembodies in tour and implied terior ines hychaeal movements tht not ony ge care ‘ace tothe fgare but ring it into a hmony with eter fens isthe par, In the vary simples terms these might be seen as atened, drawa-out curves hich inhemseies sem to produce the eet of so, co-ordinated movement, "Note how smi lines, sometimes depending on cotrsting contours, some- tines seaming tobe within the forms a5 cor, characteris as the Bure of ‘Christ. Sine ou eye is quick trl ike things, ene the Fits exiting together ina hythmial harmony even though the igure donot owe hi com cles 2 otitis nor seem inher to move, Nor az thee yt cone Wi p fed io the Sars. Examine the teesfor example the enwining branches of the one deci showed onthe right which move in quiet undulation — {he log smooth curve of the road an bride, the pate a ofthe all “of which have sina of hare, and you wil show farseching he armony tat pervades tis particu pico word ‘We have made ony adineotary beginning in analyzing in pictorial ems ‘our experience of this picture, nd of coue we shoul nt stop without ste ing the relatoeship of this panel to the tno side pal that complerent i {Gee Fa. 1, This painting i inf, the entra orton of «three pae! altar atric, The artist ns had the poblen of designing thre composons Inbich areselconsined yet which joie with each oe o form a single whole “The complete mocks reproduced in Figure 1, Note how the side panel modify aed intesity various aspects we have mentioned ofthe central pining Is well,58 cease 101004 to remember that composition cin be aot by forms outside sel ha untgs viewed together, forexample, may take ona diferent aspect than when viewed separately But before we complete thi study might be wf to estou assumptions sand our procedure ths far by looking at anther pining of eral the same subject as our cen panel Pate I reproduces another “Cracifon,”" painted bythe Wallan aes Carlo tive, lo Inte in the ienth century, The subject mate seal with Perugino's plating: Crist shows on the Cross Beton St.John and the ‘iri; the rocky landscape tomered balding an the sea nthe backround areal fiir fo ws. Only he symbolic kul atthe fot of the Cros as buen ude. But how een sou eespons the altng Heres no etn calm ‘orcontemplation, Instead we tae pon ourselves the anguish nd pyc! hut ich set motivate the actions ofthe fires. And nowhere i there ape, no poiton which our auention ean x iu to ring ode fo our exci ene= tions. Yet he raw srutre of the pting ithe ste a inthe Perino wo ‘ures and the crucied Christ arranged tratonally in symmetieal fashion ‘On what then, does his teendeus deren depend? We ewe the term olor environment oreaar key, nd much of he et of lacty and balanein he Rergino depended on i, What ithe olor key of this? eis dttealt evento ame the color wed. For on thing, huss em 19 combine wth one another in many ares, as i the backround tht som 19 ‘modula rom yellow o groan and yellow to redo in Marys eae whee the ‘ue emerges in places with aren and esewbore ital” moves toward red. AS a esl we are les conscious of defied color shapes than Inthe ober pining. Furthermore, the hues re ard to describe they sem be “in-between hues {he cook of St.John sot quite vole yet oot quite ed. Characteristic of tne termediate ature each he is mied with at atone oer hae in the pining. ‘Again the cloak of St. Jo, even th ene rede in saturation with 2ellow to fring int accord withthe ren and yelow of his oter samen: nly the white unrivaled hy vivid, saturated fs, hes a sarp contrast, ‘Whiten hu dominates this paiting anymore than it did the work of Prugino, there isnot the eet ofa coor equiv exiting between welled exe tits Rather there ithe impression of shy dsingiseclor ate ring shovea general tone, Both th nature ofthe has themes an the it hat ae mot all are wed in low stration conte to this fet ofa somber and minor harmony. “There sno one song color note here o start the ation ain the Perugia, nor one sharp value-contrast. nat valu-conrassf alos eau aration te dispersed throwghou ott ou ye sums to move quickly and constantly ‘ver he emit pining. Unlike the oer work, where details are massed and ‘here ae large et, unbroken areas, the whole surface i broken up bythe seared kno oud aot how te are organize in the Pruna), the sbarp- Iycotracing pnts, andthe arcly defined tonsa aiated surice which enters into the excitement ofthe moment. Yet within this general envionment her porive path of movement that can be roughly suggested in pater flies, There are many diferences bene this patter and the one we expe ‘enc inthe oer pining of ike sujet. For one hig, singe line of mation ‘may move though both igure and landscape, iting the tmoin continously roving design. The rocks themselves ist and bead in anguish wih St, Job, “Te landscape doesnot proce pane by planet depth bu scons upended ty the road, which ses inclined to retreat nt the distance than to ent into the ving patter of he let ple, hat, the plane represented bythe pans ite But the ation that as created tis ptr more than continuous rapid and volt, What produces this eft na patng in which the gues ‘themsches sem hardly to move? One clue comes from a study of th ines and ‘apes that bul up the very frm of he objets. Take agua as example the0 tras ToL00 Sigur ofS John, Te vets strscture sine of the igure site meaning with repued othe eect ofthe whol, beau the diagonal lies of his oak are 40 strog tha they destoy all possible sense ofa vertical compact mss. And con- Sidr the ature of he ies themselves. Every curve i fated ad broke $0 that the lne som strug orech its denination. Furthermore i we a= lute the line ofthe cloak, we Se that from suggesting the balanced arc of ee, seems rather ke the lsh of «whip. And this eccentc ines epeated Aheoughout, i the robe of the Visi, in the roc, and even in the body of| ‘Cris. How contrasting with his isou scheme ofthe St.John of Perugia. The Be) lines ofthe Perugino seem to wrap themsches together into smooth planed ‘vous, while thse ofthe Crivell ipes iat the ai, denying any sense of dacrete volute form, “Theres another source ofthis flest—the particular we of ight and dak ‘Werte ka the dtrbution of color an contrasts of ih and rk tough cout the pining mas of very diferent character from that of Peupie's work. "Now note how height an shae on the figures relate to the charter of this eral iht and dark In the cloak of St. Jon by Peugino each old has its lah sde and its ath, and she transton between the extreme of vale early ened and ordery. Asa esl we ese each od asa cominous surface that ‘se coulfollow wth ourhandasiftourhing a piece of smooth marble sel. Tn the Ciel, however, each shadow is compliated with further varity of ght an shade and he large patra are brea into smaller and yc smaller ‘Ax MAIS OF TE WORK OF ART 6 signs, The surfs i a too complex tint the stroke of oa hand but eying ett dein, sees tobe continuous ata, ‘Cured avay by the furious moverents and Knot rhyths which, together with the strange minor color harmony, scm to characterize ths panting. we ‘aye overlooked an important factor that primary in any work of wt: the o> portional lationship of pat In the ist ples, wha i the nature ofthe for ‘mat? Compared to the Perino, tis pant ints reed frame sem broad to the pia of squatness, an eet intensified bythe atta the ground plane, the planeupon which he igursseem to tnd, elevated hough he suggestion in ‘ofthe iit breakin the foreground similar proportion of with to eight pervades te Cross itl, which doesnot loom shove us at docs the sender, aca Cos of Perugino, but rem transfse, massive and soln the ene ter ofthe pining. Even the plague above the head af Christ conforms otis Aiereat proportional scheme. Nowhere do we have the conast between length nd width wich contributes uch the race and delicacy af the Peru the length measurerents sem les ong, the widths less marzo. In consequence we ae more conscious ofthe sece than we are of the dieton imped by shape, And we have sen how inpotant that uric isi reatng the eet of the Crivell ' sila proportion felng dominates bth the relationship between gure nd igureand between the prt ofthe gure themsees, Comsier,forexampe, ‘the area St Jb inhabits warked of clearly as a rectangle bythe ams of the ‘Cross. nthe Perugia the shapes alos thre and one-half times ashighasitis ‘broad nd the i vercal gure ofS John cups oly the Lover al, Wesee then, the sold form against avast expanse of void which in ise contributes ‘o ou elng, But inthe Crivel the shape sony file more then ence igh sis broad, and he Sgure ofS. John, uch lgrin seal an igor in contour, is plied clos othe enter. Here we do aot sense the relationship en ‘ecwcen voi and oid nor do we experince the atlensated vera moverent ‘ofthe Peano. And lok the gues themes, Exe the bol proportions ‘conti. The head of Perugno'sS, John eae toh hight in the ratio of 159%, agnn a marked contrast a proportion teen sal and large. In Cre ‘els St John the relationships 17, somthing les than average human po orion. This Would suggest ttn a work of the proportions of natu are ‘saben io he expressive relationships on which the atti cotent depends ‘Proportion ike ine and colori determisedina work not by enteral aa ad but by the expesive pat it plays. In the Fregoing paragraphs we have dicued many features that scm in separable fom ou experienc ofthese wo very ferent pings; although we have brn ale to tnguish the wo experiences, we have not come vey ose to defining the qualities which mae the paiatings unique and compelling works of at Even if we wee to continu to aalyzein thio in somos way formany more pags some quality would stillede ws. Some of ws might bed ‘ouraged at this ack of aly; some might feel hata sre contsion cannot be eached the analysis isnot worth pursuing We should remind ourselves tht ‘he very capac of an eetve werk oud dfton gies it power tle ‘uresperince, And th analysers to broaden our experince by efning out ‘erepion of the ndviual Work, lading us toward the defn of qual hat «ante completed only within the depts of our peonal undenstandng, | describing the diference inet, in expressive pictorial content, of hee ‘0 patina, we have used a nraber of terms to dseribe the meal cements which seemed iseparabie rom our experience: col, Both ak easing gene eral key and as setng up a elationship of parts; de, bth as creating a sess of ‘Heute and as embodying movement and character; light and dark which ‘rete expresive form and pattems the same time it sugested the character ‘of volumes through igh nd shade; the sense of roan isl and wha night be «called manta contrasted with space; andthe concept of plane, which was ec. sary in dscssng the organization of pace, both in depth andin a two-dincy. soma pate. Towering ove all hse ini elements was the may they were pt together, th compotion, how part related o part and othe bole: composiion nota an arbitrary scheme of organization butt dominant con. ‘butor tothe expressive content ofthe painting. I shouldbe pointed out hat had we chosen oer pining, these and other samets woul of eoue, be sed git erry and we might ave reacted quite dierety to them In {hisespect cach siting must be regarded ata new experince, ad th anajsie its partclr formal aspect sinply asa mean of sarangi fll eper. Are thes tems and procedures applicable also to expects of other vue ats? Reproduced in Figure 2isa photograph ofa work created bythe Freach feultor Auguste Rodin in the 1860s. Try to look beyond the ara photo. Bap fame and see it as an actualy exiting objet. The fue seems to “Arua up inc space, reaching out into the surrounding wold lis» mca ‘holy struggle, rug of longing, which ne seme ts our own Aste pat,ings, this movement can be deserted in ems of ines which we append at ‘unde the forms, lines wbich seem to cross etch ote i space, ting bout in sch aways to make wspartculry aware of heir actul three imes- Slonaexstence. Buh moveeat ot on greaturinereuped snes oes not foe ws to expand aly into space. Nor does it see the movemeat of smoothly interacting muscles asin a gymnastic exercise. In Tat, the sas of struggle arisen prt rom th efor ofthe implied inteior movement to fe itself fom the complex mas of materi. This compli, which Keeps our attention somehow ted within the figure, we can descr with the help of some ofthe terms we have wed before ‘Note wha pat ight and dae play The polished surface i consent inter ped by sharp ridges which etch the light, contrasting markely withthe shadowed cocaves. These lights and darks Become in themes lines so Shapes of Woke, ated character wits much th sume rhythm ab the varied and undulating ines of contour. cats of his activi of contour and surface ‘ne hne litte ene of compat, defined volumes Instead we move in and out ‘through the frm forall thse rigs and contours slthough they donot eces- sary relate to spose anatomical features, seem to erignate well within the ‘Contrast thee ees with hove produced by the eulptre by Max Bil (Fig. 3). Tobe sure, we do aot havea human gue ie motion, bt ca the ele of ‘moverent be resisted any more than oar eye can alto purse he owing lines ofa streamlined car? There no sens of staple inthis movement. Ot aten- ‘ion is dramn swiy through space, proted boldly into vod, only to be ‘ought back to recognize a pattern of qulbsum, deleately but surly extab- shed. And nothing conics with his acon Instead evr element pede ton its way. The sequel gradations of ght and dak onthe sncothy polished surface crete asenseof conti of plane consent withthe Bui thythns of | the contours The fartion of pars, which na ene he extension in reat ofthe clement we have called ing, is important Berane os nein we see the various movements as modulations fa singe surface: expansion and variety ins readily recived unity. The plan ontbuts, moreover, along with the ‘sin ofthe path of moveren self, another quay ofthe work quite di ferent fom the Roin. Note the spaces betwee the planes, between the slid foc. They form shapes sympatetiin character othe rhythms we bavespoken A agate oF WORE FARE 6S of. But more than shapes they suggest volun bounded y the planes anda x prosive asthe planes themselves. Ye tis caracterstic of thee volume tht, a8 ‘ne move around the work, they dy ert deition although they hold our attention withia the balanced form. Our ation doesnot rmtin entangled ithe solid members asin tbe Roda bat moves sea betwen related solids and yids, The comsciousnes of space, so dient displayed in thse 60 Works, might im some respects be considered relite to sch composonal means 35 we have alteady studi the punting. Although a work of sculpture ‘snot uually contained within a frame, we ae fea made aware of an encom- using volume in which tems text and Which gs patel meting to ‘both ois and voids Sometimes his volume sem deine and encase & rigid block; in other work, at suggested bythe Rodi, i infinite and expanding yet noneices preset ogi call his sculpture “The Prodigal Son." When we know the le our {esiags aout he work arerather confirmed thn change Iwas nt ec, moreover, 0 krow itt experience the emotional ontnt, ey more thn i was cesar to examine the expression onthe man's face. Mx Bl calle his Work simply “Tripartite Unity” without atempingto define the rations which that unity apd particular see of equilibria might have in or expense ‘Aword shou besa about colo, which play its part in suture as nell as ‘in aitng Te seuprare of Roan sin Brone of a warm dark one ht of Bll ‘nas the old svery glint of chrome-icke sel. These colors ae note mater af hance but, ke the materials theses, wer conte as expres cements fn the ereaton of the work. Try to impne the hus ofthe two sutures r= versed. Our entire reaction would change: the Bil woul probably see heary and plodding whe the Rodi would glitersupeciilly and the important epth and warmth of he surface shadows would be ls. ‘Conse now views of to county houses (Fis 8a 5)the Villa Capea by “Anite Pllado and the John Pew House by Frank Lloyd Wright. They were Dulin diteret eats some four hundred years apart and ive evince of sileen soil atitudes, ileretepproackes to construction, and many oer ‘nul factors. But or mma ntrest isto dover ow ne can esrb the ‘eat dference in ou experienc ofthe wo bing they exist immediatly before us ‘es tempting say that one is very formal while the others casual ain66 eranene T0108 formal, buton what des sucha distinction depend? Fach, feral, was designed ith deliberation and forethought, The fat that both baldgs are composed hey in ere of plane crane in parlor aright angles to each other ‘sem mot 90 obvious to mention; Je aoe the proportions of these plans. ‘Most of thot inthe hous by Wright at very lng and navi and create a strong hczontaaretion of movement. In thos of Pala’ vil the two i ur atention is somewhat sabe between {he horizontal and the vet we are mor conscious ofthe define surface than fof the drction the plane impo. And netic hatin tor builings thee ro portional endenses are see ls in ama parts ike windows and dors Is impossible oovsiok he par plyed ty lip and darkn making some of thos shapes mote portant, mare attactv, than others, This ads ws tothe fact hat these itictions in proportion donot ake ws very fa nls we con- ga sir the experince of moving ro put part from prt othe whol: ter words, the character af the composition. "Tolan the dfeences of thes orpnirations of planes as they apeatin our ‘ews ofthe buldings, we might make simple diagrams, I once sugested ‘hat the formal dignity of Palla’ vila is dependent mot only on the sl ‘contained shapes baton thir participation i 2 scheme of strit symmetry in which every pat bears od and readily perceptible eatonhip to eer ther ‘art. Aer ase sugested in the very enter of the fade to hich all Its eer to make efeeac, repeating om er sde excl these shape {nd frms No cay thi but the planes ses tobe only the forepats of siple ‘ubivolumes which nite round cleat dened alsin the center ofthe bul ing Ancraminaton ofthe scheme undeig the plan bets ou thi consisteney fort ‘The organization ofthe Wright house, however, much more dif o de- fine. The horzomtal movement ix continued throughout by the oveapeing lane; yt somehow these expanding parts are eld together in unified whol ‘Tere sno simple gomeric shape to bound the assembled form—in fect itis (i iu o conceive of the prof of the hows by iself—bat somenbere within theif of these moving forms we recognize a center that seems oui them. “hiss mae the more complicated by theft tha these panes ser oselte ‘to to volumes which in tun bound other voles, as for example the desp ‘pace betneen the overhanging eaves and the balcony. Conseauenty ou “en. {ee seems tole within the comple ofthese iterlackng woes, But muchas inthe Bitseulpurthisceater of order can be experienced through he ately of forms yet cannot be specially defied. Our ee continues to move and search, seching to experince othe utmost th sive onde enistiog within cone ‘an chang. In Pallaio the pleasure derives no fom sense of expansion andchange btn the jxtoes ofthe harmonies the completeness ofthe order in ich we ace invited fo participate. ‘Compare the plans of the wo buildings wth he fagades ad you wil se hat ‘hore am iacrnalrelatoship that woul strongly alt or experience while ‘salking around o though th paces ofthe bung. Bu the pei ature of {ch experience wil be dase ltr, Here we mus catch upto important tlements we hve neglted xu and clr. They ate moet asertve inthe house by Wright Nat only does the color ofthe ough stones make aplesing contrat withthe unlined wood ad unite happily wih the rust lndsape, ut, oid lapel to areas which te eta and supporting the contrasting ones make more prominent the smooth horizontal planes that, moves fey Fn space contribute most othe character ofthe bldg. The nature of his righ vary which demand our stenton contributes mich to theft of n- formal intimacy we frst noted nthe bing Equally important othe eflet of lay and measure characte othe Palin vila ar the form coloring, broken only by the conned areas of light andark pater, andthe smooth surfaces ofthe welled planes. The nicty af he repuar and ordered com postion depends on this poled smootes ‘Our tens and ourmethodhave proved fin describing the experience oft arity of works aging widely ie, in medion, and in characte In dice ‘ng theactectre both ples and textures semed moe sgifca than inthe ‘antings; bat had we chosen other examples, the rave importance of thse tlemeats might have been qule change. The rough and ssooth textures of plat ae often of primary importance as, fo example, in many punting of Rembrandt; whereas nat contin sometimes dominates our ateton in looking at 4 bung. But in all these works meaning became apparent only ‘whe hese vred ements were rough together and considered in terms of the total experience. Te various sche thoughout the tx, whe they my sus- est thechaaceristes of parts, could never stad fo the work isa, wich once we ene it it seems in its complexity constant to oe something new, sme res tetionhin, ome rfiementofexperence we overlooked on Ou ist vw, 2. COLOR AND PERSPECTIVE COLOR TERMINOLOGY nerpresing ou ideas about work of athe description of olor often presets particularly itu problem. Whereas forms can be metsued and propo tional themes mathematically deserted the comple nature of olor suchas to encourage vague generalities and oot conpartve statements Ofen these aements evel, moreover, that color has ben taken 00 readily for sand, simply asa handily deserve aspect of higs. Al thie unfortunate, sce, a5 ve have sen, color can play a decive olen the experience ofa work of Asatlp both to sharpen ourawarens of he expense and to desert with sone clay, a welded color terminalogy important. ‘Ove the pst wo centuries we have red much abou the seston ofealor, bout he pla rinspesunderyng its prodeton color miata, the rel tivity of olor perepsion under changing lights and in diferent stations, ‘With grenter knowledge, the use of color and its destption have constantly ‘chnge. Inthe practice and theory of at, varios sete f ter, arin gn ‘erly in meaning, have been deve to descrte what have come vo be regatded ‘asthe hoe basic proper of ol. Although the ality of the terms pends ‘nthe intrelationship, he sts have fen bean confuinly combined and scrambled, encouraging the very srt of vagencis they ware devised to preven Forclariy itis important tha oe set of ems be careful dined and then wed content. Inthis book we have adopt the tems ue, stration, and vale wo deste these the basic properties. Although su ems wll ot prove te atrative °the Block of stone fom which this gue has Been eared In erzatng sigue of Mercury, Giovan da Bologna also relies on move> met ete the various part ofthe pis and oop eta the lips sion ofthe work. The moverent directed ty the sculptor trough the ara ‘ment ofthe vatious parts allows sto comprehend the piece 38a whole. Howe er inthis satus the movement sativa rapid in contrast withthe Ein Agu. The selptor's mediim hs encouraged im to create a fre overeat ‘round the figure and out into the space in which the gue seen. This pace becomes an active prt of the composition. We ae eoniious not omy ofthe aca pace dnlaced bythe gre ain the former pine, but loo he sce seeming to emanate fom the ure of Mercury. The importance of his expand- Jing spe for he state may bested f we imagine this pure plc in shallow niche. Although i might physi its shythms would eem tune cate, anit Would sur considerably at work of art. The Egyptian sculpture right not demand so particule space sein, Butt would karly all suming Meru’ place asthe centr pie of psshing fountain ‘The power ofa pec of suture over an enormous amount of pace and its sitio dates surroundings maybe seen in evarples of cv monurenin vast squares where the elationshipheteen the monument and the surounding achitectre sf tase eonce to the sulptor and of great importance in our impression ofthe pice. As the sulptor may onde the movement within the sates, so he may also order the point of vow from which the work sto Be seen and the ent and characte ofthe surrounding sac, ARCHITECTURE Oral visa arts, architecture posts probubiy tbe most clk robes ‘o one who woul analyze he source of ts character. A maxim frealuating has been repeated nly varying form for many centres, dividing the ud entamong thre coe related points these might be summarized as res, ily, and ight Various periods hae Tooked upon the ltrrtioship of these quale in ferent ways, but the fat that sei,” although ot the rscstry product of fess and uit, 6 ones dependent on these ‘quae as generally been recogrized. This fat in isa places architecture in ‘ule a dire eategory rom the be arts we have dscused, But artitetare is disinguished in eer ways, SOME AS TNCTVE CHARACTERISTICS WEIN HE VSGAL ARTS 91 {In the first choper we look at sno buildings in och the same way a a ‘siting and seulpat, We noted how important in or experince wer shape {and proportion, texture, color and, above all the relationship of pats Had we fone Farther, we should have noticed ter characteris epeilysiicant inarchitesur, characters that are equal important in determining how we see and come to appreciate a building ‘Look agin atthe two buldings~the house by Frank Lloyd Wright and via ty Anes Pala (Figs ands). We noe that he seem to express 0 ‘ery diferent coneps of order, making ws ene space in two quite dient ‘way. Imapine the two buns in various stings, wih ferent approaches Wecomes clear that Bildings rarely confine thei nvence within a fame but seas, ase, change the way we eae the enti surounding area. For example: ee ‘One might sy that the Pali, by is postive statement of 2 cea pro- portional ides, some a kind of measure forthe surrounding eounty witout ‘rer merging with the landscape The house by Wript onthe othe hind, moves {nto the srroundng space, soning to mingle with he natural forms to become ‘part ofthe landcae el ‘With rept tothe extemal appearance ofthe buildings, yoo wil recall that hen we compared the plaschemes wth the elevations it became evident that Aheinteral lationship of ars followed closely the same pincple of organia-92 teanene v0 1098 ‘on suggested by the exterior. Now conser wha this messin the experience of arctitetre.IFyou wil take an imaginary journey trough the budings, you il eaie that the paricular nature of he organization songs our ex- perigee wander round and though the cal srotre, Ta the Plladn, for example afer the formal aspect ofthe fade impresses on Ou ion, ss pass up the great rectangular book of eps and unde the high spacious pomizo; then we enter a restricted spac felted proportion bu given pew ‘character by the atch overhead andthe opening tthe end ofthe pesagewey, the curve of whch sto he suddenly expanded no the reatspac ofthe central all. This ian orderly progression f pats, and looking ound the central hall we scthi propression asthe plan nsestes extending sie on ll fou ses, This imaginary journey ustrats a quality that datingvshes our experience of architecture fom he experience ofthe other visual ats, Because of sz, becuse we passthrough tlloning its forms, a they eve oe ster the the, to mold and shape our actal environment, a work of archtestre wil pe ‘lie power ovr our seme. We cul deste the ef simply as an experience of space acted on by ine is fen assumed that space spy exits, but in ar space crested. We do ot caleuate dimensions: we experince them, and our experience safety factors other than sz. To simple tarps might serve to iste hs point. Suppose the walls wo romeo ential ie wert be punted -onea thet a act Foo =o a 8 ack value of «wm gray, the other tated in a Hight graye. Although the ‘dimensions remained the Same, the firs room would seem to have become sar, the walls woud seem to move non, wh the eco Would seem to ‘and, Few observers would be convince hte eb space the two rooms watindce he same, In actin ters of gr visual experience the paces are not svn bisTSCTVECHARACTNITICS WT TH SUAL ARTS 93 ‘he same. Conder anther example. Suppose you entered room ia whi the objects were arranged asin Figure A. Certaily you would be very coosious of the objets, bu the pace would seem hal adequate o contin ther; fact 304 probably would not be cnscous af the space Between the objet tall ‘Thesame numberof objets isshoen within the sme space in Figure But hey reso arranged that we Become as conscious ofthe rl dined spe between 28 of the objects theses; and in consequence we sense a total space of wider mensions. Its not that one of these aagemens i “bad” andthe ote "good"; they provide two quite diferent experenes of pce “hese two examples would suggest that our reactions o space in archer ae provoked by muck the sume means a ate ou ection in pining and the range of experience ths made pss x eqly sia, In peaking ofthe cx terior apearaee ofthe two buildings we hive ben dssusing, We ated the ‘irene in proportion. Consider how this difrence in proportion and dife. ence in shape, when ranted into hrs iensions, might ea on our expe ‘ce. Imagine yours within the spaces dagame. It isnt size that counts; itis the way the shape and proportions make ws judge the sz. Compare the eros of Albers Church of Sa Andres at Manta (Figs 18 nd 19), the Cather of Rheims (Figs 20 and 21) andthe Pantheon at Rome (Fig. 2 and 22) from thi standpoint. Thee i a insent movement athe confined ard QUG rected space of Rhein which nota al preset in the ote vo. On the eon ray. inthe Pantheon it cems hat no matter where we move we remain the Senter he great hemisphere. In San?Andrea thee a dominant etn of ‘ateton torard the altar, bt i is equalind by the lateral emphans which ‘makes the ene of reacth equal in importance tthe ene of ph and deh,“There anther dierence we noted inthe views nd plan fou 9 original bulngs which snot uneied io these expences of space. We noted ht te parts were related in acocdance wth yer diferent concept of order. You wil ‘ecalltht the pra planes of th ung by Palla seem tocnclosea regular and defied cubie pce. In entering such a space we can be conscious a eve) ‘moment of our postion relative to every plane, to every prt: wear the ove ‘afableinafiued ode. But supposing these bounding planes were rearrange ‘nthe gure Blo, onthe ight, sau of hi aah eastment of pats the ‘sce ite sums to move, and we ind ours part of a far more complex ‘teaization. In this instance movements suggested not though spe ot pro- ‘orion but through anew organization of parts, By extending this principle of fui spaceo the entize lune thiscomplesity increase, We should fore tose ere in dseibing the order ubich ween, the tatementemployed caer in dseribing the effect ofthe exterior ofthe Weight hou: tat isan onder sense within onsantchange ht weseek ont in continuing experience tine, In examining ths few buldings we hae dicused a numberof point sce ingly as tothe experince of a work af areitceture In pene we have ea thatthe experince is determined by form sen sucesly in epae, eyng, "heres on both space an time, os ou eit impresion nd on memory. or parse of analysis we fund ic conveiet to discus separately the cate i acter of the Forms themselves and the way they were pt together, A 1 the forms, me found sich matters as proportion, shape, clr, and textarea ning thie character: but we abo obsved hat ths character means ie ‘ute the context ofthe building. The way the foons were composed was more Aificul o sayz bu more hase to our understanding ofthe character ofthe Tork; our method ike that inthe oer ant, was to analyze the experience father haa simply the geomeiistroctare, We had in ur two principal buildings two quite opposing compositional deat bel in a measured cone space comprehnileinitentizey anda concept iee-lowing spc of undefable imersion—2 ranging of forms one agit the oter in a fxd ad stable at ‘mony, and mingling and ovelpping of forms in such a: manne that they eer to grow orznial. These ae only opposing tendencies, not eateries fata which all architecture canbe divided. Each architect ean poet his own Feecenet of spre, bs on mew expres of frm, ‘One hens constantly many cath pass concerning architecture, most of ‘which deal with ter, sireture, andse: “orm follows funtion, “a house {8 machine for lving," "an honest we of materia.” For the most part such hres are dramatic overstatement that have more historical han sti ju. Iiestion. Iecanao be denied, however, that we expect 2 building to be ste arly sound and the Rnd of tre tobe in sore measure evdet. Apart our lesen architecture comes fom sense of srctural ehovenent. I “there is an obvious discrepancy betneen wha bung purports strata to Te and wht cil, we are cst, repardwof other atracons. AS the other ats, we keto understand the ature ofthe material in which the concise. You wl ind mach hf formation on stractre and m= ni chapter iv Buta kaowledgeof he mechanics bung must be wed caution ease very often what we edly enperense structure Bs ie o wits supporting the busing. The pases onthe faade of Albers eh of Saa"Andrs Ser to ext an imposing upward efor and, beewse lt surfcesand only ight ele, seem imbedded in the ey Fabric ofthe ing; yet he bling i ot dependent om the suport. Thee elivenss the design depends on our easing them as structure, but he arin ata /expresings Function tha the wall elf upp scm een hat ou depends not on suture obviousness but on strstr expresive- “The Parthenon has buen revered not becase its columns ae the prec96 came 00 ‘minimum dient for bering the regard wept ht React proportions seem ost and presto the ye th juts we then atte othe ra {ere Materia cigs re impotat othe art ect et marae and new methods of use make pose nen forms, and ew fom ae neesary fortheexpresoa ofr eperens. Look fr example abe erdpendence ‘expen ad ew mateal in uch werks ate Unie Nations Bangs in New York Gy. To ue new mate to erode ol forms is ong aat ‘suits "shoes" but Besant isa pines waste of mari nd ce ‘st asthe iran between he prporid ttre ofa ulin ad the tbto-bvous actly dens fru the pete of arches an ob ‘vous mladsiment ose might ing ou ejoyen. fain ne mst we care fn termining wan achseture, se compen. Are the euenen of se for a church sil that cod he requ umber of peop and have 2 ‘ice for an altar oF ppt? Is fen froten in quoting Lous Slivans eomarkthat Yorm flow fonction” thao Ri he function of acter wt more the embodiment of reve ia than the service of rhs Pisal we must be served, Batt must Be so thorough inked out form penne the bing that wecoal noo eart tha which wae creed by dation of tity and that ete to sere Formalexpesion hn ne oul separate Stal rare fom sacar expe, 4. SOME MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES OF THE ARTIST Dang may dent ind nt nae made even peat iyo prot On th bs phy mit peopel ud he Teh he eseys necoee nm Asch res compe es tl etic ate fr. 1 si evn orc vine te igen he geo ih bh prion oa este compel wk at tng, «pa spe rag fuer i ae tay os thc pnt omen oa Hew fm as ying th ecco eins anges in ‘Aas enane apis a devin ices ete sy mapper or anes en pinay herein ere mn vor Larrea ct Sod att aang ey repr el un fico Set mde my ss pan sein ep he Somos Aart hl ef he wri ewig me by Shean runes ant tao enn mean $4 dvi re a ered ening nes oe ely Wap oa elas Gite Roce davon exo wea