Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Mobile Robot Kinematics

Requirements for Motion Control
Kinematic / dynamic model of the robot
Model of the interaction between the
wheel and the ground
Definition of required motion ->
speed control, position control
Control law that satisfies the requirements
Localization

"Position"
Global Map

Environment Model
Local Map

Perception

Cognition
Path

Real World
Environment

Motion Control
R. Siegwart, I. Nourbakhsh

Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Introduction:

Mobile Robot Kinematics

Aim
Description of mechanical behavior of the robot for
design and control
Similar to robot manipulator kinematics
However, mobile robots can move unbound with respect to its
environment
o there is no direct way to measure the robots position
o Position must be integrated over time
o Leads to inaccuracies of the position (motion) estimate
-> the number 1 challenge in mobile robotics

Understanding mobile robot motion starts with understanding wheel

constraints placed on the robots mobility

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Introduction:

3.2.1

Kinematics Model

Goal:

establish the robot speed & = x& y&

steering angles i , steering speeds
robot (configuration coordinates).
forward kinematics

T
& as a function of the wheel speeds & i ,
& and the geometric parameters of the
i

yI
v(t)

x&
& = y& = f ( &1 ,K& n , 1 ,K m , &1 ,K & m )
&

s(t)

Inverse kinematics

[ &

why not

& n

xI

& 1 K & m

1 K m

= f ( x& , y& ,& )

x
y = f ( ,K , ,K )
-> not straight forward
1
n
1
m


R. Siegwart, I. Nourbakhsh

Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.1

Representing Robot Position

Representing to robot within an arbitrary initial frame
Initial frame:
Robot frame:

{X I , YI }
{X R ,YR }

Robot position:

I = [x

YI
YR

y ]T

XR

Mapping between the two frames

T
&R = R( )&I = R( ) x& y& &

cos
R( ) = sin
0

sin
cos
0

XI

0
0
1

YI

XR

Example: Robot aligned with YI

YR
XI
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.1

Example
Presented on blackboard
YI
YR
XR

XI
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.1

Example

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints: Assumptions

YI
YR

Movement on a horizontal plane

Point contact of the wheels
Wheels not deformable
Pure rolling
vc = 0 at contact point

XR

& r

No slipping, skidding or sliding

No friction for rotation around contact point
Steering axes orthogonal to the surface
Wheels connected by rigid frame (chassis)

XI

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Fixed Standard Wheel

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.
(l)

Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

.
(l) cos()

3.2.3

.
l sin()

Robot chassis

.
x cos(+)

.
y sin(+)

)
+

)
(+

v=r

.
x

.
y (-cos(+))
.
x sin(+)

&R = [x& y& ] T

.
y
R. Siegwart, I. Nourbakhsh

Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.3

Example

Suppose that the wheel A is in position such that = 0 and = 0

This would place the contact point of the wheel on XI with the plane of
the wheel oriented parallel to YI. If = 0, then the sliding constraint
reduces to:

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Steered Standard Wheel

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Castor Wheel

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Swedish Wheel

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

Wheel Kinematic Constraints:

3.2.3

Spherical Wheel

Rotational Axis of the wheel

can have an arbitrary direction
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.2.4

Robot Kinematic Constraints

Given a robot with M wheels
each wheel imposes zero or more constraints on the robot motion
only fixed and steerable standard wheels impose constraints

What is the maneuverability of a robot considering a combination of

different wheels?
Suppose we have a total of N=Nf + Ns standard wheels
We can develop the equations for the constraints in matrix forms:
Rolling
f (t )
J1 f
=
J
(

)
J1 ( s ) R ( )&I + J 2& = 0 (t ) =
1
s

J ( ) J 2 = diag (r1 L rN )
s (t )
1s s
Lateral movement

(N f + N s )1

(N f + N s )3

C1 ( s ) = 1 f
C1s ( s )

C1 ( s ) R ( )&I = 0

(N f + N s )3

R. Siegwart, I. Nourbakhsh

Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3

Mobile Robot Maneuverability

The maneuverability of a mobile robot is the combination
of the mobility available based on the sliding constraints
plus additional freedom contributed by the steering

Three wheels is sufficient for static stability

additional wheels need to be synchronized
this is also the case for some arrangements with three wheels

It can be derived using the equation seen before

Degree of mobility
Degree of steerability
Robots maneuverability

m
s
M = m +s
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.1

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Degree of Mobility

To avoid any lateral slip the motion vector R( )&I has to satisfy the
following constraints:
C1 f R ( )&I = 0

C1s ( s ) R ( )&I = 0

C1 ( s ) = 1 f
C1s ( s )

Mathematically:
R( )&I must belong to the null space of the projection matrix C1 ( s )
Null space of C1 ( s ) is the space N such that for any vector n in N
C1 ( s ) n = 0

Geometrically this can be shown by the Instantaneous Center of Rotation

(ICR)
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.1

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Instantaneous Center of Rotation

Ackermann Steering

Bicycle

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.1

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: More on Degree of Mobility

Robot chassis kinematics is a function of the set of independent
constraints
rank [C1 ( s )]
the greater the rank of , C1 ( s ) the more constrained is the mobility

Mathematically

m = dim N [C1 ( s )] = 3 rank [C1 ( s )]

o no standard wheels
o all direction constrained

rank [C1 ( s )] = 0
rank [C1 ( s )] = 3

0 rank [C1 ( s )] 3

Examples:
Unicycle: One single fixed standard wheel
Differential drive: Two fixed standard wheels
o wheels on same axle
o wheels on different axle
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.2

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Degree of Steerability

Indirect degree of motion
s = rank [C1s ( s )]
The particular orientation at any instant imposes a kinematic constraint
However, the ability to change that orientation can lead additional
degree of maneuverability

Range of s :

0 s 2

Examples:
one steered wheel: Tricycle
two steered wheels: No fixed standard wheel
-> common axle
car (Ackermann steering): Nf = 2, Ns=2

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Robot Maneuverability

Degree of Maneuverability
M = m +s

Two robots with same M are not necessary equal

Example: Differential drive and Tricycle (next slide)
For any robot with M = 2 the ICR is always constrained
to lie on a line
For any robot with M = 3 the ICR is not constrained an
can be set to any point on the plane

The Synchro Drive example:

M = m + s =1+1 = 2
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Mobile Robot Maneuverability: Wheel Configurations

Differential Drive

Tricycle

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Five Basic Types of Three-Wheel Configurations

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.3.3

Synchro Drive
M = m + s =1+1 = 2

Video: J. Borenstein

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.1

Mobile Robot Workspace: Degrees of Freedom

Maneuverability is equivalent to the vehicles degree of freedom
(DOF)
But what is the degree of vehicles freedom in its environment?
Car example

Workspace
how the vehicle is able to move between different configuration in its
workspace?

The robots independently achievable velocities

= differentiable degrees of freedom (DDOF) = m
Bicycle: M = m + s = 1 + 1 DDOF = 1; DOF=3
Omni Drive: M = m + s = 3 + 0 DDOF=3; DOF=3

R. Siegwart, I. Nourbakhsh

Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.2

Mobile Robot Workspace: Degrees of Freedom, Holonomy

DOF degrees of freedom:
Robots ability to achieve various poses

DDOF differentiable degrees of freedom:

Robots ability to achieve various path

DDOF m DOF
Holonomic Robots
A holonomic kinematic constraint can be expressed a an explicit function
of position variables only
A non-holonomic constraint requires a different relationship, such as the
derivative of a position variable
Fixed and steered standard wheels impose non-holonomic constraints
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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.2

Mobile Robot Workspace:

Examples of Holonomic Robots

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.3

Path / Trajectory Considerations: Omnidirectional Drive

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Autonomous Mobile Robots, Chapter 3

3.4.3

Path / Trajectory Considerations: Two-Steer

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