488 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations 11.5 Load Transfer Mechanism consider a pile of length L, as shown in Figure 11.9a. The load on the pile is gradually ‘gs increased from zero to Qiao) at the ground surface. Part of this load will be resisted. by the side friction developed along the shaft, Q,, and part by the soil below the tip of () OQ (a) Figure 11.9 Load transfer mechanism for piles Pile tip Zone i a11.6 Equations for Estimating Pile Capacity 489 the pile, Q;. Now, how are Q, and Q; related to the total load? If measurements are made to obtain the load carried by the pile shaft, Q,.,, at any depth z, the nature of the variation found will be like that shown in curve 1 of Figure 11.9b. The frictional resistance per unit area at any depth z may be determined as AQ.) (p)(A2) where p = perimeter of the cross section of the pile fo (18) Figure 14.9c shows the variation of f,., with depth, If the load Q at the ground surface is gradually increased, maximum frictional resistance along the pile shaft will be fully mobilized when the relative displacement between the soil and the pile is about 5-10 mm (0,2-03 in,), irrespective of the pile size and length L. However, the maximum point resistance Q, = Q, will not be mo- bilized until the tip of the pile has moved about 10-25% of the pile width (or diam- eter). (The lower limit applies to driven piles and the upper limit to bored piles). At ultimate load (Figure 11.9d and curve 2 in Figure 11.9b), Q,.-5) = Q,. Thus, = 2, and =, ‘The preceding explanation indicates that Q, (or the unit skin friction, f along the pile shaft) is developed at a much smaller pile displacement compared with the point resistance, Oy, At ultimate load, the failure surface in the soil at the pile tip (a bearing capac- failure caused by Q,) is like that shown in Figure 11.9e. Note that pile founda- tions are deep foundations and that the soil fails mostly in a punching mode, as illustrated previously in Figures 3.1¢ and 3.3. That is, a iriangular zone, I, is devel- oped at the pile tip, which is pushed downward without producing any other visible slip surface. In dense sands and stiff clayey soils, a radial shear zone, II, may partially develop. Hence, the load displacement curves of piles will resemble those shown in Figure 3.1c. Equations for Estimating Pile Capacity The ultimate load-carrying capacity Q, of a pile is given by the equation Qu = Qp + Qs (tL9) where Q, = load-carrying capacity of the pile point Q, = frictional resistance (skin friction) derived from the soil-pile inter- face (see Figure 11.10) Numerous published studies cover the determination of the values of Q, and Q,. Ex- cellent seviews of many of these investigations have been provided by Vesic (1977), Meyerhof (1976), and Coyle and Castello (1981). These studies afford an insight into the problem of determining the ultimate pile capacity.490 Chapter 11. Pile Foundations (b) Open-Ended Pipe Pile Section Steel L$ soil plug L = length of embedment 14 = length of embedment in bearing k—4,—+ stratum (@) HePile Section @) (Note: A, = area of steel + soil plug) Figure 11.10 Ultimate load-carrying capacity of pile Point Bearing Capacity, O, The ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundations was discussed in Chapter 3. According to Terzaghi’s equations, 4, = 13c'N. + qN, + 0.4yBN, (for shallow square foundations) and gu = 13c/N, + qN, + 03yBN, (for shallow circular foundations) Similarly, the general bearing capacity equation for shallow foundations was given in Chapter 3 (for vertical loading) as Gu = ONEFesFea + INoFesFya + 3YBN, Fy Fy Hence, in general, the ultimate load-bearing capacity may be expressed as qu c'NE + qNS + yBNY (11.10) where NZ, Nj, and N* are the bearing capacity factors that include the necessary shape and depth factors Pile foundations are deep. However, the ultimate resistance per unit area devel- oped at the pile tip, qp, may be expressed by an equation similar in form to Eq, (11.10). although the values of N*, Ns, and N+ will change. The notation used in this chapter for the width of a pile is D. Hence, substituting D for B in Eq, (11.10) gives Qu = Gp = C'N2 + QN% + yDN* (11.11)11.7 Meyerhof's Method for Estimating Q, 491 Because the width D of a pile is retatively small, the term yDN¥ may be dropped from the right side of the preceding equation without introducing a serious error; thus, we have Gp = NE + q'NE (11.12) Note that the term q has been replaced by q’ in Eq, (11.12), to signify effective ver- tical stress. Thus, the point bearing of piles is Oy = Apdy = Ap(c'NE + g'NG) (hag) where A, = area of pile tip c' = cohesion of the soil supporting the pile tip nit point resistance ffective vertical stress at the level of the pile tip = the bearing capacity factors Frictional Resistance, Q, ‘The frictional, or skin, resistance of a pile may be written as Q. = % pALf (11.14) where —_ p = perimeter of the pile section AL = incremental pile length over which p and f are taken to be constant f ‘The various methods for estimating @, and Q, are discussed in the next several sec- tions. It needs to be reemphasized that, in the field, for full mobilization of the point resistance (Q,), the pile tip must go through a displacement of 10 to 25% of the pile width (or diameter). nit friction resistance at any depth z Meyerhof’s Method for Estimating Q, Sand The point bearing capacity, g,, of a pile in sand generally increases with the depth of embedment in the bearing stratum and reaches a maximum value at an em- bedment ratio of L/D = (L,/D) qc. Note that in a homogeneous soil L» is equal to the actual embedment length of the pile, L. (See Figure 11.10a.) However, where a pile has penetsated into a bearing stratum, L, < L. (See Figure 11.6b,) Beyond the critical embedment ratio, (Li/D).., the value of q, remains constant (ap = 4)- That is, as shown in Figure J1.11 for the case of a homogeneous soil, L= Ly492 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations Unit point resistance, % (L,/D). 4 = 41 Figure 11.11 Nature of variation of unit L/D = L,/D point resistance in a homogeneous sand For piles in sand, c’ = 0, and Eq. (11.13) simpifies to Q, = Apdy = Apag'NG (1.15) ‘The variation of Nj with soil friction angle is shown in Figure 11.12. However, Q, should not exceed the limiting value Aq; that is, Q, = Ayq’'N3< Aan (11.16) ‘The limiting point resistance is 4 = 05 pN3 tang! (.7) where p, = atmospheric pressure (=100 kN/m? or 2000 lb/ft?) 6! = effective soil friction angle of the bearing stratum On the basis of field observations, Meyerhof (2976) also suggested that the ul timate point resistance g, in a homogeneous granular soil (L = L,) may be ob- tained from standard penetration numbers as, a= 04 Da(M)o% <4 De(Mn as)11.8 Vesic's Method for Estimating Q, 493 1000-— 800 600} 400} 200} t 199) 4 20} 2 oad 1s { Figure 11.12 Variation of the it al EG Fy 5 Maximum values of Vg with soil friction angle ¢ (after Meyerhot, Soil friction angle, $'(deg) 1976) where (N)eo fhe average corrected value of the standard penetration number near the pile point (about 10D above and 4D below the pile point) P, = atmospheric pressure (~100 kN/m? or 2000 lb/ft”) Clay ( = 0) For piles in saturated clays under undrained conditions ( = 0), O, = NieA, = 9A, (11.19) where c, = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of the pile Vesic’s Method for Estimating Q, Vesic (1977) proposed a method for estimating the pile point bearing capacity based on the theory of expansion of cavities. According to this theary,on the basis of effec- tive stress parameters, we may write Q, = App = Ap(eNE + T5N3) (11.20)494, Chapter 11. Pile Foundations where 3 = mean effective normal ground stress atthe level ofthe pile pong a _ (142K) , = (A )¢ K, = earth pressure coefficient at rest = 1 — sing No, Ns = bearing capacity factors Note that Eq, (11.20) is a modification of Eq. (11.13) with “3NE N= Gao (1123) Note also that N¥ in Bq. (11.20) may be expressed as Nd = (Nf - 1)cotd! (11.24) According to Vesie’s theory, NB =f Up) (11.25) where [,, = reduced rigidity index for the soil However, =a (11.26) 1+] G, 20 +a) +g tard’) c+ q tang’ modulus of elasticity of soi] Mz = Poisson's ratio of soil G, = shear modulus of soil A = average volumatic strain in the plastic zone below the pile point where 1, = rigidity index = E, (2 When the volume does not change (e.g.,for dense sand or saturated clay), A = 0,50 T= Ie (11.28) ‘Table 11.4 gives the values of N# and N'$ for various values of the soil friction angle ' and [,. For 6 = 0 (an undrained condition), 4 7 Ve = = 1.29) Nea (nh, +1) + F+1 (11.29) ‘The values of J, can be estimated from laboratory consolidation and triaxial tests corresponding to the proper stress levels. However, for preliminary use. the fol: lowing values are recommended: Type of soil Sand Silts and clays (drained condition) Clays (undrained condition)esrL ily 197 cerey i6Ot SLoe zs 9v'9E ors Ives S69 190E gs0l ever £6 g0rle ove 6x8 ove 992 or vl €t a 49586°8LT Io 191 Leet 9°98 ose 69°89 80's ov'lp of 0826 a oerre sore oly Ls9¢ 06'0¢ sxe 19‘S91 W081 ees 818 gs'eL 19 sores zree 6 ore ErrL 6r99 Is'Th sule ores OVs7 waz orest vO'6ET “zt zoe zr69, £6109 9605 spe 87 Pore. 9s'99 sores Lele Ore Izoe zs'sz zrer se el wget zrerl 6eTe 389 PELs erey usse 4 99 cores Iszs egret 0 oeuz svez opel bboet 96°81 T9'sor 3°99 1809 foes cr'sp Wee, ow gous ees Igor groe 1942 rove 86°02 SOsT ecoct 88°601 1846 vs'79 Lous 9705 sszr soe st ees vray oct poee 182 Ie, 6681 rsPL ocorr o¢'T0l 1506 ores Ses eo tor Troe ve wep 390r zs'9e ove gee, 666r “rut veel €810T ve 99°68 99"rs 80°05 eLby oorse 887 4 Ise 8Lst eve ww voor 96Lt os'st soul Ls't6 6098 DELL tO 38°97 86'1P 68's sez au Loree a E82 6c6r €8L1 zror Leet S6or 06's8. zeke vets Ly Sse see os'ee west 1 L96e ISuz vere ret zorst bred +66 Bee wu 6L'S9 ebbr 66°0r z69¢ gsbe oz sg'sz 0've isle ost 1671 106 srt 68°99 19°09 tly os're. eer 6 we y60e erel SEL eet esl ore 1099 819 os'ss 6s'8e ou'se orze 07 gt uel vest 6691 86TT oct wor tek wr09 es ag worse eee ee sso a 008 oor o0e o0z oon 08 09. ov oz oO ” (ponunuoa) yt qe gON & uid 1894'S "W Aq.,’SUonEpUNog atid JO UIsaCh, WoL kg pauudey “{.61 “pimog upivasoy uoNeuodsuvaL, Zp 27NDDUd Komu Sie fo SIS2YTUS AHN 19'Lt8 66'bbL os'oe9 vors6r ST pee avez 39°8he oL'961 ectel ces 6e oll svrey grses war spelt vgsre eB L07 iv L601 evel os Es'99L wou seers c'psr Le's0e 69892 wee 9¢081 ell pss wis 9698S 9S Loy Steet scar gett weet 69st og'eat woe, or 9969 sger9 80'Tzs zrery 90'6Le Is'ste £1807 9Ls91 SLIT Beis 9€-979 pg'tss 82'89h one gerose epoce oust Sept SL'66 sr sete9 oL9ss apely LLo“e 66'FS7 8'F77 pc'ler orzst oo'eor zwess oss ysOPr Iyose sy'9ee e800 ort 66°0PT ers oy ves ze'pos 866th be'zre 96782 oz soz osu ELOET wr ; oriss s98h very Ocoee oorree Lg Lor wor GET oL'06 ow : BS LIS isisy Se'06e OTE 6LUe Treet er'oat sve Brug asors us9sh Sexe vole oLvle crest host 8CLeT Bros sr a wep oc'rse o8'87 Ter6r oozet L691 SULIT 08 sg'e8h Ie'8tp SLs9e S867 r00e Let orist T60zt ses oy eter gcse wie 66:19 9eLLt Ist gs'veL s0s0t ere 96'esy 9€10r Ob eve os'SLe EV68T Is'L91 Ever eert o9'se eb egrese esoee sez over eg 191 voto greet 9166 9v's9 vuter Lessee wwe wost w98Lh wast a9'Seh wet wel w pe'she 6°90 Leo p8cle os Lb ar ler 897IT 96°06 oreo tr 96e SeISE LecoE evrerz egrgat sleet sp'ezt or'e0l IIe os tte 9LLT zo8ez €Ve61 ster PLoIt So'eor ores. ores voroee ore or'ese Leste €T6sT ISTHL wet 1786 y0'89 or Tose cose BLstz rset estat e601 oc'v6 spon os'es Ir'sre 8L'L0e gcse losiz eorost reel oo'stT cre. ero oe Use ese v6rr6L sores 9st 0966 suR eu, veer “vee os ese €c'Byz 8L°107 os bt oc'9zr 98'801 ges sLio vorey Be weet Teor SeSLL tert ey TOL seO6 Use crea test, zoe 9'00E 9e'89c Lv Uez svest vereel overt 6201 Lees Tes ay “ pr poe S87SI sorgst cg'ezt ce wee oorle 898s 80th 09.62 o9'6uz oe‘ose Be'9Ie RELI 6s'Stt FeTIT ors eel 66'sS Le oe 9 great Ee p9r oszrl €eutt Bes arse 9¢'59 ues zee gee strove Leese 9'z0e Pr gst wit z6s0r 1616 wesh ores soe se 00s ov ove 02 oot og 09 ov oz oO @ (ponupuea). #44 erga.498 Chapter 17 11.9 11.10 Pile Foundations On the basis of cone penetration tests in the field, Baldi et al. (1981) gave th following correlations for [,: 300 q 1, =F (ay _ (for mechanical cone penetration) (11.308) and ea eee : aad = Fm) (forelectric cone penetration) (11.308) For the definition of F,, see Eq. (2.37). Janbu’s Method for Estimating Q, Janbu (1976) proposed calculating Q, as follows: Q, = A,(c'NE + q'N7) (1131) Note that Eq, (11.31) has the same form as Eq. (11.13). The bearing capacity factors. Nf and N¢ are calculated by assuming a failure surface in soil at the pile tip similar * to that shown in Figure 11.13. The bearing capacity relationships are then Nd = (tang! + V1 + tan? o’)?(e2"" ey (11.32) (the angle 7 is defined in the figure) and NE = (Nf - 1) cord! (11.32b) t from Eq. (11.32a) ‘The angle 7/ varies from 60° for soft clays to about 105° for dense sandy soils. It is recommended that, for practical use, 60° < 7 < 90° Table 11.5 gives the variation of Nf and N% for n' = 60°, 75°, and 90°. Coyle and Castello’s Method for Estimating Q, in Sand Coyle and Castello (1981) analyzed 24 large-scale field load tests of driven piles in sand. On the basis of the test results, they suggested that, in sand, Q, = aNiA, (11.33) where _q' = effective vertical stress at the pile tip Nj = bearing capacity factor Figure 11.14 shows the variation of Nj with L/D and the soil friction angle ¢'11.11 Other Correlations for Calculating Q, with SPT and CPT Results 499 | Bearing capacity factor, Nj a (2 4050 30 100__200 1 10 | | " | | $ 90 L Z ~ qo 2 z a Figure 11.13 Failure surface at the 50 pile tip 60 70 Figure 11.14 Variation of Nj with L/D {redrawn after Coyle and Castello, 1981) Table 11.5 Janbu’s Bearing Capacity Factors 60" = Nt NS Nr NG NE Ny Oo «Sh (AO S74 10 574 30 10 595 205 7.4 225 834 247 20 (9260 4371.78 529 1483 6.40 30. 1943 10.05 2.821360 30.14 18.40 40 3058 266548114137 75.31 64.20 43 4632 47.32 78907990 33ST 134.87 Other Correlations for Calculating Q, with SPT and CPT Results ‘There are several correlations in the literature for calculating Q, on the basis of stan- dard penetration test and cone penetration test results conducted in the field. We summarize some of these correlations in this section, Table 11.6 gives the correlationChapter 11. Pile Foundations Table 11,6 Correlations with Standard Penetration Resistance Reference Relationship Applicabil Briaud et al. (1985) 9% = 19.7p,(Na)™ Sand Shioi and Fukui (1982) % = 3Pa Cast in place, sand Bored pile, sand Bored pile, gravelly sand Driven piles, all soils value is the average condition near the pile tip (i.e. 4D below and 10D above the pile tip). : There are two major methods for estimating the magnitude of q, using the cone penetration resistance 42: 1. The LCPC method, developed by Laboratoire Central des Ponts at Chaussées (Bustamante and Gianeselli, 1982); and 2, The Dutch method (DeRuiter and Beringen, 1979), LCPC Method According to the LCPC method, Go = Goteayko (11.34) where queq) = equivalent average cone resistance k, = empirical bearing capacity factor ‘The magnitude of qq) is calculated in the following manner: 1. Consider the cone tip resistance q. within a range of 1.5 below the pile tip to 1.5D above the pile tip, as shown in Figure 11.15. 2. Calculate the average value of ¢.[9.4.)] within the zone shown in Figure 11.15. 3, Bliminate the g, values that are higher than L3q,jay) and the q, values that are lower than 0.74.4) 4, Calculate g.ieq) by averaging the remaining q, values. Briaud and Miran (1991) suggested that ky = .6 (for clays and silts) and ky = 0.375 (for sands and gravels) Dutch Method According to the Dutch method, one considers the variation of q, in the range of 4D below the pile tip to 8D above the pile tip, as shown in Figure 11.16. Then one con- ducts the following operations:11.11 Other Correlations for Calculating Q, with SPT and CPT Results 501 Pile Figure 11.15 LCPC method 1. Average the q, values over a distance yD below the pile tip. This is path a-b-c, Sum 4. values along the downward path a-b (ie,, the actual path a) and the upward path b-c (ie., the minimum path). Determine the minimum value q., = average value of g. for 0.7 < y <4. 2. Average the q, values (4.2) between the pile tip and 8D above the pile tip along the path c-d-e-f-g, using the minimum path and ignoring minor peak depressions. 3. Calculate a= {a> 42) 4. < 150p, (1135) where p, = atmospheric pressure (~100 kN/m’, or 2000 Ib/ft?) DeRuiter and Beringen (1979) recommended the following values for kj for sand: + 10 for OCR (overconsolidation ratio) = 1 0.67 for OCR = 2104 Nottingham and Schmertmann (1975) and Schmertmann (1978) recom- mended the following relationship for q, in clay: (da * Ga) % = RRs ki = 150p, (11.36)502 Chapter 11. Pile Foundations Figure 11.16 Dutch method In this equation, _R = reduction factor, which is a function of the undrained shear strength c, 1 for electric cone penetrometer; = 0.6 for mechanical cone penetrometer i R ‘The interpolated values of R, with ¢, provided by Schmertmann (1978) are as follows: fe in 205 1 075 (OA 1.0 0.53 125 0.42 15 0.36 175 033 20 0.3011.12 11.12 Frictional Resistance (Q,) in Sand 503 Frictional Resistance (Q,) in Sand According to Eq. (11.14), the frictional resistance Q, = Ep ALF ‘The unit frictional resistance, f is hard to estimate, In making an estimation of f, sev- eral important factors must be kept in mind: 1. The nature of the pile installation. For driven piles in sand, the vibration caused during pile driving helps densify the soil around the pile. Figure 11.17 shows the contours of the soil friction angle 6’ around a driven pile (Meyerhof, 1961). Note that, jn this case, the original effective soil friction angle of the sand was 32°. The zone of sand densification is about 2.5 times the pile diameter, in the sand surrounding the pile. 2. It has been observed that the nature of variation of fin the field is approximately as shown in Figure 11.18. The unit skin friction increases with depth more or less L= 213m (701 D = 533 mm (21 in) 2 = 38° Figure 11.17 Compaction of sand near driven piles (after Meyerhof, 1961) Unit frictional resistance, f Depth (b) Figure 11.18 Unit frictional resistance for piles in sand.504 Chapter 11. Pile Foundations linearly to a depth of L’ and remains constant thereafter. The magnitude of the critical depth L' may be 15 to 20 pile diameters. A conservative estimate would be L'= 15D (11.37) : 3. At similar depths, the unit skin friction in loose sand is higher for a high- displacement pile, compared with a low-displacement pile. 4, At similar depths, bored, or jetted, piles will have a lower unit skin friction, com- pared with driven piles, Taking into account the preceding factors, we can give the following approxi- mate relationship for f (see Figure 11.18): Forz = Otol’, f = Kottand (11.38) and for z= L'toL, f= few: (11.39) In these equations, K = effective earth coefficient a7, = effective vertical stress at the depth under consideration 6 = soil-pile friction angle In reality, the magnitude of K varies with depth; itis approximately equal to the Rankine passive earth pressure coefficient, K,, at the tap of the pile and may be less than the at-rest pressure coefficient, K,, at a greater depth. Based on presently avail- able results, the following average values of K are recommended for use in Eq. (11.38): Pile type K 1~ sing’ 1 ~ sing" to 14K, = L4(1 - sind’) 1 ~ sing’ t01.8K, = 1.8(1 - sing”) Bored of jetted Low-displacement driven High-displacememt driven The values of 5 from various investigations appear to be in the range from 0.5" to 0.84". Judgment must be used in choosing the value of 8. For high-displacement driven piles, Bhusan (1982) recommended K tan 6 = 0.18 + 0.0068D, (11.40) and K = 05 + 0.008D, (at) where D, = relative density (%) Coyle and Castello (1981), in conjunction with the material presented in Sec- tion 11.10, proposed that Q, = fp = (Ke, tan 8)pL (11.42) J11.12. Frictional Resistance (Q,) in Sand 505 where @% = average effective overburden pressure 8 = soil-pile friction angle = 0.84’ The lateral earth pressure coefficient K, which was determined from field observa- tions, is shown in Figure 11.19. Thus, if that figure is used, K@;tan(0.86") pL (11.43) Correlation with Standard Penetration Test Results ‘Meyerhof (1976) indicated that the average unit frictional resistance, f,,, for high- displacement driven piles may be obtained from average corrected standard pene- tration resistance values as Say = 0.02p4(Ni)e0 (11.44) where (N)s = average corrected value of standard penetration resistance P, = atmospheric pressure (~100 KN/m’or 2000 lb/ft?) For low-displacement driven piles fos = 0.01p,N)oa (41.45) Earth pressure coefficient, K 2 0.15 02 0 Embedment ratio, L/D Figure 11.19 Variation of K with L/D (redrawn after Coyle and Castello, 1981)506 Chapter 11. Pile Foundations 11.13 Thus, : Q, = pL fw (11.46) a Briaud et al. (1985) proposed another correlation for unit skin friction with the standard penetration resistance, in the form F = 0.224p,( Noo)” (1.47) Hence, Q, = Ep(AL)f = 3024p p,(AL) (No) (1148) In a fairly homogeneous soil, we can estimate the average value of Neg In that case, Q. = pL fav where f,, = 0.224p,(Ne)92? (11.49) Correlation with Cone Penetration Test Results In Section 11.11, the Dutch method for calculating pile tip capacity Q, using cone penetration test results was described, In conjunction with using that method, Not- tingham and Schmertmann (1975) and Schmertmann (1978) provided correlations for estimating Q, using the frictional resistance (f.) obtained during cone penetra- tion tests. According to this method fref. (11.50) The variations of a’ with z/D for electric cone and mechanical cone penetrometers are shown in Figures 11.20 and 11.21, respectively. We have = Ip(AL)f = Ep(AL)a'f. (1st) Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay Estimating the frictional (or skin) resistance of piles in clay is almost as difficult a task as estimating that in sand (see Section 11.12), due to the presence of several variables that cannot easily be quantified, Several methods for obtaining the unit frictional re- sistance of piles are described in the literature. We examine some of them next. A Method This method, proposed by Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972), is based on the assump- tion that the displacement of soil caused by pile driving results in a passive lateral pressure at any depth and that the average unit skin resistance is ACB + 2c,) (11.52)11.13. Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay S07 ‘hmertrann (1978) | Nottingham and Schmertimann (1973) Ps Conerete pile’\. 10 10 2D Figure 11,20 Vasiation of a’ with embedment ratio for pile in sand: electric cone penetrometer ‘Schmertmann (1978); ‘Nottingham and Schmertmann (1975) Figure 11.21 Varinion of a’ with embedment ratio for piles in sand: mechanical cone penetrometer where @ = mean effective vertical stress for the entire embedment length c, = mean undrained shear strength (@ = 0) ‘The value of A changes with the depth of penetration of the pile. (See Figure 11.22.) Thus, the total frictional resistance may be calculated as Q. = PL Fey508 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations : Ol 02 03 04 05 a aL 60 Pile embedment length, L (m) 70 Figure 11.22 Variation of A with pile ‘embedment length (redrawn after Me- 90 Clelland, 1974) Care should be taken in obtaining the values of &, and ¢, in layered soil. Figure 11.23 helps explain the reason, Figure 11.23a shows a pile penetrating three layers of clay. According to Figure 11.23b, the mean value of ¢, i8 (GyayLi + Cuba +771 WL Similarly, Figure 11.23c shows the plot of the variation of effective stress with depth. The mean effective stress is A\+ Art Ay +- ° L where Ay, Az, As,... = areas of the vertical effective stress diagrams (11.53) a Method ‘According to the @ method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can be repre~ sented by the equation f= ac, 1.54) where a = empirical adhesion factor The approximate variation of the value of a is shown in Figure 11.24,11.13. Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay 509 Vertical ae —> effective cohesion, ¢, stress, 0 Sas = Ay ecu ‘Area = Ay Depth Depth (b) @ Figure 11.23 Application of A method in layered soil 12 ro 08 Randolph and “Murphy (1985) @ 06b 04 02 ° os 10 15 20 25 30 35 Figure 11.24 Variation of a with c/o; where ¢, is the vertical effective stress, This vasiation of a with c,/o, was ob- tained by Randolph and Murphy (1985). With it, we have Q, = Bfp AL = Xac,p AL (1.55)§10 Chapter 17 Pile Foundations 11.14 8 Method When piles are driven into saturated clays, the pore water pressure in the soil around the piles increases. The excess pore watet pressure in normally consolidated clays may be four to six times ¢,. However, within a month or so, this pressure gradually dissipates, ‘Hence, the unit frictional resistance for the pile can be determined on the basis of the’, effective stress parameters of the clay in a remolded state (c’ = 0). Thus, at any depth, f = Be, (11.56) where o%, = vertical effective stress B= Kiandg (sty 6h = drained friction angle of remolded clay K = earth pressure coefficient Conservatively, the magnitude of K is the earth pressure coefficient at rest, or K=1-~sindk (for normally consolidated clays) (41.58) and K = (1—sindk)VOCR (for overconsolidated clays) (11.59) where OCR = overconsolidation ratio Combining Eqs. (11.56), (11.57), (11.58), and (11.59), for normally consolidated clays yields f= (1~ sin dk) tan dye (11.60) and for overconsolidated clays, f = (1 ~ sin de)tan dgVOCR of, (11.61) With the value of f determined, the total frictional resistance may be evaluated as Q,= fp AL Correlation with Cone Penetration Test Results Nottingham and Schmertmann (1975) and Schmertmann (1978) found the correla- tion for unit skin friction in clay (with = 0) to be f=o'f. (11.62) ‘The variation of a’ with the frictional resistance f. is shown in Figure 11.25. Thus, f p(AL) = La'f.p(AL) (11.63) General Comments and Allowable Pile Capacity Although calculations for estimating the ultimate load-bearing capacity of a pile can be made by using the relationships presented in Sections 11.6 through 11.13, an en gineer needs to keep the following points in mind:11.14 General Comments and Allowable Pile Capacity 514 T T Nottingham and Schmertmann (1975); Schmertmann (19% 1.25 as |__ Concrete and 7 -—— timber piles 025 05 10 15 20 Baa Pa Figure 11.25 Variation of a’ with f./p, for piles in clay (p, = atmosphic pressure 100 kN/m* or 2000 Ib/ft?) L In calculating the area of cross section, A ,, and the petimetes, p, of piles with de- veloped profiles, such as H-piles and open-ended pipe piles, the effect of soil plug should be considered. According to Figures 11.10b and 11.10c, for pipe piles, w-(2 and Similarly, for H-piles, and P= 2d; + dy) Note that for H-piles, because d; > d), D = d). 2. The ultimate point load relations given in Eqs. (11.13), (11.20), and (11.30) are for the gross ultimate point load; that is, they include the weight of the pile. So the net ultimate point load is approximately Q5isety = Qpreros) ~ 4'Ap512 Chapter 11. Pile Foundations 11.15 However, is practice, for soils with $' > 0, the assumption is made that + Qyicet) = Onion In cohesive soils with 6 = 0,N% = 1. (See Figure 11.12) Hence, from Eq. (11.13), Qpigrosy = (CuNE + Q'VA, Qpiner) = ((CuNE + 9') ~ W'IAp = CNP Ay = IyAy = Oy This relation is the one given in Eq. (11.19). Alter the total ultimate load-carrying capacity of a pile has been determined by sum- ming the point bearing capacity and the frictional (or skin) resistance, a reasonable factor of safety should be used to obtain the total allowable load for each pile, or =m Qu = Fs (11.64) where Q,y = allowable load-carrying capacity for each pile FS = factor of safety ‘The factor of safety generally used ranges from 2.5 to 4, depending on the uncer- taintjes surrounding the calculation of ultimate load, Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock Sometimes piles are driven to an underlying layer of rock. In such cases, the engi- peer must evaluate the bearing capacity of the rock. The ultimate unit point resis- tance in rock (Goodman, 1980) is approximately Ip = aNy + 1) (31.65) tan? (45 + 9'/2) unconfined compression strength of rock $’ = drained angle of frietion ‘The unconfined compression strength of rock can be determined by laboratory tests on rock specimens collected during field investigation. However, extreme caution should be used in obtaining the proper value of q,, because laboratory specimens usually are small in diameter. As the diameter of the specimen increases, the uncon fined compression strength decreases—a phenomenon referred t0 as the scale ef ‘fect. For specimens larger than about 1 m (3 ft) in diameter, the value af q, remains approximately constant, There appears to be a fourfold to fivefold reduction of the magnitude of q, in this process. The scale effect in rock is caused primarily by ran- domly distributed large and small fractures and also by progressive ruptures along the slip lines. Hence, we always recommend that uta) Gudsesigny = (21.66)11.15. Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock 513 Table 11.7, Typical Unconfined Compressive Table 11.8 Typical Values of Angle of Friction 6’ Strength of Rocks of Rocks Type of rock Angle of 6" chic! Sandstone Sandstone 7 Limestone Limestone 105-210 15,000-30,000 Shale Shale 35-70 5000-10,000 Granite Granite 140-210 20,000-30,000 Marble Marble 60-70 8500-10,000 Table 11.7 lists some representative values of (laboratory) unconfined com- pression strengths of rock. Representative values of the rock friction angle ¢ are given in Table 11.8. A factor of safety of at least 3 should be used to determine the allowable point bearing capacity of piles. Thus, (No + 1] FS Qpain = (1.67) Example 11.1 A concrete pile is 16 m (Z) long and 410 mm X 410 mm in cross section. The pile is fully embedded in sand for which y = 17 KN/m’ and 4" = 30°. Calculate the ultimate point load, ,, by ‘8, Meyerhof’s method (Section 11.7). b. Vesic’s method (Section 11.8). Use I, = /, ¢. Janbu’s method (Section 11.9). Use m' = 90°. 50, Solution Parta From Eq. (11.15), Op = Apa’'NG = ApyLNG For $! = 30°, Ni ~ 55 (see Figure 11.12),s0 Q, = (0.41 X 0.41 m?)(16 x 17)(55) = 2515 KN Again, from Eq. (11.17), Gp = (O.5p, Nj tan "A, = [(0.5) (100) (55) tan 30](0.41 x 0.41) = 267 KN Hence, Q, = 267KN514 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations Partb From Eqs. (11.20), (11.21), and (11.22) with c’ = 1+2(1 Q, = AyoiNE = [26 “ Jans 50, the value of N3 is about 36, (See Table 11.4.) So Q, = (OA1 x oan 220582 Jas X 17) (36) = 1097kN For 6” = 30° and J, 3 Part ¢ From Eq. (11.31) with c’ = 0 Oy = As'NG For ' = 30° anda = 90°, the value of Nf ~ 18.4, (See Table 11.5.) Therefore, Q, = (0.41 X 0.41) (16 x 17) (18.4) = 841 KN Example 11.2 For the pile described in Example 11.1, a. Given that K = 13 and 8 = 0.84", determine the frictional resistance Q,. Use Eqs. (11.14), (11.38), and (11.39). b. Using the results of Example 11.1 and Part a of this problem, estimate the al- lowable load-carrying capacity of the pile. Let FS = 4. Solution Parta From Eq. (11.37), L~ 15D = 15(0.41 m) = 6.15 m From Eq. (11.38), at z = 0,04 = 0,80 f = 0. Again, at z= L’ = 6.15 m 05 = yL! = (17)(6.15) = 104.55 kN/m? | So f = Ko},tan 6 = (1.3) (104.55)(tan(0.8 x 30)] = 60.51 kN/m? ‘Thus, 20 F feos Q.= (fet fesse oy ¥ fasap(l ~ L) = (222) 0.41) (6.15) + (60.51) (4 x 0.41) (16 - 6.15) = 305.2 + 977.5 = 1282.7 KN11.15 Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock 518 Part b We have Q, = Q, + Q,. From Example 11.1, the average value of Q, is 267 + 1 + Be cul = Mera At 735 kN So 1 (735 + 1282.7) = $044 kN . Example 11.3 For the pile described in Example 11.1, estimate Qyy using Coyle and Castello’s method, [See Section 11.10 and Eq. (11.43),] ‘Solution From Eqs. (11.33) and (11.43), Q.= Q, + OQ, = q'NfA, + Ka,tan(0.86') pL and L_ 16 D041 For ' = 30° and L/D = 30, N+ = 25 (see Figure 11.14) and K ~ 0.2 (see Fig- ure 11.19). Thus, Q, = (47 16) (25) (0.41 x 0.41) ES o2(2 + *8)iancos X 30) (4 x 0.41) (16) = 390 = 1143 + 317.8 = 1460.8 kN and Be _ M608 _ 365.2 KN . Oa Fs Example 11.4 A driven pipe pile in clay is shown in Figure 11.26a. The pipe has an outside di- ameter of 406 mm and a wall thickness of 6.35 mm. a, Calculate the net point bearing capacity. Use Eq. (11.19).Chapter 14 Pile Foundations Chay Gan) = 00 KN/aa® > Yas 7 18.6 KN/n* (@) (b) Figure 41.28 Estimation of the load bearing capacity of a driven pipe pile b, Calculate the skin resistance (1) by using Eqs (11.54) and (11.55) (a method), 2) by using Eq. (11.52) (A method), and (3) by using Eq. (11.56) (#8 method). For all clay layers, $_ = 30°. The top 10 m of clay is normally consolidated. ‘The bottom clay layer has an OCR of 2. ¢. Estimate the net allowable pile capacity. Use FS = Solution ‘The area of cross section of the pile, including the soil inside the pile, is z A,= =D? 7 (0.406)? 0.4295 m* Part a: Calculation of Net Point Bearing Capacity From Eq. (11.19), Qp = Aely = ApN Burn, = (0.1295) (9) (100) = 116.58 KN Part b: Calculation of Skin Resistance (1) Using Eqs. (11.54) and (11.55), we have Q, = Zac, pAL ‘The variation of vertical effective stress with depth is shown in Figure 11.26b- ‘Now the following table can be prepared:41.15 Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock S17 Average Depth — depth. « (mim) (Figure 11.24) os 25 06 S10 75, 09 10-30 20 0.725 ‘Thus, lercuaylr + atuayla + astuaylalp = [(0.6) (30) (5) + (0.9) (30) (5) + (0-725) (100) (20))( & 0.406) = 2136 KN @ From Bq. 11.52, fy = A(@ + 2c,). Now, the average value of c, is Cuqy(30) + cuep(20) _ (30) (10) + (400) (20) _ OE T6T RN en? To obtain the average value of @, the diagram for vertical effective stress varia- tion with depth is plotted in Figure 11.26b. From Eq. (11.53), Ay + Art Ay _ 225 + 552.38 + 4577 ° L 30 From Figure 11.22, the magnitude of A is 0.14. So = 178.48 KN/m* far = O2A[IT8.AB + (2)(76.7)) = 46.46 KN/mn? Hence, Q. = play = (0.406) (30) (46.46) = 1778 KN (3) The top layer of clay (10 m) is normally consolidated, and = 30°. For z = 0-5 m, from Eq. (11.60), we have Fayay = (A = sin GR) tam Ge Ge = (1 sin 30°) (tan 309252) = B.0KN/ mt Similarly, for z = $-10 m. frye) = (1 ~ sin 30°) (tan son (2490 *) = 31.9 kN/m?518 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations For z = 10-30 m from Eq. (11.61), fy = (1 ~ sin. dg)tan dxVOCR O, For OCR = Foy = (2 — 8in 36°) (1008 ary va{ 09s + 2678 So Q, = Plfavery(S) + fever (5) + favcay(20)] = (ar) (0.406)[(13) (5) + (31.9) (5) + (93.43)(20)] = 2670 kN Part c: Calculation of Net Ultimate Capacity, Q, We have Quai = eet ~ 2195 kN Thus, Q, = Op + O, = 116.55 + 2195 = 2311.55 kN and Example 11.5 A concrete pile 305 mm X 305 mm in cross section is driven to a depth of 20 m' below the ground surface in a saturated clay soil. A summary of the variation of frictional resistance f, obtained from a cone penetration test is as follows: Depth Friction resistance, f, (my (kg/em) , 0-6 035 6-12 0.56 12-20 0.72 Estimate the frictional resistance Q, for the pile. Solution We can prepare the following table:11.16 Pile Load Tests 519 Depth f a ak a fplal (m) {kN/m?) (Figure 11.25) (om) Eq. (17.631) kN) 0-6 34.34 084 6 2S 6-12 54.94 om 6 2855 12-20 70.63 08 8 4342 Note: p = (4) (0.305) = 122m ‘Thus, Da'f.p(AL) = 931kN Example 11.6 An H-pile (size HP 310 125) having a length of embedment of 26 m is driven through a soft clay layer to rest on sandstone. The sandstone has a laboratory un- confined compression strength of 76 MN/m? and a friction angle of 28°. Use a factor of safety of 5, and estimate the allowable point bearing capacity. Solution From Eqs (11.66) and (11.67), Pe ]=(s-3)-}} Onn = 3 From Table 11-1a, for HP 310 X 125 piles, A, = 15.9 x 10° m?, so a {Re [soos + 2) + 1 ]}ass x 107m) Qpaxy = ee —_ = 182kN . Pile Load Tests In most large projects, a specific number of load tests must be conducted on piles The primary reason is the unreliability of prediction methods The vertical and lateral load- bearing capacity of a pile can be tested in the field. Figure 11.27a shows a schematic diagram of the pile load arrangement for testing axial compression in the field. The load is applied to the pile by a hydraulic jack. Step loads are applied to the pile, and