Guillerma ona) Collazes RESOURCES HANDBOOK LARRY W. MAYSLibeary of Compress Intldes nde. eu ha! tan pei sa 2 cr McGraw-Hill A ieion of The Mera tl Companies Copyright © 1996 by The MeGraw-Hill Companies, Ine. Al rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Except ss permited under the United Sines Copyright Aet of 1976, no part thi pubiention may be reproduced or distbuted in any form or by aay means on stoned in data Ise or retrieval system, without the prior wren permission of the pul tahoe 1234567%9 pocwOC 90109876 ISHN Do7.081 150.6 The sponsoring editor for this book was Larry S Hage the eding super ‘asor was Virgin Carrol. andthe pruction supervisor oes Suanme WB Rapeavage Hearst Ties Reman by Nonh Marke Sree Graphs Printed and bound by RR. Donley & Sons Company: Information contained in this work has been obained by The MeGiawt hl Companies, Ine McCraw Hil) rom sources belived tobe reliable: However, neither MeGrow- 4 nor tt suthorspuatantee the accuracy or compltenes of any ie. tation published herein, andthe McGraw: Hil hors authors shall be responsible for any errors omisions. oF shoes asing out ese ofthis information Tis work Sothors are suppving information but are not alemping to tener eiteting ote profesional seve auch se Wes are fequted the asitance of 99 appropiate profes ‘onal shouldbe sought poropaate INTERNATIONAL EDITION Copsright © 1996. Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill for manufacture and ‘export This book cannot be re-exported from the country fo whichis co sipned by MeGraw HI The Intemational Eultion isnot avaliable in North ‘Americn. When ordering this tile, use ISN 0.07-114517.6 Tvs hook it printed on ac fee paper CONTENTS Contibutors xi Pretace x oknowledgmants i Part 1 Principles for Water Resources Chapter 1. Water Resources: An Introduction LI Historia Perspectives on Water Resources 11.1 12 Aerepeetive on Earth and the Universe 118 13 Water mhe Earth Atmosphere Systern 17 UE Availity of Wateron Earth 7.24 15 Ingredient for Water Resoures 128 1's Future Dwections for Water Resourcer 1.20 References / 134 Chapter 2, Principles of Flow of Ws 21 Introduction 21 22 Detiniions / 2 23 Cloned: Condit Flow / 26 24 Freon Lowes 027 25 Form Laster 2/4 26 Open Channel Flow 1 226 27 Groundwater Flow / 2.94 28 Transport Processes 1 239 Reerencee 7 242 Chapter 3. Water Economic 2 Inroduction and Overview J UNIVERSIDAD POLITECNICA VALENCIA BIBLIOTECA Signature. Tipo préstamo 42 Why I Water Policy Design So Difficult? Fconomic and Related Considerations 735 5.3 Positive Economics of Water Empitial Relationships and Measurements 10 M4 Nowmative Economies and Water Pocy. 1 119 35 Brood Policy Options for Manaying Water: Markets Versus Governments 322 16 Water Pricing and Allocation sues. 7 326 17 Rconomis of Wler and Environmental Quality Management 1 3.6 218 Economie Exalation of Police for Floodplain Management / 25 39 Concluding Remarks! 150 References 1 450Chapter 14. Computer Models for Water-Quality Analysis ua Chapter 19. Wastewater-Collection Systems Relrcmcen 1 1428 Chapte Relercnges 1S References 1 To Chapter 17. Wate 18 Design Criteria References 7739 PKI Overview 1 1d 1 pine INE 1 11 tnacon 7 161 191 tnocion 1182 1 Ronin Suc Mode 4s 158 Guaniy of ana Wastewner / 192 13 Suna Mer ety Moet? ear 193 Quntyotsiomene 98 1 Ghosienecean inte (i 134 nyraubsolSence TJ 198 Dosguot Seren 1916 136 Sent Appancnonce | 1928 197 Pong and Face si 1 1927 einen 58 Part 3 Water Resources Supply Systems. Chapter 20, Wastewater Treatment ze 18, Surtace Water Resource Systems 183 Sees 20. estore Te za Seneca ater Resource Syst 201 Wasteater Chances / 202 154 Surface Water Rese Stem An ouoducon 7159 Zoi wancrareucnen Mehodsand Standard / 2015 TS2 Desens sean ose Ose isa 303 mys neamen heb 389) 153 Siem Sime Canurteand Dae’) 150 do4 Cewialteanen ets a 1 Suan Aakioy eer ae 205 pen cum Mets T54 Sitcom Pee ens 28 as Nunn teseed ios cea 2n4 tentngiadronced atom Renment F204 Zon eninn and poo Shans a Dann 2050 409 Naural Teament Syaen 1 3658 2240 Were Recmctnd Ree 1 2038 Chapter 16. Groundwater Systems sa BU eauen Dopoat | 3008 wusion 7 ta Sp woncouet Namen Man Design 1 2065 162 tmese Mob Paras Mention +163 221 DecenalaedWasevaerMansement Sytem | 2048 Id Opimal Experimental Dean or Prange Metieion /. 1818 16.5 Conjunetive Use of Surface Water and Groundwater 1 16.22 Chapter 21. Water Reclamation and Reuse Zt tee Catia a en 212 Sure Reve 1212 23 dcr uy Concer / 203 Treatment Systems va 314 Winter Quality Coseratons or RevseAppestions 1 2111 — 215 woe Redason od Ree Ch’ Ss 171 Wwerremen Gan 771 21s Suman are 1rd Iyscalicamen ent 76 nee THA Mlekpmes Water Guy ner 6120 Ha Deage Dees iad : In 7 2 M13 tlenenstAdenced Nesta) 1736 2 Came Sits of gation 221 179 Rance came 36 23 hector bene” | a3 " Bi lrgatoniatacte Pej Lev 1 225 25 fetes 30 2 lngatorSyem Peromatce 2220 Chapter 18. Water Distribution 11 21 Gotermet anc Pans 322 Chopter 18. Water Distribution _ : 22a WanceRipto ones T2058 Bo Conca hes 27 Wee tars 2 2840 Summary 1 3209 Reece Te Pug stovons (1921 1 ee ase Chapter 23, Water Demand Anaiysis 196 Appurtemanees (1426 187 Flow Memurement 18.34 1A Operation and Maintenance (14.39 References Thad 21 Water Use Data 128 232 PubleSupply Water Use 1 2412 References / 2467 aaa conteNTs Chapter 4 Principles of Planning and Financing for Wa in the United States * aaa ani 4a 44 Inrodicton 7 ar 43 Prince? 2 43 Rhver Bsns nd ote 42 44 Comprchensne Panning Sm Mile Prpose Facies 1 42 Mingior Wc cd tana ectaney any | * & Allcstonand Rescatonoighe Uaoes Use 42 Conieration of Ateratncs | ayo, NSE US 40 48 Esataton fa 49 Ginancing 1429 410 iegrat Management 434 4.11 Coneating Commons 148 Retecnces Th t Chapter 5. Water Law 51 $81 Function of Water Law 157 52 Water Law Systeme 73.3 53 Water Use Roles 7 57 544 Public Water Rights 15.13 55 Federal State Relations 1617 References! 324 A Chapter 6. Systems Analysis 61 61 Sywems Conape 7 67 82 Linar Programing (2) 74 £3 Nonineer Popa 08 64 Dynami Popanming / 68 65 Ohl Cont tbs 84 IericingOpinses ih Pres Sinultrs 4 67 Muttiobjective Programming {6.29 “ fn Selected Apieaion in Wate Resouces 1 6 Relerences 400 vee ‘Chapter 7. Uncertainty and Reliability Analy a 21 tmrodcton 1 7 272 Kevew of Pesinent Probably and Stasi! Theones 7. 73 Methods fc ‘Uncertaimty Analysis re nm * {4 Lond Resse ncttene Reliab Anas 226 15 Rehab Arias Ine toate ase 24 Monte Caro Simulation 7 742 0 MONS 1 738 1 System Reaiy Fa 24 Rok Bose Des of Water Resources Syms References 1 26) a (7s Part2 Water Resource Quality (Natural Systems) Chapter 8. Water Quality aa 1 Water Ovaiy 1 a. 152 Physical Characteristics of Weer / 8.5 contents wi 143 Chemical Characteristics of Water 8/1 184 Microbologcal Characteristic of Water J. 8.17 85 Biologial Characteristics 7-840 6 Water Quality Management 1 840 References 1848 Chapter 9. Lakes and Reservoirs oo 94 Introduction / 9.1 92 Physieal Characteristics ¢ 92 93 Hydrologic and Chemical Budgets 93 94 BlogcochemicalProceses of Pelutants / 916 95 Astesiment Methods 79.28 96 Envitonmontal Prablems of Lakes and Reserves / 9.17 97 Restoration of Lakes and Reservoirs 1-92 Referens 1949 Chapter 10. Rivers and Streams 101 10.1 Classical Wastewater Problems. 10.1 102 Modern Steam Plltion Problems 110 103 The Future 17028 104 EconomictCost-Etfectiveness 110.30 References 11037 Chapter 11. Groundwater 141 Quality of Natural Groundwater 117 112 Anthropogenic Contamination 117 113 Microbiologia! Folation of Groundwater 11.24 Appendix ILA Substances Knowa to Occur im Groundwater with Examplesufthes 11127 Relevences 1 15 Chapter 12, Estuaries wa 124 Introduction J 121 2 Morphology / 1217 3 Hydrodynamics nd Tansport Processes 1 1222 4 Whiter Quay 1257 125 Ecology 112.78 References 12102, Chapter 13, Wetlands maa 1A tntrodustion 112 2 Wetlands Defined #132 133 Welland Types 13.7 ‘4 Welland Formation 7-137 5 Weiland Fuetions Versus Values 1.138 136 The Effects of Land-Use Practices on Weiland Hydrologic Functions A Southeastern Cie Study 11128 133 Summaty and Conclusions | 14.17 Referencer 1238Part 4 Water Resources Excess Management Chapter 24, Hydrology for Water-Excess Management 243 241 Introduction 4 24 242 Determination of the Design Storm / 247 243 Determination ofthe Design-Stocm Hydrograph 2418 244 ow Routing 1 2428 245 Hyrlogic Frequency Analysis / 24.47 246 Hydologi Design 1 2440, Refeeencos 1 2445 Chapter 25. Hydraulics for Excess Water Management 253 251 Intadvetion £25 282 Clinsication of Flow 1252 254 Hydaulic Equations | 35-4 254 Flow Resistance 25.10 255 Steady Uniform Flow 1-25.19 254 Nonunform Flow WaterSurace Profile {25.24 257 Approximate Medels for Unsteady Flow Competaion / 25.28 254 Fite Dilference Numencl Schemes for Fw Routing. {2.41 289 Chanel Network 25:1 2510 Mase Principles fo Selection of Hydraulic Level of Equations ‘or Solving Problems 7-25.47 2511 Determination of Channel Carrying Capacities / 25.49 References 12852 Chapter 26. Urban Sto Mar ent 264 261 Intodvetion 1 261 262 Estimation of Urban Stormwater Quantity 1 262 263 Drainage of Urban Areas 264 264 Storm Sewer Layout and Design. / 2610 265 Storage, Teauwent and Overlows. 2619 266 Pstimating Urban StornwaterPaluuat Loads 2625 26.7 Pallant Seueaty 26,0 References 26.1 Chapter 27. Federal Perspactive for Flood-Damage-Reduction Stu 274 tnwroducion 1-271 212 Common Requirements 1 273 213 Without Project Conditions 127.12 214 Reservoin 1 2714 215 Diveriom 12727 216 Channel Modications 2725, 277 Levees and Floodwalle {2731 274 Gather Measures That Reduce Existing Condition Damage Suscepibiliy 1 2739 279 Messures That Reduce Putute-Condiion Damage Suscepuibity 27.46. 2140 System Analysis) 27.99 Refevences/ 2731 Chapter 28. Computer Modbols for Water-Excoss Management 204 241 Introduction (28 2A2 Runoff Process Computer Models / 286 263 Povist Process Models 2815 244 Allvil Process Models 12420 XS Presute-Flow Pcess Mosk 1 2822 2X6 Statistical Process Computer Models 147 Performance Madels 72898 248 Warnings 72440 Reterones 128.8) Part 5 Water Resources for the Future Chapter 29. Global Climate Change: Effect on Hydrologie Cycle 293 281 Introduction | 20.8 292 ClinateChange Sconaion | 2947 293 Use of tiydological Model for Climate Assessment Stes | 29.22 294 Reserva Modeling for Chmate-Change Asvevment 29.26 References 1 2920 Chapter 30. Ecological Effects of Global Climate Change fon Freshwater Ecosystems with Emphasis on Streams and Rivers 30.1 3011 Global Cinate Change and Freshwater: Boundaries und Scenarios 30. M2 Effects on Sitcoms and Rivers 110.) 303 Eefecs on Lake Ecosystems | 3014 30a Water Quality 7 303 305 Conservation ses 1 3047 Wé Freshwater Systems as Feedbacks on Climate Change. #4018 M17 Interaction of Climate Change and Anthvopogenic Change? 202 Referens 1 020 Chapter 31. Energy and Water a4 MLA Hydropower Sten / 402 312 Wher Supply tor Thental owst Generation 8017 31.3 Water and Power from the Columba River 329 Chapter 32. Water-Use Management: Permit ind Water-Transfer Systems 321 Inwodvetion 32 322 Foundations of Watee-Withdcawal Repulations / 2.2 323 WaterUse Permit Systeme 1 122 324 Permi Program Objectives 32.5 32.5 Petmit Problems for Water Wihdrawal Control 1326 326 Technies! Details of Permit Systems 229 327 Voluntaty Water Transfer Systems 32/4 328 Types of Water TraslerArtangements. / 42.19 329 inplementing Water Transfers 1 3224 32.10 Summary and Implications for Regulatory Progra aa Water Transfers / 2230 Reterencer 1922Chapter 33. Decision Support Systems (DSS) for We 3X1 Intecetion"The DSS Concept 13.1 382 TERRA: Example and Working Hypoihesy | 234 MY DSS A Clncrlonk 7 380 AGE DSS:Desinand Development 32/4 M15 Of Tools and Toye 124 Mm DSS:Comiagaf Age or Forever a Promise? | 3229 Reterencen / an Index 13 CONTRIBUTORS Robert 8, Ambrose, Jt, US EPA Nationa Exposure Research Lab (Car. 14) Lawrence A. Baker Arizona State University (car.9) ‘Thomas 0. well Je. US EPA Notional Exposure Research Lab (ctr. 14) Franklin L. Burton Burton Environmental Engineering (CHa. 19) Stoven C. Chapra University of Colorado (Cars 10,33) [M.Hanif Chaudhry. Waington Site Univers (cna. 2) ZaldK. Chowdhury Malco Pine le. (tin. 17) Albert J.Clommens U5 Woter Conseration Latoratary (cwAt.22) James Crook Black & Veatch (car-21) wedykt Da ‘J.Waylend Eheaet Universi of tino at Urbana-Champaign (CHNP.32) Stuart G.Fisher Arizane State University (eur. 30) David Ford. Consulting Hydrologic Engineer (ars 27.28) Michael J Geahom Bate Pacific Nordhwest Laboratories (war. 1N) Nancy B. Grimm Arizona Site Universi (car 30) T.d.Griseard Virginio Tech (car. 26) lewshi Southern Illinois Univery- Carbondale cua. 28) Douglas Hamilton Contling Engineer (ar. 28) Robert W. Hinks Arizona State University (CHAP. 24) Benjamin F Mobbs The Johns Hopkint Univeriy (CAF 31) Hydrologie Engineering Canter US. Army Corps of Engineers (ear. 27) Marvin E. Jensen Conlon (cA. 22) DF Kibler Virginia Tec (car. 26) Dennis .Lettenmaler University of Warhington (CAP. 29) G.V.Logenathan Virginia Tech (CHAP. 26) Danie! P Loucks. Comell University (CA. 15) ‘Jay R Lund University of California at Dans (ON.31.32) David Maldment University of Texatat Austin (H9r.23) Joseph F Malina, J. University of Terr at Austin (Har 8) Laney W. Mays Arizona State University (CHAPS. 16,28) Grogory MeCabe US Geological Survey (sar. 29) Steve ©. MeGutcheon US EPA National Exporure Research Lab (CHAP. 14) F.Blaine Metting Bate Pacific Northwest Laboratories (Har 11) Fichord L. Mittlstedt US Army Corp of Engineers (cunt 31)Clay L Montague Universiy of Florida (tat. 12) David H. Moreau Universiy of North Carolina at Chapel Hil (cna. 4) Eva M, Oplte Planning and Management Consitons Ld. (HAP.23) ene Reitsma University of Colorado (cua. 33) John A. Replogle US Water Conservation Laboratory (CHAr.22) Curtis J. Richardson Duke Univers (car. 13) Eugene Z.Stakiiv US Army Corpe of Engineers (car. 29) Kenneth M. Strzepek Universiy of Colorado (cat. 53) A.Dan Taslock Chiago-Ken Collegeof Law (CHat.5) George Tehobanoglous Universtyof Calfornia- Dave (CHAP. 20) James M, Thomas US Geological Survey (CuAe.11) Yeou-Koung Tung University of Wyoming (CHAPS.6,7) ‘Thomas M, Walski Wilkes University (ar. 18) George H. Ward, Jt: Universiy of Teas ax Austin (une. 12) Garret P Wasterhoff Malcolm Piie Ine (cia. 17) Joseph R. Willams. US EPA Nanral Risk Manogement Lab (CHA. 14) Wiliam Yon Universi of California-Los Angeles (CHAP. 16) ‘Bon Chie Yon University of iol at Urbana-Champaign (ar.23) Robert A. Young. Colorado State Universi (cua. 3) Edith A.Zagona Universiy of Coloredo (cise. 33) PREFACE Water affect the life of every human on Earth: to0 little oF too much san be dete ‘mental to our livelihood; the quality affects our health and well-being: and th. bbeauty can be found in the many streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans. If you. ask a child what water means 1 them, they might write a poem about water similar {o what my twelve-year-old son, Travis, wrote ealled "Water, Water, Everywhere Cal and glistening Sparkles tke many crystals (lear and beaut You drink every day Sparkling and clesr water Unfortunately as we all know, there is much more to the poem that ea be written, ‘no So optimistically In her book Silent Spring, Rachel Carson presented some selected quotes in the ‘ront pages The frst is by Albert Schweitzer: "Man has lost the capaci to foresee and to forestall. He will end by destroying the Earth,” The second is by E. B. White 1am pessimistic about the human race because is 100 ingenious forts own good Our approach to nature sto beat tint submission We would stand a better chance of so wnlif we accommodated ourselves thi planet and viewed i appreciate insiead ‘of skepially and dictatorial. Inthe list chapter of The Other Roud, Rachel Cars ‘he road we have fong Been travsing i Ueptively cary, a smooth superhighway on which we progress with great speed, Buta send is diasterThe other fark a the oad one" Tess taveledby"—ofersourlae,ouronly shane toreathadstinaton that asures the preservation of ou earth Alter having thought about these many times I am optimistic thal the human race has the ability o foresee and is not 100 ingenious for its own good that we will not beat nature into submission, We will survive as we continu to learn how to accommodate ourselves to this planet and view it appreciatively Hopelally we have {aken, and will continue 10 take, the other fork of the road in the development and Utilization of our water resources on Earth, Let the elfort in developing this han book be a contribution to tha process of learning how to accommodateourselves on this planet ‘During the past few decades, water resources and the related fies have under {gone a revolution in stientific development and in methods available for anal} and design. The advent of the computer has changed our entire thought process andability o understand and model complex processes a5 Well as archive and analyze voluminous amounts of data. Such abilites were simply impossible only » few dlecades ago. A major emphasis of this book is to present the state of the ast of the ‘many topics related to water resources First and foremost, this handbook is intended to be a reference book for those ‘wishing o expand their knowledge of water resources. The handbook can be used aa 8 companion along the pathway of learning about water resources it Keneral oe about special topics in water resources. can be used to begin the journey andlor to ontinue the journey as a road map to other publications and specific topes beyond {he intent ofthis handbook. The handbook should serve a aeference to sngeers Planners economists, attorneys, managers, hydrologists, designers, poly, sober ecologist, political scientists, biologists educators ecologists, imnolopin, googie Phers, public administrators, resource developers, environmentaliste, eel stents and others, The Field of water resources is diverse resulting in a wide range of subject matter that should be covered in a water resources handbook The handbook sect war {cr selected reflects my personal perception of water resources The chapiess were therefore chosen to reflect what I feel are the most directly related loves te the widest range of readers with an interest in water resources Space limitaroes won exer, did not allow for an all-inclusive treatment of all fields related to wate fesources. Examples include many related topics inthe biological siences phyeeal Sciences social sciences, and engineering The handbook comprises five sections Principles for Water Resources, Chapters {to 1: Water Quality of Natura Systems, Chapters 8 to 14; Water Resource Sapoly Systems, Chapters 15 to 23; Water Resources Excess Management, Chapters 26 1 2&.and Water Resources for the Future, Chapters 29 103 My intent wee that these five sections cover the major topics of a water resourees handbook. at lean whe Larry W. Mays ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | must frst acknowledge the authors who made this handbook possible, It has been sincere privilege to have worked with such an excellent group of dedicated people, They are all experienced professionals who are among the leading experts m tee respective fields. References to material inthis handbook should be atributed to the respective chapter authors. Each chapter was reviewed by professionals in their particular area of expertise. | would like o thank each of these people for their lime and effort. You have cer tainly been a major contribution to the completion of this handbook During the past twenty years of my academic eareer I have received help and encouragement from so many people that it is not possible to name them all‘These people represent a wide range of universities, research institutions, government Agencies, and professions. To all of you I express my deepest thanks ' would like to acknowledge the support that I have received from Arizona State University Even though I have served as Chair ofthe Department of Civil and Env. ‘ronmental Engineering during this time, my efforts were made possible through the hard work and dedication of Debbie Trimmels and Ethel Bruce of my stall. who not conly helped on this handbook but also kept the department going, A special thanks oes to Professor Paul Ruff the associate chair of the department, who kept things Boing in my absence and who covered me in meetings when [could not tend. © very special thanks goes to Dr. Guia Li who helped in many ways, including work ‘nthe many figures and permissions. "appreciate the advice and encouragement of Larty Hager of McGraw-Hill Last ofall. would like to ive a special thanks to Ginny Carroll and team of North Mar ket Street Graphies in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, who were in chatge of the handbook production, ‘This handbook has been part of a personal journey that began over forty years ‘ago when I was a young boy with a love of water. Books are companions along the journey of lestning. I ope that you will be able ty use this handbook im yourrown, journey of learning about water tesources. Have a happy and wonderful journey, | would like to dedicate this handbook to humanity and human weltae Larry W Mays[Pa Riri | PRINCIPLES FOR WATER RESOURCES ABOUT THE EDITOR byt Br hye ha eet pelicano ruta nentarclapt oy ataoaes enCHAPTER 1 WATER RESOURCES: _AN INTRODUCTION Larry W. Mays Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering ‘Arizona Siate University Tempe, Arizona 1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON WATER RESOURCES: Water resources cannot be studied without studying humanity. To quote Chief Seat tle, chief of the Suguamish tribe, who lived aeross Puget Sound from the site of the city that later arose in Seatte’s name, "Man did not weave the web of life he i merely a strand init. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself” The first images of the surface of the Earth as seen from the moon over two decades 230 helped us visualize Earth asa unit.an integrated set of systems—land masses, almo. sphere, oceans, and the plant and animal kingdom. These images have also helped us {orealze that threats to one ofthese integrated systems could harm them al 1.41.1 Water Resources Development in Anti y Humans have spent most of their history as hunting and food gathering beings. Only in te Jat 9000 to 10,000 years have we discovered haw to raise crops and tame an ‘mals Such revolution probably first took place i the ills tothe north of present day Iraq and Syria. From there the agricultural revolution spread tothe Nile and Indus valleys During this agricultural revolution, peemanent villages took the place of a wandering existence. About 6000 to 7000 years ago, farming villages of the Newr and. Middle East became cities. Farmers learned to false mote food than they needed, allowing others to spend time making things useful to their civilization. People began to invent and develop technologies, including how to transport and manage water for irtigation, ‘The firs suecessfut efforts to controt the flow of water were made in Egypt and Mesopotamia, Remains of these prehistoric irrigation works still exist. In ancient Egypt the construction of canals was a major endeavor of the Pharaohs and their 214 ‘CHAPTER ONE. ants. egoningn Scorpio’ time, One othe fs duties of provincial governor sph gn an nar of cana hich were we ogee an ile the Nie was lowing high Te land was checkessomted Nena Gace timed by a system of dikes, Pol ne ie owswere flooded, drowning thousands Dur 0 tops could grow. In many places wher elds were oo high resee ftom the canals water vas drawn tom the canals or the Nile deecty by the ase shad These consisted of bucket onthe end of acord which hang onthe ong end ola pivoted boom, counterweigted atthe short end (de Corie 1960) se building of canals continued in Egypt throughout the sents The Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia built cy wal and temples and dup canals that were the wor fist engineering works Is abo a atte ty ae eopl, rom the begining of recorded histor, ought over water righ Ieee vas exiremely vital fo Mesopotamia, Greek forthe land between te (Trek od Euphrates) vers” An ancient Babylonian curse wan-My your canal beta a and” (de Camp, 1963) Their ancient las even deat wih canals and noes The following, tom about -VIs strats such a aw (de Came 1905) ing low flows the land did not receive water and ‘he genteman who opened his wal iigaion puipses, but id not make hi stongand hence caused fod and inundated eld ang ee ake ne ‘Ne oner of he lel on the bas thos sion Flooding problems were more setous in Mesopotamia than in Egypt because the Tar nd Euphrates cared several ies more at pr at volun of was oe wee faster and changing th weoltenin Both the Mesopotamian irigaton system nd that inthe Egyptian Dela were o the basin ype, which were opened by digging a gapin the embeokerer wah erccy y placing mud back nto the gap Water wat hosted sing the snaps, aes Ca Laws in Mesopotamia not only required farmers to keep eis Rees and ee suubineparbtao ede eveyone oelpwin cna sun tinse ood, or when new canals were Lobe dig or ol ones repre te ca Toes Some nal my have been ed fl years bate Teh eo bonnes caners were bull. Even today, 4000 to 5000 yeas ar the emuskenc er abandoned canals are sil present These canal systems in ck coon ne opuation than ves thee today. Over the ceria ihe seco Slee, ‘ania began o decay Because ofthe salt the lvl so es ase ee ot Conguered Meatpstemia and decroyed the gare The Asyrians aio developed exenaive pub works Sargon I invaded Arme nia in 714, discovering the gana! (Arabic nae) or karte Pesan some tea tuunel used to bring water from an underground saute nthe hile Soon es a footils, Sargon destroyed the area in Armenia but brought the sence bake Assyia This method of rigation spread over the Neat Eat inte Nosh heres ‘hecentures and sll used Sargons on Sennacherib ale dencloved unis soaks + Cesare are indeed by Roman ners pecedes by + ot ~azorSig to whether they ae ceo ‘ales ofthe Chan era or ence -V etre te sat enya ek oe nd Ma Se domeinteadelRonasnamcai tr canpe-Teuiidee mertaoitnathonam canon SSypertoy Ge wri amy Sn y op chan nn on Ca cs .WATER RESOURCES AN INTRODUCTION 15 bby damming the Tebitu River and using eanl to bring water to Nineveh, where the water could be used for irrigation without hosting devices. During high water in the Spring, overflows were handled by a municipal canebrake that was bult to develop marshes used as game preserves for deer, wld boar, and birch breeding areas When this system was outgrown, a new 30-mile canal was buil, with an aqueduct which had a layer of conerete or mortar under the upper layer of slone to prevent leakage The Greeks were the first to show the connection between engineering aids cence, although they borrowed ideas from the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Phoenicians: During the Hellenistic period, Ktesibius (-285--247), who lived in Alexandria, had several inventions including the force pump, the hydraulic pipe Corgan, the musical keyboard, the metal spring, and the water clock, Shortly alter Ktesibius, Philen of Byzantium also had many inventions, one of which was the water wheel. One application of this water wheel was a bucketchain water hoist, powered by an undershot waterwheel. This water hoist may have been the first recorded case of using the energy of running water for practical Use. Probably the greatest Hellenistic engineer, and one of the greatest intellects of all inte, was ‘Archimedes of Syracuse (-387--212), a contemporary of Philin, Archimedes Founded the ideas of hydrostatics and buoyancy The Hellenistic kings tegan to build Public bath houses ‘The early Romans devoted much of thet time to useful public works projects They built roads, harbor works, aqueducs, temples, forums, town halls arems, baths, and sewers. The prosperous early-Roman bourgeois (ypically had a dozen room howe, with a square hoe in the roof to let rin in, and acstern beneath the root to sore the water. Many aqueducts were built by the Romans; however, they were ot the fist to build these: King Sennacherio built aqueduct, as did both the Phoenicians and the Helenes The Romans and Helenes needed extensive aqueduct systems for thet foun ‘ains baths and gardens. They also realized that water transported from springs wis better for their health than river water, and didnot requite lting the water to stret level as did river water. Roman aqueducts were built on elevated structures vo provide the needed slope for water flow. Knowledge of pipe making—using bronze, lead ‘wood, tl, and conerete—was in its infancy, and the difficulty of making good large pipes was 3 hinderance. Most Roman piping was made of lead, and even the Romans ‘ecognized that water transported by lead pipes is health hazard The water souree for atypical water-supply system of a Roman city was a spring ‘ora dug well, usually witha bucket elevator t0 raise the water. I tke well water ws ear and of sufficient quantity, it was conveyed to the cily by aqueduct. Also, water from several sources was collected in a reservoir, hen conveyed by aqueduet ot pressure conduit to a distributing reservoir (eastellum). Three pipes conveyed the ‘water-one to pools and fountainn the second tw the pubic baths for public rey nue, and the third to private houses for revenue to maintain the aqueduets (Rowse and Ince, 1957), Irrigation was not a major concern, because of the terrain and the intermittent rivers. Romans di, however, drain marshes to obtain more farm land and because they were concerned about the bad ar,or “harmful spits" rising (rom the marshes, ‘which they thought caused disease (de Camp, 1963), The disease-camying mech ‘ism was not the air, or spirits, but the malaria-carrying mosquito, Brapedocles, the leading statesman of Acragas in Sicily during the Persian War (-V),desined the focal marshes of Selinus to improve the people's health (de Camp, 1963) He also thew: rized that all matter is ade of four elements: Eatth, air, ire, and water ‘The fll of the Roman Empire extended over a 1600-yeur transition period called the Dark Ages During this period, the concepts of science elated to water resources probably retrogressed. After the fall of the Roman Empire, water and sanitation16 ‘carrer one, indeed, public heath— i's axis moves toward the pole is radius Nesters Ta eeeeege aera eee m the earths surtace, coupled with The uneven distribution of ocean and land on th ed wih their different thermal properties creates additional spatial variation inatmospheri ireulation. The annual shifting ofthe thermal equator due tothe earth's revel | around the sun causes a corresponding oscillation of the three-cellcizculstion pa. tern. With a larger oscillation, exchanges of air between adjacent cells can be more frequent and complete, possibly resulting in many flood years. Also, Imonoons may advance deeper into such countries as India and Australia With a smaller os lation, Intense high pressure may build up around 30° fattude, thus creating extended dry Toward oun i branches, one branch moving toward the caecte ey the pole aad the Poe Inthe polar ce aitrises at 6" titade an ed The nd CHP eves then cons and flows back to 0" neat he sano at pote pte diven frictionally by the other twos surace Renee Pole, producing prevailing westerly ait ow in the midlattade16 periods Since the atmospheric ctcuaton i very complicated ony the general pt tern can be identified. yom ee me ‘The atenosphere is divided vertically nt various zones The atmospheric ctcula tion described above occurs the roposphere which anges in height fom sou atthe poles fo 16 kim at the equator Tae temperature tthe lopophere decreases with alte ata tate varying with the mosture conten of the ane sphere. For dry air the rate of decrease called the why adabae lapse rate and approximately 98*Crkm, The saturated adiabatc lapse hte less, about 63°C, because some ofthe vapor inthe ar condenses asses and cools eleaong heat into the surounding at-These are average figures or lapse tates that can sary com siderably with altitude. The ropopause separates the troposphere from the ane sphere above. Neat the wopopause, sharp changes in temperature and presse rode strong arto air currents known sje seams wih velocities tar ons 15 t 50s (30 to 100 mi), Tey low for thousands of Klometers and ave on important inluence on airmass movement The oceans exert an important contol on global climate. Because water bodies have thigh volumetic heat capacity. the oceans are able to flain pros quentinee st heat, Trough wave and current cirulation, the oceans redistribute hes to sees. erable depths and even large areas of the oceans Redistribution cast nestor west-east, and is also across the midaltudes {Tom the topics to the sebor, enhancing the overall poleward heat transfer in the atmosphere Waves tre predone nately generated by wind. Ocean craton iutatedn Figue 17 ‘Oceans have asipnificant effect on the stmosphere; however an exact understand- ing ofthe relationships and mechanisms involved ae not known, The sonelton between ocean temperatures and weather tends and midaitde events has no ben solved One trends the growth and destin ofa warm body of water inthe equator zone of the easter Pacific Ocean, referred to as El Nino (meaning "The Infant Spanish alluding to the Crist Child beease the effect ypcally begins around Chis ‘mas) The warm Body of water develops and expands every tive years of othe Const of Per, ntated by changesinatmosphenpressre resulting ao deine oe easterly rade winds This redution in wind ceducesesstance, causing the casnrdiy «squalor countercurrent to ise. As EI Nita bulds up the warm body of water ons ‘toto the Pacific and along the Wopical west coast ofthe Americ displacing the coler water ofthe California and Humboldtcurrens Ooe ofthe ineestngeilect of this weather variation the South Osilaion, which changes precipitation patra FIGURE 17 The actual cicuation ofthe oceans Major currents are shown with hey scous (art 19867) WATER RESOURCES: AN INTRODUCTION an ‘esulting in drier conditions where there would normally be substantial precipitation, And in wetter conditions in areas of normally ble precipitation, 1.25 Global Climates ‘The global climate must be viewed as operating within a complex atmsphere-han! ‘cean-ice system, Climate classification can be made in the form of a genetic clas fication, as that proposed by Straler (1969). He considers the three major climates, a: (1) low-latitude climates, which are controlled by equatorial and tropical ait masses, (2) mid-latitude climates, which ate controlled by both tropical and polat sir masses, and (3) high-latitude climates, which are controlled by polarand arte ait masses. These are subdivided into 15 elimatic regions as shown in Fig 18 1.3 WATER IN THE EARTH ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM 1.3.1. Origin of Wat ‘Venus, Earth, and Mars all have atmospheres with sola-forced circulations. Earths atmosphere is made up mainly of nitrogen and oxygen, which is contalled by bio logical processes. The atmospheres on Venus and Mars both have carbon dioxide, controlled by abiotic processes. The clouds on each ofthese planets however, have far different constituents-—Venus has sulfuric acid, Earth bas water, and Mars hos dust ‘Two classes of theories, evolutionary and genetic, have been used 10 explain water on Earth. Genetic theory contends thatthe chemical equilibriur of accreting gas and dustin the solar nebula led to the formation of solid constituents rich in hydrated minerals in Venus, Mars, and Earth. The water in these minerals and other volatiles, were released to varying degrees over time inthe formation of planetary atmospheres. The souree of water was the outgassing of water vapor from the earl interior through the extrusion of material by voleanoes and ocean upwellings over ecological time. Once released from the earth's interior, the juvenile water con, ‘densed, beeause the combined temperature and pressure atthe earth’ssurface were ideal for water to exist in liquid form, Venus and Mars had different results, Higher aceretion temperatures and tectonie activities on Venus led to outgassing followed by irteversibie photodisueiation of any water into hydrogen, which escaped 10 space, and oxygen, which reacted with surface elements. Carbon diovile created 9 ‘runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in a dry surface with a temperature of 461°C (National Research Council, 1991). Outgassing on Mars has been limited by lower Accretion temperatures and no tectonic activity. There is, however, evidence of sur face erosion by flowing liquid, possibly water, the source of which is unknown Mars’ atmosphere is thin and cold (53°C), which has led to seasonal polar eaps of frozen carbon dioxide and the possibility of extensive frozen subsurface water (National Research Council, 1991), ‘The evolutionary theory contends that the planets began with similar volatiles, ‘and that subsequent events led to their current composition. Some of these events may have even included meteorite impacts (National Research Counc, 1991), Earth probably once had a carbon dioxide atmosphere that was reduced by unique processes, such as biological processes. Probably the most unique thing aboutFIGURE L&_ Simplified word (Sirahier 1989), WATER RESOURCES:AN INTRODUCTION tas mosphere system i the ability forall theee phases of water (soli, iqui {0 coexist, which is certainly unique among the terrestrial planets, Figure es the planetary positions on the phase diagram of water. 1.3.2. What Is Water? The water molecule is a unique combination of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, with electrons being shared between them as shown in Fig. 1-10, The symmetey of the is, tribution of electrons leaves onesie of each molecule with a positive charge result. ing in an electrostatic attraction between molecules, Water melecules can form four Such relatively weak hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen, or polar, bonds of water ‘molecules are much weaker than the covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxyeen within the molecule. These polar bonds cause water molecules fo cluster in teteahe, ral patterns. as shown in Fig 11 for ie. Inthe solid state, the tetrahedral arrange ment of the bonding produces a tetrahedral crystalline structure. Inthe fluid siete increases in temperature weaken the hydrogen bonding, ce processes heat energy from the vibration of atoms and molecules inthe fixed Srveture. As ice warms, the vibrations increase fo the point where the (elahedral ‘ructure breaks down and the ie melts The molecules ofthe liquid phase are closer than in the solid state, a illustrated in Fig. 111, making water slightly more dense than je tits melting point. Molecules of water inthe liquid phase vibyate faster 25. temperature rises. Once the vibrations are great enough, some molecules are thrown ‘off (or escape) the liquid surface, forming & gaseous or vapor phase called evapora tion. This evaporation consumes a large amount of energy, called latent hear of ‘aporization. The phase changes for water are: (1) evaporation liquid to vapor (@) condensation—vapor to liquid, 3) sublimation—vapor to solid or solid ta vapor 10,000 1.000 100 os PRESSURE (atm) oot fy WATER YAEOR 001 10001 200100 —«t00—«a00 300 a0 —B00 ‘TEMPERATURE, °C FIGURE 19. Planetary postions onthe phate digram of mate. (Nana! Reserch Counc 91)120 CHAPTER ONE (3) meking—otid to tinui, and (5) freeing to cai ‘The piel propertics of water are unique compated fo substances, with Similar molealar mass Water has the highest specie het of any known sb stance, which means that temperature chang within tocar. very samt. Water has high viscosty and a high surface tension compare to mot com fon lguidy which i caused by thc hydrogen bonding. This produces capi layne of water soils and causes tain 10 form into spherical droplets Physical bropertin of ater nthe sad and id phase vary wth tempera these ates the variation in density fers more sgiea ty tan nt hae Water in the gascous phase (wie? vopor) exers& paral peau inthe ae sphere eft to sits sapor prestar In the atmosphete above igual water FIGURE 110 The Water Molcule (Afr Suet 168) uid water (qua phase) Ice {sot phase) Wiater vapor (gas phase) i © 6” e@ FIGURE 11. The hee states of mates (Aer Suef, 168) WATER RESOURCES: AN INTRODUCTION aa face, water molecules are constantly being exchanged between the ai andthe water. Fora drier atmosphere, the rate of uptake of molecules is greater tha the rate of return to the surface. Ata state of equilibrium, when the number of molecules lea ing the surface is equal to the number arsiving, saturation of the vapor pressure of air has been zeached. Additional water molecules tothe aie are balanced by depost tion on the water surface. Table 12 ists some common physical constents of pure water. The latent heat of vaporization is about 8 times larger than is necessary to ‘melt ice, and about 600 times larger than its heat capacity (the energy revessary to aise water temperature by 1°C). Evaporation is then the daminant conponent of energy balance in the bydrologic eycle. About 23 percent of the solar radiation reaching the earth is absorbed by evaporating water (Maidmient, 1993) The latent heat of water is larger than for any other liquid, 1.3.3. Earth’s Hydrologic Cycle ‘The National Research Council (1991) report defines the hyudrologie cycle ws “the pathway of water as it moves in ils various phases through the atmosphere, to the Earth, over and through the land, to the ocean, and back 10 the atmosphere” as shown in Fig. 1-12. During the eyele, which has no beginning or end, a single water molecule may assume various states, returning to the hydrologic pathway as new chemical compounds are mixed with various solid and liquid substances As shown, in the figure, water evaporates from the ooeans and the land surface to become part ‘of the atmosphere; water vapor is wansported and lifted in the atmospere until it condenses and precipitates on the land or oceans: precipitated water may be inter cepted by vegetation, become overland flow over the ground surface, infiltrate into the ground, low through the soil as subsurface flow, and discharge into streuns as surface runoft Large amounts ofthe intereepted water and surface eunolf returns 10 the atmosphere through evaporation. Infiltrated water may percolate deeper to ‘recharge groundwater, and later emerge in springs, or seepage into stresms, to form surface runoft Finally, this water may flow out tothe sea or evaporate ino the atm sphere. Throughout this cele, water may take on many quality tspects ‘The hydrologic cycle can also be viewed on a global scale, a8 showin Fg. 113, Our knowledge ofthe amount of water in space and in the earth's mantle is very him ited. There is evidence that space and the earth's mantle both exchange water with ‘the primary crustal, ice, the atmosphere, and the ocean, The hyrologi ele cat also be viewed as a global geophysical process, as shown in Fig. 114, Wate” vapor and methane molecules are diffused into space, causing loss of the hydrogen in water These hydrogen atoms subsequently escape by photochemistry. The addition of ‘TABLE 12. Physical Constants of Pore Water Specie beat IC 418) g deg teat heat of mehing sua dg! tent heat of vaportation, 15°C 2g Surlace tension 7310 _ aN men ‘Tene siength Buna EN mem? Melting pint, 1013 mb oc Bolling pot, 1013 0 Lore Sours Swell, 96h122 FIGURE 142 tHydologie cyte wth lob anna al average water balance piven in unit relative to ‘vale of 10 forthe rate of rei mom land. (Chota 188). 7 rent. otis ate (168 kn) He rane tole tion el FIGURE 13 Teta veo one = 148 en The hydrologic ple a la sale (National Reseach Counc 1988) \WATER RESOURCES. AN INTRODUCTION a2 SPACE ‘ATMOSPHERE, ferent s ere 1 = gon ones 1 Sxeonte renee a1 2 opm ne [+ tonto far woimeton tome ET penn f+ Goocrmptamn ton aa $1 Ritter rnrenaing cut Lunar ree Seat ssn FIGURE LIA The bydoloic cyl sa lol geophysical process Enclose arts represen or age escrvits fox the earth's water, and the arto deignste Ihe tseses dees Poneeee (Renal Research Counc 1957) Wate from space i a controversial issue. Voleanic activity vents water vapor to the mosphere and liquid vapor to the ocean, Water recrculates on a geolopeal tare scale by the subduction of water-containing crustal materiel,‘Aimosphere Earth Surface Humans ‘Anthropogenie Processes ® FIGURE LIS The role of humans in he hydrologic yee (classical ‘ewpoin (8) modern wcwpoin. (National hesureh Cone 962) the hydrologic cycle. One of our most important realizati ‘water in this eyele is of as much concern as the quantity, is that the quality of 1.4 AVAILABILITY OF WATER ON EARTH _ Figure 1.16 ilustrates the variation in average annual precipitation for the world’s land areas Data on global water resources are presented in Table 13.The Oceans con. ‘ain 96.5 percent of the water on Earth, whereas freshwater reserves ave only 2.53, percent (oF 35 million ki’) ofthe total 138 illion km’ A large fraction of the fcsh water (26 million kn’, or 68.7 percent) is ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctic and Arctic region, The main sourees of water for human consumption, freshwater lakes and rivers contain on the average about 90.000 km of water (0.26 percent ofthe total global freshwater reserves), The almosphere contains oly 12.900, km whichis W001 percent ofthe total water,oF B04 percent ofthe freshwat 11 is abo of interest to review the data for annual runoff und water consumption by physiographic and economic regions of the world, as listed in Table 1, The wotal water withdrawn for use in 1990 was 9.3 percent of the total surface runofl Unre coverable consumptive use was 52 percent. By year 2000, these values could be 11.6 Percent and 65 percent respectively (Shikiomanow, 1993), ‘The dynamics of actual water availability indifferent regions of the world is par siculary interesting in understanding the water balance on Earth. As ilustrsted in Table 1.5, during the 30-year period {rom 1950 to 1980, the actual level of per capita water supply decreased rather significantly in many regions ofthe world, dae to pop. ‘lation increases. Significant impacts were in North Arica, North China and Mon golia, Central Asia, and Kazakhstan. In addition tothe regions listed above, by year 2000 Tow water availabilty per eaptais anticipated in central and southern Europe, WATER RESOURCES: AN INTRODUCTION 125 FIGURE 1.16 Average anual precipitation for the world's land areas eneeping Antaris (ark 1957) TABLE 1.3. Water Reserves on Barth Percentage of obal reserves Distribution _ ‘ates, Volume, Layer, Oftotal_Of fresh 1Wkm? 10 km mle ater World ocean 361300 13380003700 965 Groundwater 134400 23400 = eshvater 150 78 a7 ad Soll moisture Bs 02 dus Glaciers and permanent snow cover 16227 ross yas Uk ‘Antartic 13980, 2100 ste 186 ‘Avoids 226 5 3) Om ‘Mountainous regions 2 40s is 00a Ground iceipermatrost 200 300402 Water reserves in kes 20387 16457 I) Fresh 136 1 738 00076 Saline "23 4 1038 000 Swamp water 26828 114742800084 + River flows sa 212 0014 00m2 6 Biological water Stoo 12 oom oom 0003 ‘Atmosphere mater sio0% 29 ams ooo as Total water reserves si9c00 —aas984 278100 Total fester reserves sno 35092352530eters ee we @ st a 90 ort t be 2 zt @ = o a i @ uz te a ® * © a au ® ° fa = oF om @ hn Fa eg 6 me & = a & S50 ot su sie a a in os ia « a & noon ae & o a o x 60 0 a ta a i ft oo se te 6 o i Lb fo ws a sr & wi OL a 3 tere is se tr oe us ne as fee (1 ——_eyoiuoyy poe eons gen (ozone ote ater oe = et 1 so wet venue te ft ster ost & i a x 3 ce weet fe a oo a & fier ont a 5 zt met os st Ft mete & : 0 ooes tne re re ors ow a o st sont ® e to ieee sr 1s FIs tee 0 2 to Se pie an mie oe ss Bh aize oe iney aeOUNT ee wR ay ei pam amTIOD a6 Sapir HOOT "i 8 Kia wonds I Hox 230 sorioy suouong pe audestonstyg Ke pu suauneD fe vondunsurD orem pue Youn] RUGY YL STEVE128 cuarteR one ‘he southern European part of the former Soviet Union, Southeast Asia, and West, East and South Africa (Shiklomanov, 1993). The very high natural nonuiformaity in the distsibution of water supply throughout the earth is increasing with time, as a result of the extremely rapid rate of human economie activities and population change. Data for year 200) presented in Table 1.5 does not consider the possible anthropogenic global-scale climatic changes through the year 2000, 1.5_ INGREDIENTS FOR WATER RESOURCES The management of water resources can be subdivided into three broad categories: (1) water-supply management, 2) waterexcess management, and (3) environmental ‘estoration. AN modern multipurpose water resources projects are designed and built for watersupply management and/or waterexcess management. In fac, TABLE 15 Dynamics of Atal Water Availabiliy in Different Regions ofthe World waar valli 1 mye per cap 1901970198200 ar ar MSS ete meee tasters 35 rk USSR (Nos) 20m} ML European USSR (South) “ 360322 Noah Ameren uz? dans ‘Canada and Alaska Be Meaty Unies Sates ae 16 ek 86 (Cente Ameria m2 nse Alice Paty a Non w/t ogo South ms 6 $3 Ext 2 82690 West Hea teats asp toa tas) Central BS SL aka Asie 1 els) 33 ‘North China and Mongolia so fs South Sage see ae wer eee Southeast Bz mt eas. (Cntr Asin and Kacat re re Sera tn Fa East me 9283 Tran. Caucans a coe sl ras tea South America Sak ahaa ‘Nowh me Me Te Brae see es 53 wes msm Bas 8 Central uO Be Bs toa ‘Asuali and Osean m 513 ke ‘Ausra B70 as Oceania wees WATER RESOURCES: AN INTRODUCTION 129 ‘throughout human history all water resources projects have been designed and built for one or both of these categories. A wate resources system isa system for edit bution, in space and time, the water that is available to a region to meet societal needs (Plate, 1993). Water ean be utilized from surface water systems, from grouni Water systems, oF from conjunctiveground surface water ystems When discussing Water resources, we must consider oth the quanlity and the quality aspects. AS pointed out earlier in this chapter, the hydrologie eyele must be defined in terms of both the water quantity and the water quality. Because of the very complex water issues and problems that we face today many ields of study are involved in the sol tion of these problems. "These include the biological sciences, engineering, physical svienees,and social sciences. Figure 1.17 attempls to present the wide diversity of vis ciples involved in water resources 1.6 FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR WATER RESOURCES 1.6.1 Water Development ‘As we approach the twenty-irst century, we are questioning the viability of our pat tems of development, industealization and resources usage. We are now beginning to discuss the goals of attaining an equitable and sustainable society inthe interna tional community. Looking into the future, a new set of problems face ws, incl the rapidly growing population in developing countries uncertain impacts of elalal climate change, possible conflicts over shared freshwater resources, thinning of the WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT a Water supply management Water excess management _Envionmenalestration Biological sciences Engineering Physical sciences Socal sciences Ecology ‘Agicutural Chemisty Economics Entomology Chemica! Computer science Education Fisenes va Climatology Geography Food\echnology Enwionmental_ Geology History Forest Indust Hycrooay aw Hotere Mechanical Mathematics Panning Limnology Syetome Meteorology Potticl science Marne science Ccearography Public adrunstation Microbiology Pryses source developmont rant science Sal sence Sociology Pubic heatn Slatstce Zoology FIGURE 117 Ingedint for ater esurces management130 ‘CHAPTER ONE. ‘ozone layer. destruction of tain forests, Tenewable resources, and many others Paine the 1980s the United Nations sponsored the International Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. Data in Table 1.6 present the water supply and sonia coverage for developing regions for 1980 and 1990. The st filths of the world's population is covered by this table includ threats to wetlands, farmland, and other ‘constraints for developing couatries include an insufficient n [cesionals, insufficient funding, inadequate operation and maimenanes mefieoneg (onitics inadequate cost-recovery framework, inappropriate inriulioval eee, Paik insufficient health education effects, intermittent water service oe ek of planning and design, ie future population wil have a direct and very significant impact on future Seer fealailis, use and quality By year 200 the total populationon Earth mee Excecl 6 illion people, and by year 2050,posibly 10 billion according celery by the United Nations. in discusting the inpacts of population i Aha te total population and growth rates are very lferent in developing cocaiges, seeueyetaped counties For developed countries, the rate fs under I percent oe dear, whereas it exceeds 2 percent per year in developing countries dod imac, Toon) nAtica, Asia, and the Mille East, it exceeds 3 percent por yeor (Geek 1953) The consequence is that over 90 percent of future population neneeee sands in developing countries, where access to clean water, sanitation services sed ether, amenities fo a satisfacony quality of le are inadequate Quer the past decade, the total population in urban areas grew tremendously, due Inerassive migrations to the larger urban areas in developing counties Moc ot ‘hese urban areas have never {otal amount of freshwater is fixed, these growing, reduce the water avilable per capita (see Table 1. Itis interesting to note that throughout the world, 50 hours per week gathering wood. collecting water {children (Gleick. 1993). The United Nations has shown thatthe education ct ween, fan improve child health and often leads o improved availability of water snd ne itation Educaling people about family planning and public health can alse tein {ie in tackling the future problems of water availablity. The worlds popuinnen Inust be stabilized, as it cannot continue to grow indefinitely At the songs eons or ‘must work to reduce the enormous suffering caused by what alecady care ‘Al Cre (1992), in his book Earth in the Balance, proposed a Global Marshall ‘lan which includes the following five goals to save the global enviscarems 1. Stabilizing the world population 2 The rapid creation and development of environmentally appropriate technolo. Bies.also referred to asa Strategic Environment initiative (eel) 3. A comprehensive and uli ‘whit we measure the imp slobal economies poor rural women spend 60 to Preparing food, and caring for iquitous change in the economic rues of the road by ct of our decisions onthe global environmentva new 4: The negotiation and approval of anew generation of international agreements & The establishment of a cooperative pl lan for educating the world’ citizens about ‘ur global environment g i 3 4 iter Supply and Sani TABLE 16 1990 oa Number i ‘amber sored, unserved, 1 Percent coverage we Namba \asered, Population, 1 Namber served i Percent eee Regionsector Aine ams 6212633 2036 on00 a Urbaa water 1720623739 16001 2 2 26 nye) 109383, Rural water Urban sa 233 0s a2 mest m2 783 saat 10651 409.64 85 as iat 2a % 2 nen Latin America an the Caribbean Urban water gh oo.) ons 32 ‘871 m8 wot Ben aust 12491 Asia andthe Paci 1a 585k ESEe SSEe Beas RSE ang se 888 ease a2n8 enee agza a88 age Western Acta (Middle Eo Urban water Rural water 1125 a3 32 ‘00 1690 ae 10 Urban sa oral sant S358 2 8 3 383i L322 55831 39208 21270 162.34 14035 077 690.25 i139 2 ; Urban wat Rural water Urban saian ‘CHAITER ONE ‘These tive goals ar all nterrelted, so they shoud be pursue c terelated, so they shouldbe pursued simultaneously. An integrating goal would be “the establishment especial inthe developing wero {he social and political conditions most conducive to the emergence of extarable 1.62 Research Directions The Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government (1992) defined siyfanmental researc sted o maintaining environmental quai lang ‘moniioring testing. evaluation, prevention mitigation, ssessnen, nd policy analy + Investigations designed o understand the structure and function a the biospheve, and the impact that human activities have on it x eee Research to understnd the conditions necessary to support human existence without destroying the resource base * Pee ~ Research to define the properties and adverse elects of toxic substances human heath and ine entrnment a ‘The development of technologies to monitor pollutants and their impacts ‘The development of polluion-contro! technologies The economic and social research directed at understanding the many complex, interrelated factors that influence environmental quality aa someon Te Commision conced thatthe present esearch and development sytem in the United States has bastealy been a catch up. cleanup" deminer aoeene They fl tht te research and development system ade ect ce ee on short-range, endo he pipe sluions The mechanism te ena aa tthe stich rd ate wah nthe fre here mis be mene ee a logical processes (4) understaning the intertlatton of land, water se ice landscapes, and (5) there needs to be better integration of econonti social, and Pei {Guides of environmental issucs with the natural sciences. he Commies on Opportunies n Hydrol Scenes a the NRC (1 developed proniy categories of scene opportunity Under the once (1 the arget potential for such combi fee lent caper te a waking ih linkages acons sala, mi (0) hycrolags Seer eo imited"the unranked resereh areas a hight pry ate (1) chem ot lial components the hydrologic le) sang dma ea a surace-anphers interaction, (@) coordinated Hob scl ober we ters ante Manes of wate and ners and 3) halon eee hese sia {The fesearch stea of chemical and biological components of the hydrologic cyte * Understanding the interaction between ecosystems and the hydrologic cycle * Understanding the pathways of water through soil and rok tvough the use o sueous geochemistry to reveal he histor states for eitate seach sa ‘econsioe the erosional history of continents [WATER RESOURCES AN INTRODUCTION 133 Combining efforts in aquatic chemistry, microbiology, and physics of flow 10 reveal solute transformation, biochemical functioning, and the mechanism for both contamination and purification of soils and water Scaling of dynamic behavior involves research: ‘To quantify predictions of large-scale hydrologic processes under the three dimensional heterogeneity of natural systems, which are orders of magnitude larger in scale than idealized one-dimensional laboratory conditions To quantify the inverse problem by disaggregating conditions at laige scale to ‘obtain small scale information, eg, in the parameterization of subgrid-scae pro: cesses incimate models Understanding land surface-atmosphere interactions has become somewhat urgent, because of the accelerating human-induced changes in land surface chara: teristics globally,on issues ranging from the mesoscale upward to continental scales, A better understanding ofthe following are needed: + Our knowledge of the time end space distribution of rainfall, sil moisture, groundwater recharge, and evapoteanspiration + Knowledge ofthe variability and sensitivity of local and regional climates toler ations in land surface properties Coordinated global-scale observation of water reservoirs and the flutes of water and enesgy is needed for a better understanding of the state and variability of the ‘global water balance. Two programs that will help in ths effort are the World Cis ‘mate Data Program (WCDP) to assemble historical and current data, and the World Climate Research Program (WCRP), which is planning a global experimental pro- gram to place future observations on a sound and coordinated elfort, called the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX), ‘The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX), proposed to begin in the late 1990s is designed to verify large-scale hydrologic models anc to validate slobal-scale satellite observations. Ths initiative of the World Climate Research Program addresses four scientific objectives: 1, Determine water and energy fluxes by global measurements of observable atmio- sphere and surface properties, 2, Model the hydrologic eyele and its effects on the atmosphere and ocean 3. Develop the ability to predict variations of global and regional hydrologic pr ‘esses and water resources and their response fo environmental charge 4. Foster the development of observing techniques, and data management and assimilation systems suitable for operational applications to long-rage weather forecasting and to hydrologic and climate predictions ‘A central goal of the GEWEX program is to develop and improve modeling of hnydrologie processes, and to integrate surface and ground water processes on the catchment scale into fully interactive global land-atmosphere models, Hydrologic effects of human activity research should focus on the quantitative forecasts of anthropogenic hydrologic change, which is largely indistinguishable {rom the temporal variability of the natural system, In summary, as asked by the Carnegie Commission (1992), “Can scientists and ‘engineers generate the kind of large-scale and highly focused effort that took us into14 CHAPTER ONE. SuaGg and apply it to developing the understanding necessary to protect our global Gfironment?” An international effort wll be required to meet the covicon ec, Shatlenges that we face today. Obtaining a sustainabie development will eaeiney Wide range of research advances REFERENCES Adams. Sewers ond Drains for Populous Districts, Van Nostrand, New York, 880. PAR Gan KI Chaves, Aomospher, Meaher and Clima the. Routes London and New York 1992 Bara Scenic Allocation of Water Resources Elsevier, New Yotk, 1972 ‘Gamegie Commission on Science, Technology. and Governmen, Environmental Research and Pelonetet Svenshening the FederelInfrasiructure, Tak Force onthe Orpen, Federal Government R'& D Program, New York, 1996 Chow.W-T, D.R. Maidment and L.W. Mays Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, 968, ‘Camp LS, The Ancien Engineers, Dorset Press, New York 1960, yon. Experimental Essays on the Constitution of Mixed Gaseson the Force of Steam or ‘per trom Waters nd Other Liqids Both ina Trvesion Vacuum snd ivAlson Ce wnand on the Expansion of Gases by Heat.” Mem: Proc Man Lit Phil Son seas oer Darcy. H. Les Fonaines Publiques dea Ville de Dijon V. Dalmon, Pris 1856 FORT A oaler Current Meters” SnithsonanSmdiex in History and Tehnology, 28, SmithonianInsiution Press Washington,DC, To} Ge a): Matern Crit A Guide the World Fresh Water Resources, Oxfd Univer sity Pess, Orford New Vor, 1993. ore, A. Eauhin the Balance, Houghton Milla, New Yor, 192, Age WH ad O.. Amp, Studies on Soil Pryis" Agric Se, vol ppp. 1-24 911 Fong. RFR. Leighio, and M. Sands The Feynman Lecute Note on sce You ‘Addison. Wesiey: Reading. Mose, 1983, "yam 6 LAr de Bewegung des Wastin EngonCylinschen Rohten” ogee: dort Annaler der Physik und Chem, 16,1899 Hawking S HA Bre History of Tie: From the Big Bong to Black Hole Ba New York 1988 Books, tae Soras tobe Provided in Impounding Reservoirs for Municipal Water Suppy™ Trans Am. So. Civ Eg, TIS39-464) Na, Horton. R.E.The Roe of In ade ae, ation in the Hydrologic Cycle” Tras. Am. Geophys Union 38 ‘Long-Term Storage Cap 0.2447, pp. 770-799, 1951 MacCurdyE The Norooks of Leonardo da Vic wl, Reyna and Hichcock, New York, 19, Maken B.R (ed), Handbook of Hydrology, MeGraw-Hl, New York, 1993 nn Ge hc Pew of Wate in Open Chanel and Pipes" Tons Ie Civ Eng land, 2161-207, 1891; supplement 2640-207, tes, Marsh. WM. Eartscepe:A Physical Geography, John Wiley New York, 197 NU Magn’ Dox, Laniceps: An noducon wo Pye Geogr, Jo Vey, New Yorke a NjuaneyJ-°On the Use of Set Regering Rin and Flood Gauges in Making Ober {nso the Relations of Rainfall and of load Discharges na Gnven Cates Cong eta, 44831180 ty of Reservoir” Trans Ant Soe Cle Eng, tY6,poper WATER RESOURCES.AN INTRODUCTION 1235 Nationa. Reseach Council, Scientific Basis of Water-Resource Management, National vette Gora a : tot ita e049 Seis Pe ee nl elt Mca er srw oa 1 Selence and Eng: on, IR) 4 JUNE_ CHAPTER 2 PRINCIPLES OF FLOW _OF WATER M. Hanif Chaudhry Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Washingion State University Pullman, Washington 2.1_ INTRODUCTION {In this chapter, principles of flow of water necessary for the analysis of water Fesource projects are briefly reviewed, A number of commonly used terms are fist defined. Closed-conduit, open-channel and subsurface flows are then discussed. The data compiled from various sources which practicing engineers will find useful are “The material in this chap been intentionally kept free of advanced is and uid mechanics concepts, For additional coverage ol closed con duits,see Chap. 18;for open channels, see Chap, 25;and lor subsurface low, relet to Chaps. 1 and 16 22. DEFINITIONS 22.1 Fluid Properties The density p of a uid (Roberson and Crowe, 1993) is its mass per anit volume, while the specific weight isis weight per unit volume. The density and specific ‘weight are related by the equation 1=P8 en in which g = acceleration de to gravity. In SI units pis expressed in bgf', and in ‘customary English units, itis expressed in slugsl."The uatts for specie weight in SI unis are Nin and in English units are Wit ‘The specific gravity of a Substance isthe ratio of its mass density to that of pure water at standard conditions. Physicists use 4°C (39.2°F) as the stasdard temp. 2a22 CHAPTER TWO ‘ftature, while engineers ordinarily use 15°C (60°F). The density of water at °C is 000 kg/m’. and it changes slightly with change in temperatore An ideal fuid may be defined as one in which there ino friction ie, viscosity is 721, Ina real fluid shear force exists whenever motion takes place thes produce ‘uid friction. An ideal fluid does not exist in realty but the concept is uselal ane Plifying many analyses. The viscosvy ofa fluid isa measute ofits esistmee oe angular deformation If duldy is the velocity gradient and isthe shearing shecg between any two thin sheets of fui then Soe ea The coeiient is called the absolute or dynamic viscosity and its units ate poise re Kinematic viscosity vis define as the dynamic viscosity divided by tne oe density ie, a 23) and is expressed in stokes (v is called kinematic viscosity since no force units involved) Ala ens-liquid interface, forces develop at the liquid surface due to molecular attraction, and this causes the liquid surface to behave like a strciched members lecular attraction per unit length i called surface tension. In 's expressed in Nim and in customary English unit in If, The compressibiliy of waters characterized by the bulk modulus of clatety K hich is defined as the ratio of relative change in volume Jue to» dithec tial {hange in pressure. The SI units for K are Nin’ and the customary English vont ae livin? pi 222 Pressure Fluid pressure isthe force exerted on a unit area, Commonly used English units or [rescue are Ihsin’ (psi, IDV, feet of water, and inches of meteuty. In I tlle a, Sure is expressed in pascal, equal to 1 Nis Neglecting the pressure on the siviace ‘of aliquid. the pressure at depth his perk @ay The pressure at a point is equa in all directions. ‘The pressure measured by using atmospheric pressure as the datum is called ‘Pheri presure. A perfect vacuum corresponds to absolute zero pressure-Figure? ‘Musteates the relationship between these pressures, The total force F exerted by a fluid on'a plane area A isthe product of the area and the pressure atts centroid, ie, iA es in which Z= depth ofthe Nuid over the centroid (Fig.22) PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER, 23 | .|waateams i) “paca volan i a note rr | FIGURE21. Relationship berneen various pressres 223. Steady and Uniform Flows y—_ all conditions (velocity, pressure) at a point ina flowing fluid remain constant Sin reipet tome, te ow sealed \ steady flow; if they vary with time, the fom eae unedy fow (Robern tnd Crowe 998: Chaty (0731987, Roberson: eta oem Chaudhy and RGURE22. Hyon pesue Nopevih 19), we If the flow velocity is the same at every "point In spc at portlet insta of time the Now ited uniform fon sea ad union ows ay txt independent of eachother Ths the following for eanbinaon are poe Stead union steady nonuniform. unsteady unr, an urstcady nonon 224 Rata of harge 1 ction i called the rate of The quantyof gud owing per unt ime across ny ston salted discharge (Commonly called charge or flow). Tne folowing wis te sed xpress the rate of dscharge: Cube feet pr second (cl), cube me's per second {0 milion gallons pe dy (ag, and gallons per minte (gpm). Me conversion factors between these nis are 1 m= 353 1 els = 449 gpm (American gallons) 1 milion galiday = 64 gpm I the flow velocity v varies across the cross section, then flow o=[, wsva a624 cHuarreR Two in which v= velocity dough an infinitesimal are 4, and V = me the entire cross-sectional area A, et ene ee 225 Continuity Equation For steady flow between two sections, we can write OAV. = Avs en in which the subscripts refer to variables ‘ion valid if there sno iaflow ar ouflow between the ten seca eae low between the two sections 226 Momentum Equation The momentum equation may be written for a volume of water btw ‘sections in one-dimensional flow as eee ZF =PQVeu~ Vu) (2.8) in which = vectorial sum ofthe component ofall he external for the water athe tection: Va = flow velcyin the e-dreaion atte aon sro eto, Y= ow velo nthe x-decton tthe upateam crossing ad Positive in the downstream direction. eemee metered 22.7 Energy Equation FIGURE 23 Notation fr cotinsty equation PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER, 28 velocity distribution is known, then total kinetic energy flowing through the sec tion per unit time is 1 vua 9) Total Kinetic energy tansmited = (AV 5) yaa zg (2.0) Hence it follows from Eqs (29) and (210) that Lf viaasraa 2 x), 28 1 wid au aia l,va any Aste verge of eum ofthe es mumbo i gotta sabe othe sve ie of tpt hn hee fo nee pes A ott pre cicy uriuton tail 6 ras fet ‘ry snge Cnet oan atn fa Since ay the lo Suna fc owe anu cmmonly ned eet ey ofa pe Sone gdenequl og "he lwofemar ton f ny elm, When apple oiCd, sibs nh sa pnp ar tine even eo etm ene choy ned ected teach to te keno onan iElcngtotie 23-wecon te nt Beene Py Yan, 12) 7 7" 3 in which p = pressure; z= height above datum; hy = head losses between sections 1 and 2;and the subscipis 1 and? refer tothe quafttes for seetions 1 and 2, resp tively Note that in Eq, (2.12) we have assumed thatthe kinetic-energy cosicient equal to unity. 22.8 Laminar and Turbulent Flows {mn laminar flow, the particles move in definite paths, and the fluid appears to move by sliding of laminations of infinitesimal thickness relative to the adacent layers ‘The resistance to law is produced by viscous shear of fluid particles and varies as the Gest power of the Novt velocity26 ‘CHAPTER TWO - Energy grade tine vi & 29 NY ; Ve al a 7 Pe 1 7 : 4 z bo Dat NiGURE2s 5 Nation fr energy equation, [nturbutent fow,partiles follow ire have identical or similar motions, di its irregularity and an absence of deli frictional resistance in turbulent lows velocity, gular and erratic paths, and no two particles singuishing characteristic of turbulence i inite flow patterns. Experiments show that varies with approximately second power of 22.9 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines i825. Ifa series of piezometers were 2.3 CLOSED-CONDUIT FLOW The analysis of closed cond fom ear low beomes necessary or the planning design and Ryan fear teseme pect ny ow-coneyngstrcure with closed ‘analyses involve both steady and unsteady flow. eee 23.1. Steady Flow Steady ow in closed conduits well ndersood and th inforaton avaabeoaalyae these fons The caelaiee shea ot conduits is needed to determine an optium aac neon limitations and constraints for operator oo PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER 2a 232 Hydraulic Transients ‘Whenever the flow conditions are changed from one steady state to another, the intermediate stage flow is called ransiont flow: The magnitude of pressure waves produced in these flows may cause the resulting pressures to exceed the design pres sures, resulting in rupturing or collapsing ofthe conduit walls ‘As a rough rule of thumb, the pressure change AMY caused by an instances change in flow velocity AV may be computed from the expression AIT = IOV, ‘where Aisin ft (m) of water and AV isin fs (m5). Since changes inthe flow veloc ‘ty on actual projects are usualy gradual, pressure change is less than that piven by this expression ifthe time during which the flow changes is greater than twice the ‘ransit time ofthe system. The transit time isthe wave travel time from the bound. ary where the flow is changed to the end boundary where the waves are reflecied back. Spectacular failures have occurred when a system was not designed of operated fo account for these pressures (Chaudhry, 1993, 1987; Roberson, et al. 1988 Chaudhry and Yeyjevieh, 1980). Head loses may be ciassfied as ition and form losses (Roberson and Crowe, 1993: Chaudhry, 1993; Chaudhry, 1987; Roberson, Cassidy, and Chaudhry. 1988 Chaudhry and Yevjevich, 1980). Fiction loses result from shear forces between the fluid and the boundary containing the fluid. Form loser are de to eddies penerated bby changes in the geometry of the containing vessels, such as change in cross sectional area, and bends in the pipeline profile. Expressions and experimental dala {for computing the friction and form loses ae presented in the following section. 24 FRICTION LOSSES _ In this section, we discuss friction losses in circular and in noneireular conduits 24.1 Circular Conduits Various formulas, such as Chezy, Darcy-Weisbach, Manning, Hazen-William, and Scobey, have been proposed for establishing the relationship between the friction, losses, physical characteristics ofa conduit, and the flow parameters ofthese form! las OF these, the Darey-Weiebach formule (Rberson and Crome, 1998, Chas, 1993, 1987; Roberson, eta, 1988; Chaudhry and Yevjevich, 180; Davis and Soren son, 1969: ASCE, 1965) is scientifically based, the frition factor i dimensionless. no fractional powers are involved, and the formula applies to both laminar and turin lent flows. According to the Darey-Weisbach formula suv? 13) D2 hy where fy total friction losses J» ftition factor i= conduit length D = inside diameter ofthe conduit V = mean flow velocity = acceleration due to gravity28 cHarreR two. The friction factor f depends upon the Reynolds number R, and the relative foughness k/D, where & represents the average nonunilorm roughness of ihe eon, ‘duit. For laminar flow (Fe < 2000) ot en) f Vv, and v= kinematic viscosity, Based on Nikuradse's (Nikuradse, 1932) experiments, von Karman and Prandtl (Roberson and Crowe, 1993,ASCE, 1965; USBR, 1977; von Karman, 1930) proposed the following equations for frition factor in turbulent flow. ‘Smooth pipe pr zotm R708 es) Rough pipe + Blogs 41.74 (2.16) in whieh r= pipe radius. ‘A smooth pipe is defined as having small irregularities compared with the thick ness of the boundary layer. Rough pipes are significant in that the iregularities of the walls are sufficient to break up the laminar boundary layer, withthe eset that g turbulent flow is fully developed. Eqs (2.15) and (2-16) ave unsatistactory in the {anstion zone between the smooth and rough pipe regions (Fis. 2.6). Colebrook and White (1939) showed that thisis caused by the fact that the resistance to flow for §uniform sand roughness i different from that for an equivalent nonuniform rough ness sich as exists in commercial pipe. They proposed the following semicempirtal formula, which is asymptotic to both smooth and rough pipe equations (Eqs [2.13] and 2.16): 1 f bk fo ~ Plog £21.74 ~2logu ft 18.7 Zee 2.17 G2 fe 174-2 opal 14] em Moody (1944), utliaing Prandtl-Karman experimental data, Colebrook-White function, and experiments on commercial pipe plotted a diagram between fund Ry as shown in Fig, 26. Ths diagram, called the Moody diagram, is now widely used. To use this diagram, one should know the roughness of the conduit surface, for which no Practical and satisfactory method is availabe at present. Herein, the uniform sand Brain roughness is designated by £ while the nonuniform roughness ss feud ia ‘Commercial pipes, is referred to a6 the rugosiy and is designatedroy c The determination of rugosityis very dificult, because the protuberances in con luis vary in size, pattern, and spacing. The surfaces may be uniformly fine grained ‘medium grained or coarse grained with iregularly spaced pts depressions and pro tuberances, ete. As an infinite number of combinations are possible, « may be eth. ‘ated from the experience charts (USBR, 1977) presented in Fig, 27. Table 2.1 lists the friction factors determined from prototype tesis conducted by the US. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station (ASCE, 1963, USBR, 1977). lovestigations reported by the US. Bureau of Reclamation show that ' continuous-inteior steel pipe can be both smoother and rougher than a concrete Pipe.In large conduits, the fection factor may not change from year to year, depend. ng upon the maintenance ofthe conduit surface, as it does inthe case of smal pipes. For example, the friction factor for a34-yearold penstock was found to be compa PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER. 29 FIGUNE2€ Moody diagram (USER, 1977)Fugosit of pipe sutace ein leet 210 cHarren Two feet am 4 aoe 3 3 2La| Severe beeaaton src 2 aor lace 30 3 ° =| Genera becaice ° 7 ae ‘ 3 Feary bash oa a 2 — hapa anes 23 avait i 019 Jacorg % 09 ¢ 7 oe q es d Laas ‘Conta apie se ; mama : Row snoon pe 0.00019 coneai rd Staal 0019 003 ° 4 $ 4 ‘ 3 3 2 2 occ oo001 e008 FRU 27, Raps va for ratios) butte sel pipe one se (oon 1) a ale , ego Aqueduct, a thin film of algae decreased the carrying capacity by about 10 percent during summer, ‘Theoretically speaking, the value ofthe frietion factor lies between the smooth pipe curve and a constant value of approximately 0.054 for rough surfaces Ifthe weal trregulaites are suficiently large so as to produce noticeable expansion ond cone traction losses such asin unlined tunnel the factor may be preater than O.S4 Fey 10 was obtained (Elder, 1958) forthe unlined portion of the Apalchia Substantial savings in cost may be achieved if large and long conduits are ilesigned to provide a smooth surface, and consequently a reduced cross section] Na cost o€ producing a smooth surface should be compared with the savings ‘esultng from a reduced cross-sectional area, Conservative valucs should be seca ugosty of pipe sutace ein fet mivcrnssorfLoworware an °. 00 Sram oe 4 ‘and incrustation. 2 Triple iveted 2 oro re Sry on _Double sveted ooe 20 3 Z ps oe fos 7 came] 2 Eley 0.0010) Joon # 03 ‘| 3 5 ee ‘ a H FI 7 a8 oto 00019 oss H H ql ‘ 4 ‘ j 3 2 2 coo one oan FIGURE 27 Rugsity valves fr various pipes: (5 fly riveted el pipe ins 6 to apa, Fongtainal seams ete} (USER, 1077) esign, in view of the scercity of field data and the difficulty of achieving precision ring Feld tests, 242 Unlined Rock Tunnels Based on prototype observations, Rahm (1953, 1958) has proposed the following expression forthe frietion factor of unlined tunnels: '=0.002755 s in which the value of 6 was determined as follows: Cross-sectional areas were taken very 50 ft along the tunnel length, and after excluding the upper and lower { por. ent for practical reasons, these’ data were plotted on an ordinaty. normal, distribution logarithmic diagram. A straight line was drawn (Fig.28) approximating the curve, and passing through the point corresponding to the mean eress-sectional area ofthe tunnel and a frequency of 50 percent. The slope ofthe line represents theFugosiy of pipe surtace€ infest, ana CHAFTERTWO oor9 330 3 3 eet 18 SERS}, 3} Erocatpor sea 9 [| rant fs ‘ ah Cody har ne an ‘etl an modes aes Secany of ance ‘0.0010 trae lo90 || Re tase nm acon = Comma conn pee 99 6 18 «| Sig Seo aeege Sean owen ra app es Sree 09 2 06 ey Umma ean coun Satara 0.00010, | Fessuereasiy Sneha 0.030 3 ‘as 6 018 .00004! oor NOTE: or precast ipo ‘Stoo joie reckon rege fs —nneasa by 0.00310 0.08 Hstgraajoeienereace ky 0 061 009 FIGURE 27 Rapes values or vvous pipes (onset ip. (USIR 1977) variation in cross sectional area ofthe tunnel, and ean be expressed in terms af por centage inclination 8 by b= Ami 199 9) a in which Aw and A, are the cross-sectional areas corresponding toa frequency of 9 and J percent, respectively. Furthermore, it has been found that B= 2b. g in which by = average excess over break in inches, and R = hydraulic radius This expression indicates tha fis proportional 0b, and thus emphasizes the desirability of accurate drilling (o keep by as low as possible. Smoothness ofthe rock surface ca bbe controlied significantly by a close placing ofthe contour drill holes, exact parallel diling, and careful blasting. Heggsta states that in Norway, the se of smooth biast- ‘ng has resulted in reducing the tunnel size by 20 to 30 percent over rough blasted ‘unnels. Model tests (Thomas and Whitham, 1964) show that (220) 1. Because of the sawtooth effect, an upstream direction of tunnel-dtiving yields a lower friction factor (equivalent to a reduction of 0,006 in Manning n) This dil ference was with sharp teeth, However, when the teeth were beveled, the dilfer: lence was not so definite Rugosty of ppe surtace in mm rrincinss oF Low oF wareR an os 3 2 oor 30 3 Bt é us 7 1 BO is $4 eae ss i eS 3 001 032 Bom a : 4 aH $4 Be 3 Bi 2 wf } é omorg eos : ‘ 3 2 00001 0003 FIGURE 27 Ruposty values or vatious pipes: (f) mood stve pipe. (USBR,1077) TABLE 2.1 Observed Resistance Coefficient Coctiacat Suilae character CConerete see forms (Denison) 013 Stce.coa tar (FL Ranal) ous ) R= 10° (Approximate) a Sel, ving Ft. Randall) 0105 Concrete, wood forms (Bid) 0125 CConetets, wood forms (Pine Flat) ons Concrete, wood forms, roughened with we (Pine Flt) 0135 ‘Somes ASCE, BS.2m CHAPTER TWO 8 Actual tunnel aroe Col theoretical roa & i 12510 30 50 70 80 ae Frequency % FIGURE 28. Distwton of acti (wsan, 1977) a 2 Fora mechanically bored tunac,the combined effet of rough surface and wary Profile would produce a Manning of about 00195, The wavy profile sproveced by alight changes in the direction of the miachine because of Varying Week ha ness andy larger changes in diection caused by changes in machine mignon asthe side thrusters are retracted and advanced, Frototype tests at the tilrace tunnel ofthe Prtikoski power plant (Ponniet al, Capin Finland. and at Mammoth Pool power tunnel (Davis and Sorenson, 1969) autem: have confieied the validity of Rahm’ method. Table 2.2 (ASCE, 196s) sts the friction coefficients for a wide range of tunel se, 25 FORM LOSSES oamuty whether in the form of partial obstacles, changes in section, bravehes anes pose an adklitional energy les on the flowing water. Beale they penen ally represent only asiall part of the total, such losses are commonly referced te ae {itor ar secondary losses Nevertheless they canbe an important eoveidevation aed their effect should always be taken into consideration Generally: form losses are the result of fully-developed turbulence, and thus can tvs expressed in terms of the sominal velocity head Vig) However sree tha Telocty distribution may be entirely disturbed ait raversesthe lose producing see tion, important changes in boundary layer may also be expected. Those eat ne {ellected in a modification ofthe wal resistance over that part ofthe conduit where ‘he regime is disturbed-—usuallya distance of 20 diameters or more, ‘A practicing engineer is usually interested in the net eontibution ofthe form tosses and is not especially concerned with the exact mechanism involved.Thas the {ults of laboratory and prototype tests have customarily been reported inthe fora seal j i by StS Powe Boe by Sacanene Manca Cy Drs “yp otrect “anne camet Tne Sar onrady Paste Go wR yee Sey Mow ie ‘TABLE 22 Unlined Tunnel Fistor Coefficients236 CHAPTER TWO ‘minor losses to equivalent conduit lengt The following sections are intended to indicate what is available to the engineer for estimating the probable minor loses for a given conduit configuration, For this ‘purpose, its convenient to classify these losses into two groups: (1) at or near the Intake, and 2) along the conduit length and treating them as additional frictional 25.1 Intake Losses ‘The intake losses include the entrance loss trash rack loss, and head gate loss. It should be noted that an accurate experimental determination of the intake losses ‘depends on the conduit being of sufficient length to permit a uniform friction gradi ent to be established, based on fully developed turbulence. A comprehensive teat ‘ment of the hydrodynamic principles involved and an analysis of the velocity and pressure distributions for various shapes of conduit inlets has been given by Rouse (1950), 252 Entrance Loss In addition to the pressure drop representing the velocity head, a losis incurted at the entrance to a conduit analogous to that ina short tube. The value of the coe cient Kin the expression we “28 ‘depends largely on the geometry ofthe entrance. Representative published values are listed in Table 23 he 20) 253 Trash Rack Loss Creager and Justin (1958) give the following equation for these losses: K,=245 045k RE (222) in which f= the ratio of net to gross area atthe rack section, Fora typical value of = 0.65, the resulting K value i 074,t0 be applied to the veloeity head for the net area, Figure 29 shows the variation of K,with R for the bate of several different shapes. In this figure, A= head loss through the rack, in feet, and V™= the velocity at ‘the section without the rack, in feet per second, Generally the velocity is ow a the TABLE 23. Representative K Values ‘Rose King “Aadson ‘Creager and ‘ype ot 4980) 958) (954) Juston (1955) inward pr 10 07% 070 056-099 Sharp-cornered 030 630 050 036 Siig rounded 02s S 02s Belb-mouthed 001-005 is aos 806 PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER, T T 7 jd none ve icon) g218 CHArER Two {ack section and hence the head loss. Obstruction by trash, however, can substan Wally inerease the losses, 254 Head Gate Loss No special head loss need be assumed for agate located atthe conduit inlet and not interfering with the entrance f @ “A VIRH 223) Juatich A = aten of gate opening, and M4 the difference in head aeting onthe gate, ‘The value of Cis readily converted tothe equivalent K value by 1 ket 224 a (224) ‘is then applied tothe velocity at the gate section, {ERE 34) has reported various model and prototype data, indicating range Strom 062 t0 083 (ie. K =2610045) relatively independent ofthe percentage of pate opening. He also gives an expression relating C to the differential heh ee Waiter relating it to the width of opening. The US. Army Corps of Enntene MMsterways Experiment Station (WES) has related C to gate opening tor eect, {kanes of lip. and has suggested a design curve in which C varies front 09 te og (K 0.87 t0 0.36) a8 the opening increases trom 10 to 80 percent (ri {IS Bureau of Reclamation (USBR, 1977) summarized vatious reported Teak [sted in Table 24-A comprehensive treatment ot the subject ispiven by Wns deri (1963) The coeficients are given in terms ofthe gate opening, pe ot oe charge, and gate design, 28.5 Expansion Loss Aden expansion or enlargement incurs a head loss that may be theoretically expressed as Ins Wie (225) vs 2 TABLE 24° Valucsof Cand K Discharge coalcent C Geometry of gate Max Min Awg. “Min Avg Yrsupprened contraction 0.70 06003480 kaise Cottam sndsiessoppresed 081068 ota) Comers rounded nos om om) ot aso PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER. 219 in which Vand Vs are the velocities inthe smaller and larger conduits respectively. ‘ing (1954) states that the experimentally derived formule by Arches = 001705(V,- V,)8*" 226 ives more satisfactory results than that of Eq, (2.25) He provides a table based on this relationship, which gives the coefficient K to be applied tothe velouty head n the smaller pipe (Gradual expansions or transitions entail a lesser head loss (because the turbulent ‘eddies produced by the transition are suppressed) and may be caleulsted frome Miva 227) % in which K depends on the angle of flare or divergence, Brown (1958) gives values of EK ranging fom 020 t 2.07 for flare angles of 2" to 90". King's corresponding valves are considerably lower, ranging from 0.03 to 0.67. He also provides a able Kescd og {hse coefficients that converts Ko the more usual form (ken cena of he larger "locity head) Creager and Justin (1955) also express K in the later form, giving h ~(1-4) sino 28) in which and a= the smaller and larger areas. and 8 = one-half ofthe flere ange It should be noted that all the treatments mentioned exclude the Iriction ee Upithin the enlargement section. When this is considered, Addison (1954) states thet {he optimum taper i 1 in 10, resulting in an expression for head loss ag enone BP (2.29) 25.6 Contraction Los ‘A udden contraction incurs a loss coefficient K of a8 much as 0.5 for pronounced sige Tances in area. Rouse (1950), King (1954) and Creager and Justin (1988) pro ide data showing the variation of K with the ratio of diameter. The head lets ta Bsradual contractions is usually negligible 25.7 Bend Loss Zh los ata bend results ftom a distortion ofthe velocity distribution, thereby caus ‘ng additional shear stresses inthe Muid The bend loss is calculated fore (230) head loss in the bend, Ky = bend-loss coefficient, and V = velocity in the pipe. Customariy, the bend-loss coefficient does not include the effect of normal fric- tion loss in the length of pip invotved. Iti generally accepted tha the pineal Parameters affecting the los coelficient K are the deflection angle of the bere ae,220 CHAPTER TWO ratio of bend radius to conduit diameter, nd the Reynolds number. Me latter is usu ally either not considered ois regarded as unimportant for the ranges reported Graphs and curves giving Ky a8 a function of these parameters are given by Rouse (1950), King (1954), Creager and Justin (1955), and the US. Army Corps of Engineers (Fig. 2.10). These researchers indicate that a radius (o diameter ratio of +410 6s the optimum, yielding @ Ky value of approximately 0.15 fora 90° bend. For Smaller deflection angles the value of K is smaller, Rouse (1950) and Addison (1954) indicate thatthe bend loss ean be materially reduced by providing a grid of deflecting vanes extending across the flow passage ‘This is seldom done, however, because these loses are usually small 25.8 Valve Losses For circular gate valves in the fully open position, the loss cetfiients given by some. references are listed in Table 25. For partial opening ofthis type of valve, the loss increases rapidly until free or shooting flow oceuts. Coefficients for this condition are plotied in Figs.2.11 and 2.12. The basic equation used in Fig. 2.12 is , Ko te 231) Ving : in which K, = the valve-loss coefficient, H, = head loss through the valve, and V «average velocity inthe pipe In Fig 2.11, the values ate calculated from 0=cAVigi, 232) in which C= valve discharge coefficient, A = area based on the nominal valve diam cter. and #7, = the energy head measured to the centerline of the conduit immed ately upsteeam of the valve In Fig. 2.12, the data are for valves having the same diameter asthe pipe.and for the dovinstream pipe flowing full.The data i Fig, 2.11 are based on tests conducted hy the US. Bureau of Reclamation (1977) on free-flow, -in diameter gate valves, located atthe downstream end of a conduit having the same nominal diameter a8 {hat ofthe valve, ‘A butterfly valve, even inthe fully open position, obstructs the flow due to disk thickness Creager suggests K = ld in which 1= the disk thickness and d = the con- uit diameter, with K'to be applied to the velocity head based on the gross area, Mahon (1957) observes that K'= 025 is a commonly reported value. Boyd (1958) ‘ote thatthe loss can be reduced by the use of a converging extn un the dow Sireum side of the isk. Figure 213 shows the loss in terms of a modified discharge | i a aT aN | ho Sa FIGURE 213, Bucertl vsve,los coetcient (ASCE, 165) PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER, 225 2.5.9 Wyes and Biturcations ‘These configurations occur frequently in water supply and cooling-water systems, and in hydroelectric power plants. Although there has been a considerable amount ‘of research, much of iis either theoretical or based on laboratory tests only. There is & paucity of systematic and codified data suitable for direct application 10 proto: 'ype installations. The problem is compouncled because of the possibilty of many combinations of sizes, angles, and fabrication methods. Mososnyi (1957) noted that the hydraulic losses at wye pieces are governed by the angle of bifurcation and by the ratio of eross-sectional areas. Diversion through ‘branch of part ofthe flow ina pipeline having a constant cross section wil esult in the velocities in the main pipe downstream from the point of bifurcation being su nly reduced. The hydraulic phenomena thus corresponds to that in s sudden ‘expansion, A sudden change in the fow velocity and flow direction resalts in sepa ration phenomena that may be reduced to minimal values by properly shaped cor ners and appropriate decrease in cross-sectional areas. He finds the loss coefficients for appropriately proportioned wyes to vary from 0.25 to DS0, in contrast to those ‘with improperly shaped wyes, in which the coefficients may be appreciably higher {In act, the coefficient with 90° bifurcations may be as high as 20, Based on the discharge delivered by the main conduit (othe point of bifurcation a8 O= 0,,+ Oy, Mosonyi developed Table 26 giving values ofthe loss coelicients {for various ratios of Qu/Q and Qu/Qy, and for bifurcations at 90° ard at 30°, in ‘which the subscripts and b denote the main penstock and branch pipe, respec: lively. He observed thatthe local losses in the main conduit may assume negative values for small discharge ratios This does not constitute a violation 0! the energy Taws, because the increase originates from a decrease in velocity Such regative loss coefficients are shown in Table 2.6 as 2er0, Rouse (1950) shows the necessity of including correction coefficients for several velocity heads ifthe true energy balance isto be described. ‘A carefully conceived and executed test program (Muller, 199) was conducted the Lueendro Power Station in Switzerland to determine the head losses in asec tion of the 2.2-m diameter welded steet penstock containing two 35° wre junctions For On = Onthe loss coefficient for each wye averaged neatly K =2.2 (based on the velocity head in the main penstock). A minimum K of spproximately 0.2 was achieved when approximately 40 percent of the main penstock flow was diverted through a branch, For the entice section, total head Loss was distinctly minimized. when the Now was evenly divided between the two branches The resus confirmed earlier data obtained by the hydaulie models. Ruus (1970) reported head loss cue: ficients for wyes and manifolds TABLE26 Cocffciens of Head Loss at Bitareations a Toss coofcions for bifurcations of @ 0 ‘Acute (30°) angles ov K iz kK oo 9 08s ° on b3s 3 oss ° 063 030 1 091 6 oat 075 la 106 016 O36 oo w O28 120 026 oat226 CHAPTER Two 25.10 Miscellaneous Junctions ‘The head loss coefficients for several tees, acute- and obtuse-angled elbows, and other configurations are given (King, 1954: Addison, 1954; Idelchik, 1966, Mille, 1971; Creager and Justin, 1955). More detailed data on various junctions wre fore nished by Freeman (1942) 25.11 Exit Loss When a conduit empties into a reservoir, the condition is analogous tothe sudden nlargement discussed previously. Unless a gradually tapered transition i provide. the entte velocity head i lost in the formation of eddies 2.6 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW _ 26.1. Definitions The flow in conduit having tree surface is termed open-channel flow, The tree su {ace is usually subjected to atmospheric pressure. Note thatthe conduit seit inay be ‘open or closed at the top; itis the top surface which must be fee forthe flow to he designated as open-channel flow (Chaudhry, 1993; Chow, 1959), ‘A channel is said to be prismari i it has constant eross section and a constant bottom slope, The depth of flow yis the vertical distance ofthe lowest point of 4 htannel section from the fre surface, and the depth of flow section dis the depth of Mow normal to the Mlow direction, as shown in Fig. 2.14, Since the bottom slope is Pry FIGURE 214 Depth of ow and depth of fow ection (q) smal botom soe; (0) seep baton saps o PRINCIPLES OF FLOW OF WATER. 2a usually small, y and d are assumed to be equal. For steep slopes. this assumption is ‘not valid, and appropriate adjustments become necessiry, ‘The stage isthe elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum. ‘The wetted perimerer Piste length ofthe line of intersection of the channel wetted surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to the direction of flow. The water area A Js the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direetion of flow. The ‘hydraulic radius Ris the ratio ofthe water atea (oils wetted perimeter 1, 4 (234) Open-channe! flow is sid to be uniform ifthe depth of flow isthe same at every section ofthe prismatic channel. The flow is varied ifthe flow depth changes slong the length ofthe channel. The varied flow may be classified as rapidly or gradually ‘ried, The flow is rapidly vated ifthe depth changes abruptly overa comparatively short distance, such as in a hydraulic jump: otherwise itis gradually vared. eg. 2 ood wave without a bore formation The Froude number, Fis given by the equation v WD iydraulic depth = AIT; A = cross-sectional area nor- (235) in which V = flow velocity, D mal to flow. and T'= top water surface width i. V=VgD, flow is called critical low and the flow velocity is calle crt ‘cal velocity if F, > 1, ie. V> VgD, the flow i called supercritical flow, and it F< ive, V-