‘THE OXFORD SERIES IN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING [AneL S. Sepa Seis Eaitor, Electrical Engineving The Science ee ane ee d Engi . eee een ae oy ecupaee mon ars and Engineering ee eceeieeece ee a ee peney eerie, : : Seuiae meena: of Microelectronic Se ecdacncas Cee Ss Mey Daag ot Ed Fabricati eae eat Comer Dig Let and State Mechine Design, 3d Ea abrication Ce aia ica ted nd Sem Ande, SE ectearcer me au Dimiutiev. Understanding Seiconducir Devices SECOND EDITION Reena pee alae eenecnaeeens Cel aimee cache Laney & termes nt Seems mene mec oe oe Jee ction Oc Fe Conmmioion tens Stephen A. Campbell Kuo, Digital Control Systems, 3rd Ed. Lancet) of Mnestta) ties te iid log Comma Sems St Ek Se Dita mete Creat Des Carer Syl en fran dnb EEL nan aa Eecronepene Pilar bopes ‘Warner and Grung, Semiconductor Device Electronics New York OxfordOxfnd University Pree Oxo New York Atboge Abelard — Bangkok Boge Bocnge Aes Caleta Cape Towa. Chena Darep Solas Deli rene Hong Kong Ital Karachy Kola Compur Madi Meitgimne "Merce Giy Mba Natt Pass St Paulo Shanghah Sigapore Tape Tatjy Teron Wow sed oat compas in Beip ean Copy © 200 by Oxford Universi Press Publi by Oxford Univers Pes, ne. 13 Aan acu New Yok New York 10016. nfo segs une ofOnford Univers Pest All ight reserved. No prof hie publication maybe repodced, red ina eal syst, o ante, 12am or by any nears elecons, mesic, prcoping. econ. robe, without Pt emai of Oxo Unive Pes Lincary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Campoat, ups A 15 Tf science a coginecing of mises fabcaowStephen A, Campbell — ‘cm. — (The Onesies ia lactic and computer einen) jcade ibigrpacl elec and index fewerssimas | Sonoita Desi adigstcon Tie Sess Spacer S ooesen2 £ ; Aa ad Mare “* Prinng angst 33798 6B ‘ing in the United Stas Arsen oni re pager Contents Preface — xii Part I Overview and Materials 1 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication 1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example 5S 1.2 UnitProcesses and Technologies 7 13 ARoadmapforthe Course 8 14 Summary 9 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Substrates 10 2.1 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility” 10 22 Ceystallography and Crystal Stoeture® 13 23 Crystal Defects 16 2.4 Caochralski Growth 24 25 Bridgman Growh ofGaas 29 26 Float Zone Growth 30 27 Wafer Preparation and Specifications 31 28 Summary and Fuure Trends 33 Problems 33 References 34 Part I Unit Process |: Hot Processing and lon Implantation 37 Chapter 3 Diffusion 39 ‘31 Fick's Diffusion Equation in One Dimension 39 3.2. Atomistic Models of Diffusion 47 Thin seion roid tack me3.3. Analytic Solutions of Fick's Law 45 ‘34 Corrections to Simple Theory 47 ‘33. Diffusion Coefiicients for Common Dopants 48 36 Analysis of Diffused Profiles 52 37 Diffusion in SiO, $9. 3.8 Diffusion Systems 60 3.9 SUPREM Simulations of Diffusion Profs 61 310 Summary 64 Problems 64 References 65 Chapter 4 Thermal Oxidation 68 "iL The Detl-Grove Model of Oxidation 68 42 The Linar and Parsboic Rae Coeficients 71 43° The nial Oxidation Regime 75 44 TheSinctueof SO. 76 43 Oniecharnseioaion "7 46 The Efe of Dopunts ring Oxidation and Poysiison Ouation 447. Oridton-Inducd Stacking Fats 86 48 Alleratve Gate Isolators? 88 43 Ouidaion Systems 50 4410 SUPREM Onidaions* 92 401 Summary 93 Problems 96 References 95 Chapter 5 lon implantation 98 ‘5.1 Ideatized fn implantation Systems 99 52 Coulomb Seattering® 104 53 Vertical Projected Range 105 5.4 Channing and Lateral Projected Range 110 55 Implantation Damage 112 5.6 Shallow Junction Formation’ 116 3.7 Buried Dielectrics” 118 ‘5.8 Ton Implancaion Systems: Problems and Concerns 120 5.9 Implanted Profiles Using SUPREM* 122 5.410 Summary 123, Problems 128, References 124 a genet Chapter 6 61 62 Rapid Thermal Processing 127 ness Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption” High-Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design 130) ‘Temperature Measurement 133 ‘Thermoplastic Suess" 137 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities 138 Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics 140 Silicidation and Contact Formation 141 Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems 142 Summary M43 Problems 143 References 144 Unit Processes 2: Pattern Transfer Optical Lithography = 151 Lithography Overview 1ST Diffraction” 155 ‘The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures Source Systems and Spatial Coherence 159 ContacuProximity Printers 165 Projection Printers 167 ‘Advanced Mask Concepts" 172 Surface Reflections and Standing Waves 176 Alignment 178 Summary 179 Problems 180 References 180 149 Photoresists 183 Photoresist Types 183 Organic Materials and Polymers? 184 ‘Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist_ 186 Contrast Curves 187 ‘The Critical Modulation Transfer Function 190 Applying and Developing Phtoresist 191 Second-Order Exposure Effects 195 Ademcd Peed ire Ps” gs 158 12889 Chapter 10 101 102 103 104 103 106 107 108 Chapter 11 na na 03 us us us uz us Summary 200 Problems 200 References 202 Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques” 205 Interactions of High-Energy Beams with Mater” 205 Direc Weite Electron Beam Lithograpty Systems 208 Direct Write Electron Beam Lithography Summary and Outlook 214 X-Ray Sources? 216 Proximity X-Ray Exposure Systems 219) Membrane Masks 221 Projection X-Ray Lithography 224 Projection Electon-Beam Lithography (SCALPEL) 225 E-Beam and X-Ray Resists 227 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices 228 Sommary 230 Problems 231 References 231 Vacuum Science and Plasmas 9 236 ‘The Kinetic Theory of Gasses*™ 236, Gas Flow and Conductance 239 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps 240 ‘Vacuum Seals and Presure Measurement 267 ‘The DC Glow Discharge” 249 RF Discharges 251 High-Density Plasmas 252 Summary 255 Problems 255 References 256 Etching 258 Wetting "259 Chemica Mechanical Polishing 264 Base Regimes of lama Ecing. 265 Tigi Pessore Plasma ching 257 teeing 274 Rewtve lu Biching 27 Damage in Reactive on ihing® 281 Tigh Denity Plasma (HDP) Etching. 282 ns m0 Part IV Chapter 12 ma 122 123 2s 23 126 a7 ae Be 210 ru y212 113 as Chapter 13 13 B2 53 bs Bs 136 7 138 139 cots ix Liftrt 283, Summary 285 Problems 285 References 286 Unit Processes 3: Thin Films 293 Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering 295 Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation’ 296 Deposition Racs 297 Sepeoverge 301 Evaporator Systems: Crile Heating Tesniqnes 302 Malicomponet Fins 30¢ Antnvoduston to Spuceing 305 Pyne of Spring” 306 Deposition Rat: Sputer Yield 308 igh Densiy lama Spotering 310 Moricogy and StepCoverge 312 Sputesng Methods. 315 Spoteringof Specific Maeals 317 Stress in Beposted Layers 319 Summary 320 Prien 321 References 322 Chemical Vapor Deposition 326 [A Simple CVD System forthe Deposition of Silicon 326, Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action” — 328 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers? 331 Evaluation ofthe Simple CVD System 336 ‘Atmospheric CVD of Disecrics 337 Low-Pressute CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Ht Wall Systems 339 lastna-Enhanced CVD of Dielectrics 343, Metal CVD" 347 Summary 350 Problems 350 References 351eres Chapter 14 14 42 43 14 15 46 a7 48 9 110 10 112 wn “i Part V Chapter 15 1st 132 B3 159 15.10 1a Chapter 16 164 162 163 164 Epitaxial Growth = 355 ‘Wafer Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal 356 ‘The Thermodynamics of Vapor-Phase Growth 360 Surface Reactions 364 Dopant Incorporation 365 Defecs in Epitaxial Growth 366 Selective Growth” 368. Halide Transport GaAs Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 369) Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heteroepitaxy 370 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) 373 ‘Advanced Silicon Vapor-Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques 378. Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology 381 BCF Theory? 386 Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Fpitaxy* 391 Summary 392 Problems 392 References 393 Process Integration 399 Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization 401 Sanetion and Oxide Isolation 401 LOCOS Methods 404 Trench lolaion 407 Silicon on Insulator Ioation Techniques 411 Semi-insulating Substrates 412 Schottky Contacts 41d Implanted Ohmic Contacts 418 Alloyed Contacts 421 Mulilevel Metlizaion 423, Planarizaton and Advanced Interconnect 428 Summary 432 Problems 433 References 434 CMOS Technologies 439 Basic Long Channel Device Behavior 39 Eaty MOS Technolgies 441 “The Base Sum Tecnology 442 Device Sing 437 165 166 167 168 169 Chapter 17 in 2 3 14 a3 176 i Chapter 18 iat 2 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 Chapter 19 ist 192 193 198 133 135 197 98 coe Hot Cari Efects and Drain Engineering 455 Processing for Robust Oxides 458 Latehup 459 _ Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping 461 Summary 464 Problems 464 References 466 GaAs Technologies 471 Basic MESFET Operation 471 Basic MESFET Technology 472 Digital Technologies 474 MMIC Technologies 478 MODFETs 480 Optoelectronic Devices 482 Summary 484 Problems 484 References 485 Silicon Bipolar Technologies 488 Review of Bipolar Devices: Ideal and Quasideal Behavior 488, Second-Oxder Elects 489 Performance of BITs 491 Early Bipolar Processes 494 ‘Advanced Bipolar Processes 495 Hot Electro Effects in Bipolar Transistors S04 BICMOS 508 Analog Bipolar Technologies $07 Summary 508 Problems 508 References 510 MEMS = 514 Fundamentals of Mechanics SIS Stress in Thin Fits 517 Mechanical to Blectical Transduction S18 ‘Mechanies of Common MEMS Devices 523 Bulk Micromachining Eching Techniques $27 Bulk Micromachining Process Flow 535, Surface Micromachining Basics $40 Surface Micromachining Process Plow S44MEMs Actuators 546 High Aspect Raton Microsystems Technology (HARMST) 551 Summary Problems 554 References 557 Chapter 20. Integrated Circuit Manufacturing 559 Fo Yrliteticconand Yield Tracking 60 32 Paaleceel 505 5 Sst! Press Conta 209 Salta Cxptments and ANOVA 569 25 Deumoreeenmen 57 sae ConpuerincgtetMenfatsing 578 any carey gor Prniers 578 otecnss 578 Appendix I. Acronyms and Common Symbols | 580 Appendix I. Properties of Selected ™ Semiconductor Materials 585 Appendix 111, Physical Constants 586 ‘Appendix 1V. Conversion Factors 588 Appendix V. Some Properties of the Error Function 591 Appendix VI. FValues 595 Appendix Vit. SUPREM Commands 597 Index 599 —<$—$——_—_—_—_—_—_—_[___=—=_=_—————— Preface “The inet of his book is stroducemicroclectnicprocesicg to & wile audience wrote it asa textbook for senior andor firet-year graduate student Dut i may also be used asa ference for provtcing professionals The goal hasbeen to provide a took hati ety to fed and understand Bath sion and GaAs procestes and wchaolgis are covered, although the emphasis on ilicon: thsedtecologies. The took assumes ove yar of physic, one year of mathematics (Owough simple ‘erential equation) and one cure in chemistry. Most sade with electrical engineering bck founds wil lo have ad at est one course in semiconductor physics and devices including pe Jnctons and MOS transistors. This material extremely wel forthe lst Bie chapters an Te ‘iced inthe fst sections of Capers 16,17, nd 8 for sodens who havent seen it before or Rnd that bey area bit uty. One course in Bak attics also encourage bit ist require fo this ‘Microeectonice textbooks neces vie the fabrication sequence into a mer of unit cones ae pate to frm be nega sit The ffs five the book a ervey ‘or a numberof loosely related opce cach wit is owa background mate. Most sont have “dtc ecaling al of te Dackground materia. They have ten it once, two oF thee year and ‘mary fil exan ago ts iporian that his flamer matralbe reestablished before stdying ‘ew materia, Dnrtated through each caper of ths Book are reviews ofthe sence that underies the engincrng. These sections marked with an", so hep maketh dsinction between the i Imuable scat lews andthe ppton of those Inv, with all he aendant approximations and ‘aveatsothetecialogy at and Optical lidoraphy, fr iestance, aay have sited Wie, bat i Fedee wil always be with us. "A secon cen dh rises in teaching tis type ofcourse thatthe solution of he eustons describing the proves often cannot te done anlyicl’. Comer difsion as an example. Fick's Ts hav analyte solutions, bot hey ae only vali in very rested parameter space. Predepos hom dffixons ee done a igh concentrations at which tne smplifyig ssumpsion used in he Sld- hom eivaton ae snply not vali. In the ares of iograpey even the simpiest solutions ofthe Fas fel equations are beyond the scope ofthe bok. I thi text a widely wed simulation program ced 'SUPREM I's been used fo provide more meaningful exipls ofthe sot of real-word dopant ‘edistibution problems tat he mirolectone fabrication engineer might ace. The sofware {ended to agen nt eplace, leaning the frdsoentalequaans tht describe microelectronic po ‘coving. pie instalatons inhale VAX-, SUN, Apollo, and DOS-bsed microcomputers. The ‘ook lve niches the bare teri with aditonl seins and chapters on proces iniepration fr ‘avlou tecnologie ad on ware danced processes. This dional material cin sections atk with 1" tie doce mat poi covering these restos, hey my be omited without loss of the isi coment of te cour “The econ edion ax aed ari of opt keep itcanent. Most otably ew chaps ten ad orf! new aplatons fr microfabrication roses. Called ecelecroretanialeee syst (MEMS), his etiting ea promise to oem p many rew ares fr microfabrication. The new ‘Chop 19 was wine by Br Gregory Cnc fo fanages he Mirtehnology Laboratory athe ‘versity of Minna and has worked on MEMS fr a mor of yeas. If yo have questions oom ‘moms on hi aren you can contact Gog rectly at hurr @ece un ial, os has to acknowedge tht omar how man ines this materials eviews i cannot be ptameed o be fe ofall the Caopetlly) nina eos. othe past, pulses have pro- “ied rata when eror were sucienly numerous or egresios. Even when eala ae published. They ave ver fc to gto the people who have already bought the book. This means the he trope ears often unaware of mt ofthe cores url anew or revised eon ofthe bok is ‘elwsed. Ths book wll hve an ema ha anyone can aces at any ime. We wll ao provide ‘rior adios to the book Bat were not vba press me. You ean cess the fe by going 0 the Oxford University Presa web ste forth Book, pr cap-esa cr/sbo0 9536085 nh ‘Rs me goes on {wil be adding other minor updates new topics on this site as wel I youd ‘Cenehng tat you fecl nods cerecton or clnctinn in he bo, | eve yout ny me ay ‘mal ediess,Campbellece unm ed, Please be suet lace yeu jutifeaton ching publishes telerences Minneapolis sac. The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic FabricationPart I Overview and Materials scours is enlike many tat you my have lake nth the mater that wil be covered is [Pmsily x mumber of Unit processes th ae ute distinct or each ler. The bok then [eth fave ofa survey of topes hat wil Be covered rae than a linear progression, This pat ut he bak wil ay the foundations Hat il be unde Ine etn he various abc Son process. “The fist chaper wil provide a roadmap of the cour aan ineoduction to intgrate crit fabcaion. The process that are Grove giveth and Gates ies asaya he sigan taketh away. Semiconductor technology, the fabocation of imegsed esisrs, is teed to demonstrate a flow of tes poceses which we wil ella \echnology. Extensions of the tehnalogy to inte capacitors an MOSFETe ae also discos. The secon chapter wil nroce the opie of eystal growth and wafer radon, The chap ter contain base mars information ikst will be used thoughout the rest of the book, Tas Incldes erst siete and erste defen, phase diagrams, andthe concept of sla slut ‘Unt he eer uit processes hat wil be covered ia te ltr chapirs, very few imegrae cic Tabcabon faites actualy grow their own wafers, The lope of wafer producion, Nowever. ‘emonsates some of the important properties of semicondctor ails that wl be portant both Shoring he fabrication proce and to the evel yee and performance ofthe seated eit. The ‘ferences nthe production of siiconand GaAs waters are dscessed,Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication “The eens industry has gon rp inthe pst four dead. This growth has ben ven y 2 ‘volun in rotten sry 1D puting moe than oe tei on ie of Sei ‘Coocer wis considered outing edge: Iga circuits (1s) contain eso devies were unheard ‘ST Dipl computes were large slow and exer coy Bell Lab, which had invent ihe tas {eea decade ear rected the concept of ICs, They reasood ta in ert schiewe working ecu ‘Slate descr mut work Therefore thave a SU pohly of uncon for 20 asso ce ‘isthe probably of device funtonaliy mst be (5) = 0966, or 9666. This was considered to betidiculusy optimistic tthe me, ye ay integrated cuits are ult wih ions of sists Bary tanitors were made fem grnaiom, bt most reais ae now made on sion si strates. We wl therefore emphasize silicon nis book. The second most popular material for bul ing 1s i alm arvenige(OuAs). Where appropriate, the book wil cus the processes rouired (Or GaAsiC. Aldwugh GaAs ha higher electron mobil than sco, it als has several seve {Dnitatons including low hole mobility, las sabi daring thermal pocesing, poor thermal ‘hide, high cost an perhaps most ioral, much higher defect dense, Silom bas therefore fecsse the material choice fr bphly imtgrted cea, and GaAs is teserved for ccs that pea avery high spends bt wid low to moderate levels of iteration. Curent he most om ‘on appa of GuAs i analog seats operving ot speeds in excess ofa gigabers (10 Hr). ‘Moe seventy mietoelectone farcaon fests have because 1 bull a vary of sorts Incloing micromagntics, optical devies, and micromechanical scares, Insane cases these ‘Hévure hve ap been imegrted into chipe conainingelcronic crit. A poplar nonlec- tronic splcation, sicromecharical (MEMS) swactures wil be introduced ater nhs book. “Tohart the proper of slcon microelectronics it i easiest follow one typeof chip. Mem cory cigs ave hd essen he se fonction fox mary years, aking his eype of says mean Sect Hentermore they ar extremely regula a can be soldi age volumes, making technology seteaaion forthe ep esgn eco, Ar x esl memory chips have te highest densi of [Svea Fae shows te enaiyoféymamicandom access memories (DRAMS) a8 faztin of tine. Toe vetcal axis logan, The density ofthese circus increase by increments of 4. Ech of tose ierements takes aprons thee years. One ofthe most fundameatal changes the fbrcaion proces that allow this techology evlutin iste mii fete size hat canbe 3 ____e@ FOVineet icctonc ron « fawess fund acd son more printed on the chip. Not only does thi increase IC dem lassim iy the shorter distances that eactons and oles have sem jo avel improve the Uansstor speed. Part of the IC Performance improvement comes om this increased asso perortance and part of come ro: being Sic pack the tansisors closer togter, decessing the pars capacitance, The ipicand side of Figure Ti shows te Is have progressed frm 10 microns Gm pm = 10°" fowl bode I pm. Forse sim © etme, Fee 12 shows an ecto mien em nalcon tad 1 along wth + Raman it The eon eral and hoon Ise metal es ed 1 seats Scot he ante. The amis sles eed {feet ihe nal and emt vl in he mi ‘rap At this ale of feopress gait chips wid ery sn nica feces for 025m features wl be Seen by he dime you ea his geet, Song ccm mg SE as mi 8 Teves $< — TT ‘ode Ttalpes ASige Barge 5 [A fest glance, these incredible denies and the ascii design compleity wotk! seem exterely daming. This book, howeve, wl focus on how he cies are bil ier thin bow they tte dine or how the sire pert. The fabian oes sna no water how many tra ‘Stor a oo be chip. The Bat alo the bok wil cover tetas peations eis to build an I ‘ring mechanical constucion a analog, these wool incl eps sch forging cating, bende {nding and welding, These reps wil called wit procenesin is ext Ione knows bow todo Ch ofthese spe for contain materal (© sed, andi te machines and materia eed are sie “ihe they could be ted to make ladder, igh presen. cr smal ship. There mam ‘rand onr of he ep wil leary depo on wats being bull bu the basic uni processes erin {hc sane: Furthermore. eae sequence tat produces & foo sip has ben worked ou ther sips of ‘lar esgn could yrbubly be bik wth ese proces. The design ofthe ship tha is, what pos ‘whore sa separate sk. The ship is banded ae of apis to whch eo ste mus blk "The collection and ordering ofthese wit procestes for making wal product wil be cll 2 eclnology, Put ofthe book will cover some o he baie Ebicaion technologies. Whether the tcehooogy is wed to make microprocessors, UO cones, oF ay oer digital fanction is Trgey {mur ote fabicain process. Even nay analog design canbe Dull using a ecology very ‘Sra oned to bild most ital eeu. An TC, ben, stars with a eed for some sor of ee tronic device. A designe group of designers wanssizs he regurements ino a eit design; Cat in bow many tanistors, resistors, and capacitors mus be wed, what valves hey must have, sod {Siping example, te blueprints must srnchow reflect he eatin tha te shipbuilder cannot ut ves over Weld joints ore small vets al expoct er wo bold very high pressures. The ides man cere pve the designer a document hat sys what can and cannot be done. In miso ‘ovr thn document called the desig rales r layout rales. They specy tow smal or age ozs fetes can be how lose we diferent tues an be the desig conFerms o hese is the chip canbe Pll withthe given technology 1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example Testead of baci, the cult designer hands the IC fabricator a set of photomasks. The pho mais are apical represenaton of the design tat has ben produced in acconéance with he Tayout es, Asan example ofthis interface, assume that a nod exists fran IC consisting f sine le volge divider shown in Figure The ecology to bail his desi is shown fn Fgae| $iticon water wil be usd a the substrate since they are at, reasonably inexpensive, and most IC procesng equipment ist upto bande tern. The prediction ofthese sobsvates willbe discussed Fr cuapcr 2 Ste the wafer i at Teast somewhat conductive an insulating Iyer mist fat be ‘cpontal to proven leakage betwoen njacert eestor. alternatively. «thermal oxide of slicon (SIU be grown, snc it an excellent instr. The heal oxidation of silicon is covered in ‘Ghupcr 4 Nex a conducting layer deponted tha wl be used forthe esis, Several techniques fordepsing bot ulting snd conduetag layers wil be diseussed in Chapters 12-14 ‘Tis conducting layer must be dvi op into inividul resistors. This an be done by rev sng portions ofthe contin layer, lestng rectangles of he flim tht ae isolated rom each ates, ‘Theres values given by k= ‘where pithe maser esitvity isthe resin length, W sth esitor wid nis the chess Uribe layer The designer can therfore sek different values of resistors by choosing the width ©Figun 13 A single estroge vier At ‘croutons soe oot, “Tpelpe shown st ght arc us conast an ——$—$— $e readin Miconeonc Faves An (sige (2 ote ie (2) Deen eterna) (4) Patera ta s49 (5 bee e {6 Pte nt (pest wt risen w o gee 14 The technology flow or vcning te resistor (toma a gare 13. length mo, subject vo the Hits specified by the layout rls. The technologist chooses the film ‘hicknes and the material (and therefore p) 0 give the designe an appropriate range of esses witout forcing him to resort 1 extreme goametes, Since p andr are determined ring the aie ‘ton and are apreoimately constant arom wafer, the rao pr more often specified than pot £ Individually. This ra ie called the sheet resistance, I bas units of 1 where the umber of squares isthe ratio of the length width of the resistor ie "The reir ifeeatin rom he desig, namely Land W fr each resistor, must be transfered fom the photomask to the wer, This done using «process called phototherapy. The men ‘commonly used type af phoolthoprapby is epiallihopraphy. In this process, a photosensitive layer elle photoresist ie rt spread on the wafer (Figure 13). Light shiiag hough the mask expose the eit in he eon othe wafer where some of the etal esis ayer mus be removed. Tes exposed epons, «photochemical action ocr he eit hat causes it 10 be esl s- saved ina developer soltion. After the develop sep dhe photoresist remains only nthe ass where {resistor sds. De wale then inumese in a ci tht solves the exposed metal layer but ‘oes ot sgniartly tack the resi. When the etch compl the wafes are eroved ff the cid bath, rinsd, sd the potoreit is removed. The photltogmphic proces wl be covered in CChapers7 through 9. Chaper 1 wilteover etching. "Athlouph he rssors have now been formed they still eed to Be interconnected and metal lines must be broagh tthe edge ofthe chip, where they can ter be attached meal wires for com. facto the external weld. Thi later operation, called pachging, wil nt be covered inthis text. If the metal ines have t cos over the resistors, another ining Iayer must be depose. To make ‘lecal contact he resistors one can ope up holes inthe insula ayer using the sabe pho tolthographic and ech processes we ad ued foe ptteriog de ress, although the composition ‘fhe ac bath ny be dee aly, the fabistion sequence can be competed by depositing (1)Srtng trate) Canth pee {unt retusa Teesipes 7 ighly condectve metal ayer, applying third mas, ad etching this metal intercones ye “The technology coms of four yes: the ower aor nate aoe eet tn =e S3388 Ul Boom em eeetecoreee as Tattup Except or edpsof the pater th ik ea ali) es can he ih Novice that he comparon ih ship Tremere ttaas nee creel ieee photomasks, ane that defines only a few resistors and tively remove some of thes layers in ceria regions. (tate eros (ener sy ness OF these ins is constant. The technology uses ing breaks owe none eal effon Dimmens epedwale (EB ie busing breaks down, a pet Th Fae 15 Sic sie orp ese sg Md be anf). Infact front ste of cessing (TP) A numberof prceses hit allow the growth of thin lsyers of semiconductor on op ofthe wafer wile discussed, These process ae Eales cpa growth. They alow the podaton of Fareed dpan repons below the suc ofthe wafer The book wil et disse ere ade oa! extgurs of towing slicon on icon and gllom sere on gallium arene (bomoe thy rl en cover nore advanced tgs hat allow te prowth extremely his yes ar the aban of advanced device suces "Tae un posers canbe scaled ito fonctions cess males, These mous ate esigged eat ont specie tanks sac te eel lation of aacent assis, fw resis {ence contacto transistors, and mip ayes of high desl inereouect. AM of tee aes ave Int cai ahances over eps few years. Clear aeoffs exist mor the vaso odes in {ems of proces complex, cat dros, planar. and performance, These modols od the Feel iy Ht ii i i Fie 1.7 soadmp fre coun inating he easy Between the chaps tank ani faction re semble in ectrnopes, Te f te mos popula eons ‘cen caen bea they ae poplar and beste ey are erste of many ober coeunon thn repent resonable cos secon ofthe mioeleonis inst wil be Feviwed Fly, ‘Stoop As you mig ine om previo dacs te sane nit process cone ed ‘ess equa for high-volome marcia of Cs wl be dacussed te fice sh neon cbrg coupled device (CCDs), ner solar cell, ad gemiing Gioes (LEDS). The only ieee ae the number, ype, a sone of te process wel © 1.3 A Roadmap for the Course fer he echclgy, Yo ae encore ok i 0 fest or Fabrcon teens ter you complete coare to ee Sos ofthe other ways tht hese ui prcesses ae epi “The vats unit processes for fbition ae fil independent. Bach ofthe next 13 bape will, a a cover a differen unit process To kes the Boo fo a manageable size, each proces can be only tril inroduced. many ese, he chiple aenseses canbe expan into books. The materia 1.4 Summary step wil ieee a ila You tr ep ch pie ve Imeprtd sir ave developed with increible level of comple. excesting 1000.00.00 tan eat Trea fis ach sonnei ne coe Sistrs pe chip. Transistor damsiy, as measured by dynam random access memes (DRAM), ere 1.7 shows amp oh coure hp shat yourinsractoy chooses flo junrpies about every 3 yeas, at has since T968, This book wl Inreduce the tehrologes used ee {o fab the ICs The bling blacks of these technologies ce the wn processes of phatlithog. sections are marked with 2°. The shapers and secons marked with * ae atonal materi ‘ag. orton isa, ion pletion etching, hn ln deposition ns eit growth, The ‘omewhat beyond the bac process needed wo describe simple semiconductor temoogies. ti process canbe anembled infect orer and umber, depending onthe ici to be al, “The lat ix chapters ofthe book are dented to sscondvctr technologie. The base unit process dacs earlier ae bre sogsthe 9 fom. Cs mede frm silicon CMOS, bipols a Sistorn GaAs fel fic wants, and micromecheic! devices. Tes ecology exarpes have TTChapter 2 Semiconductor Substrates “Tis section of the took will deal with nit roesss that depend strongly on the properties ofthe Fa arse wales themslves.Diffsion for example, depends on te crysaiae perfection nthe cance in aay unpens on the proces tmmperstre We wil hepin wit a eseiton of phase Thabane Tis murals paricolrty weft for understanding the formation of alloys that wil be eg crn book Ts top lio leeds naturally it a discussion of sali solubility ad the do. caret scumonductrcrysiai: Following tat the chapter wil oncentrae oo crt stutres sh Ha semeevaline woes. The secon Palo he chapter wil discuss the echniqus wed 2 finned eogeonductor wafer These wafer, wbich ¥ry in ianeter fom i for some compound eetconductors upto 300m fr some licon wafers athe asc slaing pint for device faba Tee ihugh ee oneaton felis sill wake her Owe wafers, the tidy of he semicondctoe ante mess good place to bint develop a uadersanding of senicoaducor processing, FOr ‘Tore complete review of i topic se Malan and ara (1 The teri toed for efclectonies can Be dived im the casications depending 08 the anvunt of Homie oder they poses. In singe crystal materials, almost al of the atoms i the (Mosul ooupy wel defied and regaar portions Iaown as late ites, Mis ofthe eemicondctor SEeeaee tien the acne devices ae actly made ae single crystal. Arogpous mats Sen SiOy teat he apposite exreme Theses in a amorphous mil have o Tong ange ‘Sher Instead the chemical bonds have a aage of legis ad orestations, The tid ls of mae Sits polrtilin, These meters area coleston of stall single crystals randomly oisted ‘Bin eopect to cach eer. The size and orientation of ese crysas often change during pressing Und somedines even ding cect operation. 2.4. Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility” Most ofthe ates of interest to ws in tis text ae ao elementa: rater they are mixtres of mae ae Bren ein no very wscfl ina pure state, ned, tis mixed with impure hat affect ‘Grecia pope. A wey convent way 10 pesat the properties of mintres of maeil is & ‘Shas dafom Binary pate dagams canbe Wovpht of aps that show the eegion of stability Cartan of two materials a function of percent composition and terpeatre, Phase digrans (Riya have a resmure dependence but al ofthe diagrams of neem semiconductor device fb ‘ston wl bea 1 atm 21 Fes aye eS tity "18 Figure 21 shows he tase dara for eS noe B21 Somat se dan Gian xp fe sie ef 9s [2 Deca cn he graph The upper lie, ce deserts the enperatire tiven mitre wil bein completly Ilsa Tee ove or sls curve dees ie tempera which te mtr wil empl feu. Betwcen es no crves eon ch ig hi di me, Th comonomer ‘ix weg som concerto of ad Ge bdr 0 temperate ch mate! wil pow wa a 1106. — eet 2 OSC, Aspe Bat he bei sto rath ht te ema nan euro e eo ec he fd inline cn oe ne wih emiey he cnpaon x hehe ah ie est pra Free I'S opin of ma il 32 omc pec is, The seein fhe a an ead off he pr as coment ih esis ie engeriepe he euing vie ae pce i Noe a hac ht mobi i ea tempest is inne, he compo of he mel ves Wed coal val, ‘ithe nti alt mvs de wp io ene ener ehe is ine te ene hare en Fr 7 ating ae res TC Cpe Wei pen co ea ‘mera i Figure 21 Pease sr cf Ge Si The doles eres he "hemodynamic lib cures ASM eration. e of12 2Seakordc Sus cooing, the ste processes osu. In either pees, maining thermodycamic equ in he Solid muck ore fic han isin th me ‘ample 24 Forth example jas cused, calculate the faction of the SO charge tat is molten at ise. Solton: Let bethe fraction ofthe charge thats mate, Then | ~-cshe fri of he charge hati sli Tre faction of sion in the melt plus te fraction of ico i he sid tak 10.5, he otal fation of iis the charge 05 = 022 + 0581 ~ 9) Solving for 036 = 008 r= 02 22% of th charge is nolan and 78% i sll Figure 22 shows the ps diagram for GaAs (3. Material stems lke GaAs tat ave 10 solid pases tat melt form a single ligud phase recalled intermetlics. To examine the phase ‘Sagres in he lower igthand corer, Ts asi pve, snc it i below the solids fi. ‘The venice! line a the center of the dagrra indates at tbe compound Gx wil for i hs Tiara sytem The lower lft region ea solid mine of GaAs snd Ga, while th region ia he {bwer gt hse nature of GaAs and As, I this Azsch solid is heated 1 10°C, te soation tuitepn to mel Beeween tis frperafute andthe Kgudus line, the concentration ofthe mel ca te detrmited as beiore. For Orch charge, th mixed state Begins at about 30°C, only lghty howe tom trperstre Ths gives ise 1 problems associated withthe growth of GaAs lye tht stb esc both nein hs ape z well ta ater chiper on pital govt “svi exile consider Figure 23, which shows the pase dagra forthe AS-Si sytem ls), White the suctre looks quite complicated wit Several diferent sold phases mapped ot, ‘mcroletronic apis ae primaiyilerested inthe low arsenic concentration fim. Even try bevily ope sco is normal Tes than 58 arsenie. Novice at there sony very small Tezlon in which As will disole ln slicon at» dopat without forming a compound. The maxima Concetrion of an nary tat an be dsolved a anther material under exuibvium conditions is ited the soi solubility. Notice tht the wold solabliy increases athe temperature approsches {OTC whore it is aut & atc percent, soa that inthis eon a vera! ine will actully ine cree curves The poton of te lne hat goes frm © omic peremt As at SOC Yo 4 fomnic Perce Asa 1OS7C is ead the solas cure, represents soubliy. Te remaing two ies The whe sls and ligula esesively. The sod solubility of Asin St is comparatively Ize rer, and i means tat As i be ued 0 form very heavy dope and therefore ow resistance ‘elon such at source sd din contacts for MOS transistor (Chapter 16) and emit and colesoe ‘onars wotpolrvarsisors (Chapter 18. Since tn the sid slubiity rom the phe dag hat {sot primary ineest for dapat impor, and he soli obit varies by des of mages ur fernt mgs in icon, he poe diagram nforeatin for amber of common dopants in siicon have been combined (5} on aserilog pet is Figure 24 220,soganhy Cal Sesse 13 en caarreve Figure 2.2. Phase ng fc Gah (carn of ASM ernst Consider what happens inthe elongata, A sicon Wafers heed to 105°C and dps 0 3.5% atomic with As Doping msthade wil begin to be doused in the next chapter. puny co ‘ttrton ar normally expreued in camber permit volune.A 3.8% ame Coneencation asic. ‘comespons 01.75% 10" cm The ps diagram indicts tht asthe wate is ook twill eve: tually exceed th maximim cogceation tha can be in Slat ora thermodyasic ‘iri, the excess Asta condense ot, cite by coming ob ofthe sre oso ely. by forming sl preiptats in he sioun esta Fr thi to happen the Assos must be mie ine {ys the wafers cooked apd enowgh he precipitates cana orm, and a higher conceniaion ‘of pris dan ter ynaiclly lowes ca be omen in. Metallurg efer tos proces as (qunching. Tis an impertantconsieration oe in mind. Doping concentrations ean sod fen {Ec cece the sol sclutay, This is doe by beating & wafer with excess dopant sews and hen ‘oolng pid Prakconeetaton can exceed Ce sold slit by a actor of 10 oF mar. 2.2 Crystallography and Crystal Structure” ‘Cras re described by their most bese stratrl element the ont cll. crystal is simply 80 fy ofthese cel, repeated in very reguor manner over tve dimesios. The unit el merest —<—<$<—<— <<< —<—<—<—————————— rrwt ecactanee ae swe a lave i a a a a a a onic eet ste os Figure 23. Pine singrm for Ar SL (cours of ASM Internatio Ive cai prety with each ee ofthe unit el Being the same length, Figce 2S sbows thee Simson per of cuiceqysals. The sirection ina crystal re etd sing Cran coordinate Suen a [ea For eae cys the fares ofthe cel form plans that are perpecalar othe rer or he condinate sysea The symbol (xy) used to denote «patil plane that is pspe: ‘Ecutr wo te vector bat points rom he ogi long the [2] ection, Figur 2.5B shows several Gonmue cya icin, The sctof cubes and ¢ at reused 10 dese planes i this : (tanner ur called the Miler indices ofa plane. They are found fora sven plane by taking the [Dvr of te points a which te pla a guesion crosses the three coorinae axes, hen mii ing by the smalet pousbl facioro wake x,y aod ziteger. The notation (x2) i so wed 10 ‘epreen rysal planes, This presentation i meant include not ony the given plane, bu also lt ‘Caisson planes, For example in a rstal with ub symmetry, the (100) plane wil ave exactly ‘Sotume properties the (O10) and (01) plans. The ony eifference i an abitray choice of coor: inate syste, The notation {10} refers tal te. “Ficon and germanium are bod Groep TV elements. They have for valence electons and cod four more to complete thelr vlene shall. In ry, hs i done by forming covalent bonds 1 four acuest eighbor toms, None ofthe bse cube tates in Figure 2.5 would therefore {eppprine. The simple cubl cys has sx newest meighbors, the body centred cubic (BCC) as eg nd the fee entered cube (PCC) has 12. Instead, Group TV xemiconducos fom in the 22oysaicgpy ad Cyl Sree 15 ce 1" Concannon) Figure 24 Sclid slit of somo sco mpi (al igh reseed erin wh permision. ©1960 AT & 7, 40 Tel Be ‘ipiete Sayeeda Fare cent te o » Figre 25 (9) Gomme ct ig i Tice cer and aceenor case) Cy ‘orientations in the evbie sytem, aeFue 28 Te cinmoat cite Fue 27. singe aa LO (Deen ond 2am Sees Gamoad strctte shown in Figure 25 The ont cll can be consruced by starting with an FCC cel and ‘ding four dion some Ite length ofeach ie fn. the Foor addins ste ae load ta, 12/9), al, 3, a), (alo a) and a, eld Sal), Tis cyst stetare ce alo e though of 2 ‘wo ftesoeking FCC latioes. Gas ao formes inthis sine arzagemeat, however, when (elements ae prose theerystal has veced lel of syne. ‘The secure ten called chiens. 2.3 Crystal Defects Semicondocior wafers are highly pefoct single on tus, Nevers, est detects ply an import tole in semiconductor fatvicaton. Semiconditor fects of imperfections, can be divided ito four 'ypes depending on thir ieasionality. Point defects do nc extend any ection, Line defects extend in ‘one sitecton “rough the crystal. Ane sd volume defects are 2 and -D defect, epectively. Each ‘ype fart ute diferent arent of Be favieation pce, Pint defects are cxtemey impor sotto the understanding of doping ad diftosion. The prevention of ine defects important to ay ‘heal procesig, paula in pid heal processing. Vola deft a play wef le in YeKlenginerag, Figure 27 shows afew ofthe mot important semiconductor deft ‘One ofthe most canon pes of pin defect lie site without an som Tis defects 3 ‘vacancy. A chely related point defect i at ao du resides wot on alatic it, bi the spces betwen the atic poston. [rele fo as an inka the inertial atom oof he Same smatril asth los inte lace it a seltteri n sore cate, the neal comes om 4 ‘eary vacancy. Such a vacacy interstitial combination i elle Fen eect might also migra tote surface ofthe wer wher nist ‘Vacancies and e'neesials are ininsie defects Just ab one tls shout inc caries in sericondsctors, at none tempest inns ‘defects wll tend to ocurin an otherwise perfect cyst Thermal excitation ° ‘reas a very sal percentage of electrons at hoes na semiconductor. Wil also remove a Small ner of atoms from their lic ies, eaving o fect. Te ners or vacancy may nt remain lhe site at which was Feet ecg mek Bahonsol ics an move trek te eal pry ote SS SSS te cee ons il ie meetin fatto te * 3233 behind vacancies Gover. the vacancy conceotaion is given by a8 Anis uncon which fs egeton of the fre. enerr en there she number density of stom inthe ryt ace (5.02% 10 10 yn. For example, an anes! a 12D0°C for 3h gives an oxy en concentration of 6% 10” cm? (2 ppn) and an approximate dened rone depth of 25 jum, Fnuly, ove aceds to observe thatthe carbon eancentation must als be contlled in wafers Intended for innsic peering ws, since the axyge can prcipiate at erbon impurities (20) The oncetaion of earbom inthe wafer, therefore, factor i determining the sie sn shape ofthe seyprn recite (21. 1s deat up Cconcntation ae than 0:2 ppm 2.4 Czochralski Growth ‘The techniqn used to produce mest ofthe crystals from which semicoodcto wafers are cutis called Czochvatst growth. The process was lst developed by Tel [2] i he ecy 1950s ao nas Gist developed by Cznchalskt who wed ito draw thio mal amet forthe melt as early 251918 Since sien i single component system, its eset to art by staying is prowth. Once this is complete some ofthe complications sociated with compound emicondoctor grotah wil Be discused. The production of the high prty polyerysaline materials that ae meted the Cochralsi furnace will ot be discussed. While ts i an interesting execite in dilation it ot ‘very elevane ote IC fabrestion proces. (Cuotralsk growth invaves the slain of» erysa from a mel. The material wed in singe crys sion growth is electronic grade polycrystalline slcon(plyiicon, which hasbeen Feped fom guar (S10,) unt its 99:99999% pure. The poly lade ino a fused sled ‘crcible that i contained fo an evacuated chamber Figure 2.12) [23 The chamber ie back filled With an ino ga, apd the crucible i ited to approximately ISOI°C, Nest, sal chemically hed seed erst (about 05cm ia diameter an 10 em lo) lowered nto contact wi the mek ‘Tis ery mt be cael onto since wil eve a the tpl forthe prowth of the mach Jager cyst cll the Boule. Modem bosles af silicon can reach a diameter of oer 300 tm and sel 02 mong Since both tet and the soi are at sbou the same pressure and have approximately the same compotion, sobificaion must be acomplished by sredsction intemperate. Ae shown the Sgr, temperate sont bythe incensed serface area of te ok. Both ara conveton sad ary body rasan wil cause he esa 0 give off sobtantal heat and wil give ese to song, ‘ermal gradient across the Tigid solid ineface. Ate interac, sional energy must be In secommodate the lent heat of fasion for he sol Baling the energy flow in aun volume atheFigure 212 Sctemats md ghowcagh (omtes of ‘orntis Comoran of Casha Sut em, 240m bow 20 imerace wih simple 1D anaysy, (wat) (naa) use ax ‘wher the ks ae the thermal conductivities of ligand oid slcon st he ming pint, Ais the ‘ros-sccional area ofthe boule, Tithe lemgersre, and i the Ineat heat offs appt acl 340 cal fo sien), ‘Both of de two thermal difesion terns are poitve under non Coach growth com oa, ith the fst tern arger than the second, Teint tht cher isa mary ae at which the crystal can be plod (Figure 213). This would gr if all the beat iain up the slid it ‘roduc by the Islet heat of fasion a the interface (sete fist try in Egon 210 sO} Toe ‘ere would be no werperatre gradient inthe ig en ‘am atempt i made to pull the eystl from the mel fase han this the solid cant conde the het away andthe mate will nt soil a single ery 24), Type vals for the tere "ur satiation Cznchals are about 100"Cem, bough for pul rs near the ram the termperatue praen wil ary inversely with the arse the yt Figure 214). Toma lize he temperature gradient inthe oe th Boule and mee te typkly ete in oppo ce- ions during the growth In rely, the maximum pul rat snot normaly se, Is been found that the ceysallne ‘ua s2sensiiv function of the pl ate The mesial near the melt hus avery igh demty oF Poin defects, 1k would be desiable to cool the solid quickly enough to preven hese deft fom Figure 2:13 Time se sequen of ol cing pl tw he mein Cat roth (reine ih porn of ane Pr a ae eee u Sentra Series gglomerting. Oa the ether band, suc pid coking means that large themal pain’ (an there {Se tage sovver) wil cccor i th eral, pculrly for Inge diameter wafers. Czochralski ‘Gown grocesses ue thi effet to tinimize dseaton nthe bole by rapidly beginning the pl ‘Fun produces a maou. highly perfect pon [25-27] jut below the sec rst, calle tang. Any dintatoos inthe seed atl, whether tet nally or caused by contact wi tbe mln sic, ‘Sn be preveme fom propagting in the bool a this mamer (2). An example of such an edge Searels atcation can be seen ia Figure 215. The mek trmperare i then lowered. andthe pol ‘at reduced wo shoulder eu te bool othe desired dame. Fall, the pl te a famace te ‘erate ae aie using Feedback conta fom an optical tector sto measure the with of he Fete Thc ueipn of ti ew sheds is eneally impor i contellng the temperature station ‘ea te olid-neliniectac nd hereto in etrining the delet density (23 ‘Gena at the meter of he esas incresed, the pul rate mus be decreased. This is pecans the het lst is proportional tothe srfce ate, which i proportion the damter Seibert whi the energy pce by fasion is proporticaal othe vam, which i ur s Figure 214 (A) A200 seo ron ty (8) potty SOD wen (phar cay of MEME ‘Berens Matra be) Figure 218 _X ry egrph of sed neck showing ge ‘malonate Sm 2AGcnbh Gow) 25 proportional to the square of the diameter. the pl Fat fs too low, bower, pint defects wil agelomer ie The type of defects formed most commonly are faleddiocation lope. I semicondsctor substrates these loops are called sil Beene they ae often dis ‘buted in sul about the enter of the wa, ‘arg the proces of Czochralski growth sverl Imparies will corporate ilo he ery. We have sleady discused the importance of oxygen th ub- ‘ira. We are now in a poston to undead its fin. Cribs ueed to bold De mote silicon during Be Contras proces ar wsaly fed sca (SO, fen mistakenly called que). A ISO, silica wil felene a considerable amount of oxygen ino the Ion silicon, Over 95% of the dissolved oxyg=n ‘Seapesrom the sre ofthe alt as Si (30. Some fie oxygen wl be Incorporated ino the growing ays. Since tis soply of oxygen is consatly ‘plished will be approximately conan along the contled sing the temperature of the mc. For feawcedconcentzebons of oxygen, the boule can be frown under magnetic coctecment. The fst comme lly signican tnagneticaly confined Czoctrls from wore reported in theca 1980s [31,32]. Fig tre 216 shows & magnotily coined erysal growth System The magnetic field uy be directed along the Tenth of the foie ana ever, modern systems fee nealy all perpendicular 16 the growth ‘section (tanec). Typical Wels ae 037 XG). In eer case the purpose ofthe ld iso create a Larent force gu B, which wl change the motion ofthe ‘nid impure inthe melt in such amaener aso keep ther aay fom the uo itace td thereto Screase the input incorporation nthe rsa this rangement, nygea concen ‘aon low at 2 pn have been reper [33 Thix process also ashe eflet of minimizing eis iy variations avout wafer [34 Tis azo common to invoice opt sams into the mel so that a parca esti wafec cansbe made To do issone can siply weigh the mal, eterine the numberof pert toms that ‘Gost be needs and ton weight puri. The press complhated, however, by te fat Ti rpactics tend seprgate at solidi inrfaes Thats th oid may be more ores key Toconain an purity han the Iii, A prepa coefficint ean be dein a8 ¢ 212) ‘whore Can Care the impurity conention the void and igi sles ofthe soiiqu iter: Thee Table 2.1 sarmasiaes the Seregtioncoeficews of eoramon impure sion “To endeand fw dopant sepreation spar etal uniflora, consider what happens if b> nat ene, the concentration of impor 9th sli s great than thin the mel. ToFume 216 Photopph of comes ply cota Cnc system (Tha eta achieve this higher proportion of dopant is pled foe the mele han i contained in the qui ‘Consoqoemy the tmpuiyconcetraio nthe mele mrt decrease asthe bul spall. Refering tothe phase Gingrams ote 0d solubility curves, the concentration shift of he met so shit the “onoraation ofthe Solid. Ir we define Xas te frac ofthe mel ha has Solid, and sssupe that te volun is wel ned ea be shown that Cmca ey wher Cte nial met eonceaation “The well mined approximation nt very good de to he existence of tbeoal gradient inthe me. The basic effec i shown in Figure 2.17, The hot wal ofthe croible cause the met near the Walls o expand: The lowce density ofthis healed marl wil cause 10 ie. The cooler region of the met nea the boule wl od to ink. Collectively, te proces is known satura convection and “is 21 Sep aion meomornerte nse = a a 2 3. P ES ora a os 03s obs ons Beas 2ACextie ew "27 the Mow tems dha it proces ae haowe 36 Dusyancy-deen Peireultion cell. Ths eect is resent Some extent whe ‘hs temperate rien exit in ster that contain gud ‘or gat with aii nonzero viscosity. The rotation ofthe cv ‘ble andthe boule. long with the pling ation of the boule, ‘he heat leased by selidcaton ate salid-ele interface and the srface tension of the elt al comibue wo thew ptems in the melt [36], For larger boas the Now i hz mel eb lene At he hgh otra, the met cannot ow, inthe sre way the woe atthe tanks of river cannot Rod ecaue ofthe ite vieosty ofthe mel thre wil bea Yegion ear the ligule interface over which litle foe of mers) sl be poset. This region of the melts called the Bourary layer Te inputs hat re ake up by Ue eid mist se ‘ross hs eegian, To fae this effec min account, the gre tion coefficient & cn te replncd wit an elective segregation fefficien whee a9 ‘isan etfcive boundary layer hicknes, Vs the pall velit. nd Dis the impurity dif inthe oie smiconductr "The row of GuAs fom the mek i sgiicntly more cue than the grt f sion, One reason i the diterence Figure 217 Forno ction cll inthe vapor presse ofthe (vo males, Siokhiometic GaAs reli at I238°C (se Figere 22) At hat temperate the vapor esse of glim i essthan 0.01 atm, ile the vapor pres sure of aren is stout "age. is obvios that maintaining sehiomeuy dough te bose wil te callngng. A variety of systems have been designed o overcome tix obacle This and he nex ‘secton vill present the two mest popular choices: lid encapralated Concha growth co mony called LEC, andthe Bridgman growth technique. Bedgmun wafers ave the lowest discs tion doses (fener 10°em andar commonly aed for ebricaing optoelectronic devices such 1 laser. LEC grown wafers can be made with Iagger dances, they ae fou, and can be male semainsiting wih ressiviis of neaty 100 Milan. A disadvantage of LEC wafer is that xy typically hive deft densities greter than 10*em™ Many ofthese defects ae de to thermoplastic fees aking from vera! temperature radions of 60-80"Cicm (37) The production and se of those seminsulaing substrates wl be icussd in Chopter 15, A ares fs propery eat ll ‘etronie GaAs devices ae faced on LEC meri. Pytoyticboron nite (pBN) erciBles are wed istead of qua in LEC growin o avo le ‘on doping ofthe Gas bute ro equa To prevent ouiiffesion of As frm the mel, tbe LEC ‘process ser tghly iting dik shown in Figure 2.18 The mast common sclat rsa s bork ‘nie (8,0). A slight excess of eic aed othe charge to componrate Forte arsenic ss at ‘ova until the xp Booms moten at about ADIPC and seas the mel. Once the carze is mole, ‘he ace crystal ca be mere trough the br oxide ul it somes the charge, Dring shes the peste reaches 6 tm. Crystal growths cari ot at 20am (8) For thst reason he proces is sometines celled high pesoure LEC or HP LEC: Typical pl ates ate abou I cmv (ISenet, (ey temocene (Seton ibe eae uemperre coal ere, ‘The second problem cacoumtered in LEC growth rele to difereces io the mater properties af licen td Gaks Table 22 sommares the rlevant data, The heal conductivity af GaAs is about tied tha of i icon, Ava esl, a GaAs bole aot able oessipte te latent eat of ferion ax apy sa siicon boule Prter~ more, he shear sss rogue o mace a dsoation st the tcing point is about forth tat of silicon. Not ‘only the material less able dispute bea, a smaller thermoplase sain will induce defects no surprs: Ing, therefore, hatte Coote grow of GaAs is pi imal limited to ouch sale wafers than silicon tnd that defect densities of Crosbalk grown material are ‘many orders of magritade larger than spare silicon fer the dsocation density i kept ow engh it does ot present a turmounable ret the fabication of Cs with madera to high ives of imegratin; However, gure 218 Scicoaic of igait Schnee one ster, ug mee els rprined sen. y= en Lor course, duadvanage of his process is tht it so slab For Fring ype sion 2.7 Wafer Preparation and Specifications . ‘After th bute ts bcm grown she wafers mus be made, The Boule is fs characeizd for ress Fareed cpa preston Thon te sed anal rect of andthe boule is mechanically immed to a —e—2 2 Suncom Sats om cm 10) vn am int ten z O® om wn ry ‘ony oy ain sates (a caste gure 223 sundrs atorntn foifeent semicon wae. the prope diameter. The diameter ahs point is lghly lage han the fal wafer diameter, since ‘ditional exching wil sil be done, For wafers 10 mm and les, ts are round te enti lent of the boule o denote the ert crietton andthe doping eye ad o provide a meted for carey aligning the ration ofthe wafer during subseqseat potoiography ep, The largest ft ealed the primary is orinted perpendicular tothe (110) decon. One or more rior ft wl a Be round Figure 2.23 shows the Ba eentton or diferent wafer pes or larger wate anotch brown ato the ge ‘iter arindng the fats the wale is dipped in a chemical etchant o remove the dase caused ‘by the mechanical grinding Fark manutacurer hats proretary mint, ut ley seme sed ‘the HE-HINO, sytem. Af etching, the bale is sea into wafers. This excl sep the Process ait wil determine the wafer bow 2od Panes. Typically, 2 wie impregated with amend Pts is used. The wafers may then be edge rounded in anohce mechanical grining proces, tk ‘hasbeen found that edge roundel wafers are fess susceptible to deve ccated by chanel Ban ‘ling ring the subsequent processing caso pevens the ple wp of liguid tht wl cou the wafer when asing spinon proces Next series of sep te performed to remove any reidal mchanicl damage ad o prepare ‘the wafers fo device fabricate Fis the wafers te mechanically lapped ia sanyo lis ood lvoe, then etched as before to ede the damage Finally, one or Bt ses ecvte a posh ina Electrochemical rocess involving sary of NaOH and very ie siica pts lowe by ache, ‘eal cean remove any residal contaminants Tables 23 and 2.4 show typical var mpecibcatons ‘Both silicon and GaAs technologies se migrating to larger wafer ses snc hs allows more i per wafer and hese greater efficiency. The stsndard GaAs wafer (00 em, The standard wae for sion IC manufacturing i 200 mum. The Sst Cs to be bil on 40mm wale ave now been Tobie 23 pes oats on Geen a Tea ra esting mp >i Mesa or Vy 00 eddy on) we Panes (0 “ Contcm 1 Tipe peal aoe ase wr ‘Clee: pail?) ‘Grygen crete ea) Species +38 (Cates saceuraton Sxi0" Nest ng “aoa ridin diced cng hs om) = Sie em) 10 Teton (nm) casos Bow (um. io Gia ass um) 3 Comte 2 ” .. FE ATT = ——, nape, rpc en hn completed, but 30mm accepance ha bees slowed by adver ecocamie conditions. Ax shown in Fire 224, however, secptance ofthe new 300-ra sam fr is expected to prow im coming years, Simul ‘the fest 150-mo GaAs fab line his wecnty hepun rodicton 2.8 Summary and Future Trends “This chapter eviowed some ofthe mst basic proger: tis of semiconductor materials. An intodoctior to phase cigrams was given ad he ide of slid solu ity wos presented. Nex, base desertion of poi. Vine, area, and volume defects was given. la th scot al ofthe chapter esa prow methods were presened,Conevalih rowth ithe most common method for preparing silicon wafers, Liga ncepulted Czochralski the dominant tho for sowing GaAs for elesronic applications, be high defest densities are « problem, For optockstroic applications the prefered head i Oe Bridgman ecaigue Problems 1 |AGaAs crystals ona cordate system such hat an arsenic to sits the gestion 0.00 aaa glum atom sis aa al at Fi hex. coorinates of theater tre nearest elghbor galls alos othe esenc alam at 00.0. What isthe distance tween theve aos? Compare the dstnce tthe aoc rai an 368 A, ven igure 1.6, Explain any ferences (note For dhe cystal in Problem inthe tre ther nearest arsoie atoms ote ct alive 3. Atbxure f 30% stcon and 70% germanium heated to 100°C ibe mae a heal ‘euiriom, wat ithe concentration of sion i heme? AC wha epee wil the ‘mle charge mo}? The saraple tempest ised to 130°C, hen sey cote back daw, te L100. Whats the concent oF con the sis?2S Sites 4, Referenc pO During the motel beam pital growth (MBE) of GaAs ayers dere song tendency to form dope of gallum on the surface ofthe wafer. These oval defers area serous ‘roblm for MBE febcation. Avoiding thes require large arsenic to altar xo, Referring the phase dagram, explain why thermadynass woul aver the formation of these droplets. [A process technology tht has guinea grst dal of interest nthe last fw years is ap “rmal annealing (oe Chapter 6), The proses allows wafers tha have hgh concentrations of ‘dopant sons in thm oe ested to hgh temperatures very api, minimizing dopant ‘dfsion Explai he deiabiy of soc a proces based on te dscussion of phase diagrams td solid saab. ‘silicon wafer thar has 10 om of non i found to havea! vacancy concenaton of 2 10 on at sore processing temperatre ans singly lowed vacancy concertaion of {hem at the sme terperatre Detect temperature ad he activation energy of te hanged vacancy with espoct 1 he nse lve, Repeat Problem 6 the wafer doped with 2 > 10% em” of boron Init desired to form a Jenaded ze 10 um ick sing an 1100 seca How ng wil the ‘anes nen be? Wit wll he oxygen concenation bei the dened 200? Whe temperstoegradien in Cocca silo is 100"Cem, calculate the maximum pl te. ‘Asoming atthe ek sat uniform temperate an loses no eat except the boule and thatthe ale ra perfect Black body, se up the diferent equabons apd boundary conatons ln ewo dimensions ht one would eed wo salve to find TY. 2) ne boule ‘A toute of singe cpt scons pled fom the mel i Caner proces. The silicon is bton doped. Afr the boule pled i sliced ino wafers. The wafer takes fom the top of the bool bs boron conentation of 3 = 10cm Wha wou you expect for doping ‘concentration ofthe wafer taken from the poston corresponding (090% ofthe nial charge ‘oliied? ‘Arnel contains 0. sami erent phosphons in sion. Asse the well mined “proximation and allt the dopant concentaion when 10% of de erysals pulled, when 508 of the ery pulled. and when 90% of teers is pulled ‘tool of alco ie plled fom al hat conte 001% phospors Pia the mel {@) What concentration of phowgors(P) woul! you expect atthe tp ofthe boule (x = 0)? (©) the boule i long anit basa uniform cro section, t what postion (rx valve) would you expect concentration of phosphors toe twice as age a it8 he top? (e) Now consider he eto contain gallium aswel (Gallium is p-ype dopant for sion, but tis wt common we.) The concentration of albumin he el is such tat athe top ofthe boule r= 0), the concentatons of gal and phoxphors are exactly ea tbe concenvaion of glliam half way down he Boule (x= 0.5 twice tat ofthe spor, what ithe sepregtion coco () for gala? Wy docs Braginan gomth end to hve bigher impurity concentrations han LEC? es, '. Mahan and KS, Harsha, Principles of Grwth nd Processing of Semiconductors, ‘McGrail, Boston, 199. Binary Alley Phase Diagroms, 20808, vol. 2, ASM In, Mates Pk, OH, 1990, . 2001 ‘Binary Alloy Phaze Diagrams, 2, ol 1, ASM In, Matra Pts, OH, 1980, p. 283, hip. 319 2». a. 2 2s. x. 28 20. 3 fers 35 FA Trambore, “Solid Solhilies of inpurtis fn Gorman and Sion Bell Syaems Tech 4. 39-210 1960). S- Ghandi, VLSI Fabrication Principe, Joba Wiley & Son, New York, 1983. S.M. Ho, Moterias Res. Soe. Symp. Pro. 58.249 (1986) . S. Msn, GA. Roagonys, and D, Brae, "A Model fer the Formation of Stacking Fass in Sileon” Appl Ps Len. 3073 (1977). R.A. Craven Semiconductor Silicon 1981, p25 1.€, Mikkelson, SJ Poarton. J. W, Corbet nd S.J Pennycook es, Oxygen, Carbon “Hirogen ond Nitrogen in Crane icone, MRS, Psu, 1986. HAR Hull, “Siicon Maer forthe Megs IC En” Semateeh Technical Rept 93071 746A XFR(1999. {A Bourret, J. Thibault Dessean, and D.N. Seidmann, "Early Stages of OxynenSearepsion ‘and Precipitation in Slcon.” J. App. Ph. 85:82 (1985) Wada, NAnve, and K, Kola. "Difsio Limited Growth of Oxygen Precipitation in Coctrai Sco,” J Crt. Growsh 48.749 (1980), KH. Yang HF. Kapper, and GH, Schorthe,“Minecty Case Lifetine in Annealed Shcon Crystals Cootining Oxygen” Pips Star. Sol. ASD221 (1978, HR. Hal, HF. Schake,1. 7. Robinson, C. Babe, and D, Wong, "Some Observations on Oxygen PresipitaionGetering in Device Processed CzochasSiicon." J. Elecrachom Soe 1371351 0989) D.C. Gupta an RB. Swaronp, “Ee of Oxygen a Inermal Getering om Door ammation,” Sold State Toohol2:113 (August 1984) RB. Swaroop “Advances in Silicon Technolgy forthe Semiconductor Indust,” Sli State echol 26101 (ly 1983). D. Huber and. Re, “Precipitation Process Design for Denuded Zoe Formation in (Coaches Silicon Wafers” Sali Site Technol 26:13? (August 1983) M. Stavoa, J. R. Pate, LC. Kimesing, and PE Fesland, “Difoivy of Oxy i tthe Done Formation Temperate,” Appl. Py. Let. 2:7 (1983) 'W.J. Taylor, ¥. Tan, and U. Goal, “Carbon Precptaton i Silicon: Why Is So Dict.” App Phys Len 62:3336 (199). T.Faboda, Appl. Phy. Le. 681376 194) G.K. Teal, "Single Cras of Geranium and Siicon—Basic tothe Transistor andthe Teiegrated Creu,” IEEE Tras. Eletran Des. BD-23:021 (1970) ‘W. Zubeen. Huber, “Coochrski Gro Silicon,” n Crystals & Springer-Verlag, esi, 1982 ‘SN, Rea, "Czochralski Silicon Pall Rats" J. Creal Growth 84267198), 1. C. Dah, “Evidence of Disoeaa Jog in Deformed Siion."J. Ap Phys 2705 (1958). [W.C Dash, Silicon Crystal Fre of Dislocations". App. Pye. 2736 (1958, [W.C, Dash, “Growth of icon Crt Fre from Dishcatons” J App. Phys 34591959) "TA, "Cry Fabrication,” ia VSI Elecron~Mlcroracare St 12, N.. insu and H.W ede, Academic Pes, Orlando, 1988. |W. von Ammon, "Dependence of Bulk Deccs onthe Axial Temgerature Gradient of icon Crysis Dring Caachi Grow,” J Cryst. Growth 1SL:273 (1995) KOM Kim and EW. Langlois, “Computer Silaon of Oxygen Sepatin in CZIMCZ Silicon (Cys and Comparison wih Experimental Result.” J Elcroche Soc. 138:1851 (199D. 1 Hos, T, Suzi, Y. Otho, andN. Ista, Electrochem. Soe. Ee Abs St. Lous Mee, May 1980. p 136 2 Sonnet Ses 38 ». 2 BE 46 7, 48 4, so. 32 5s ss 56 1K. Hoshi, Naw, T. Suzan V. Okubo, “Crotrlsl Seon Crystals Grown ina ‘Tranevere Magosti il,” J. Electrochem. So. 132693 (198). ‘T Suoaki,N. nwa, Y. Oko, and K. Hos Semiconductor Sco 181,198, p90. LN. Thomas, HM. Hobgood, PS. Ravishankar, and. Brggins, “Mel Growth of Large Diameter Seicondactor: Prt,” Sold State Technol, 38163 (Ape 1980) SS, VLSI Technalgy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988 1X Kobayashi, "Convection in Mek Growth Theory and Experiments" Pro. Bik Meet (Gra. Eng pn Soe. App Py) 1984. [CM Gran, D. Rumsby. RM. Ware, M. R. Browea, and B. Tuck, “Eich Pit Density, Resivity and Chromo Disrttion i Chromiom Dope LEC Ga,"in Sem: fueating EY Materials, Shiva Publishing, Nanwck, OK. 184, p98 RM. Ware, W. iggts K.0. O'Hear, and M. Tieman, “Growth and Propet of Very Lange Cysts of Sem ns Galli Arseid,” Gas IC Sp. 1996. 'S. Miyazawa and F- Hyuga, "Proximity fet of Dislocations on Gas MESFET Vy" IEEE Trane. Elecron Dev. ED-3:227 (1986), Rusby, RM, War, B Smith M, Tyjberg, M.R.Brozl, and EJ. Foulkes, Teck. Dig GaAs 1C Symp. Phoeis, 1985, 0.34, H.Blvenroich and P- Him, “Mechanism fr Dislocation Density Reduction in GaAs {Cystalsby Indium Aion.” App. Phys. Le. 46:68 (1985), 1G facoh, Proc Semttnating i-Mate Shiva Pabing, Nasiwisk, UX, 1982, p-2 (C Mine. Zora, S. Camptell, M. Young, K Oza, and K. Borg. "The Relitionship betwee the Resstviy of SembInslting GaAs ad MESFET Properties.” Mat Set. ng. B. 44185. 97. HL}. Se, "Met Growth Processes For Semiconductor.” Key Eng Materials 8:69 (1991), "TP. Chon, T.S. Huats. LJ. Cher and Y.D. Guo, “Te Growth and Churcterzation of Gans Sigh Crystal By x Mekfed Horizontal Bridgman Tecniqu,” J. Cryst. Growth 106-367 1950, IE. Kremer. Francomano, G.H, Besthan, KM. Berks andT. Miler, Material Res. Soe Symp. Pro. 14:15 1989), {CTE Chang. V. FS. Kip, and W.R, Wilos, “Vercal Gratien Freeze Growth of GaAs asd ‘Naghtbalene: Theory and Practice." J. Crs. Growih 2.241 (1978), IRE Kremer, Frascomano, B.Feienrtch,H. Marhall ad K.M. Bue in Sec “nsdating Materials 1990, A. G. Miles and C. 1. Mies, eds. Ada-Hilge, 1990. .Bubvig.C, Fan, C. Hanis, an B.Hotfnaan, "Grow snd Propeieso Semi Insulating VOF-Gaks* Mat Sl Eng. 4428 (1997. [Nak ¥- Hog. Kawarabayasi, H Migain,N. Toyoda, M,Kiyama,S. Sawada 1. Kuwats and, Nakajima, *Manfacturing Large Diameter GaAs Subtratesfor Epitaxial Devizes by VB Meth” Gas IC Symp, 198, P28 1W. Keller nA, Mabbau, Plat Zone Silicon, Maret Dekker, Nev York, 98 CN. Kluhr and M.S. Coben, Nicleonics 2242 (196. F Shira, Semiconduir Silicon Catal Technolgy, Aesdemic Press, San Diego 1989, S$. Wolf and R. Taube, icon Procening forthe VIS! Eva, Vt Lat Pes, Sunset Beach, California, 1986 S.T Myers, "The Reales of Conversion to 300m Stcon Water” Som. nt. Api, 1996, ps. KW. Kelly. Mots, and K Kou” Model Based Cont of Thenrl Stresses During LEC (Growth of Ga As: Crystal Growth Expeiments."J. Cryst Growth MMI-2)265 (1981), Part II Unit Processes I: Hot Processing and lon Implantation rl ow only the semiconductor substrate taf has ben discussed. This section wll begin 1 dscunsion of uit pocestes, These re the individual process steps cared ut infil fabrication technologies. A ltr section will discuss how these unit proceses are pu together to form functional Mocks (Laowe as pocess modules) and ultimately, «technology. This fst section on unit processes wil discuss thee processes tlated to dopant itducton and nove tment az well the Bowih of the ides. Since dopants are nscesary or al types of devices. they ar some ofthe fist processes developed for faction. For the ‘device to operate propery tbe doped regions nus have the ight cor The best way to predict sxiesion ani sizes. This section wil thesfre frst dass the the future is to invent it." movement of dopa iapunty atoms through difsen. Eany tech ologies used qaseout oc Ligeid vapor sources in high temperatare ‘ovens fo imtoduce the impurdes foto the wafer. As device ize was ede’, however, fn implantation was developed to beter contol the pion and amount of impart inte wae. As stodard mpl tin and high terpertue annealing es have begu prove inade quae, special methods hae also heen developed o minimize the resin af imps hough diag. One ofthe most important of theses rapid heal processing, which wil be cases in ‘Chapcr 6 Chaper 4 wll also cover the ternal oxidation of sion. Unlike the ether chapters. ony silcon oxgaton wil be discussed since this proces + no usd in compound semicoedtstor technologiesChapter 3 Diffusion very semiconductor device relies onthe ability to fabricate well conte, locally doped regions ofthe wofe. The chemical imporiies most therefore fis be iaodsced ino some sections af the ‘rae, they mast he ative so ht Oey conrbte te dested carrie, and they rus be the concen ion desire by the dovice deiner Freuenty concentration pros wil he deserted. As show Figure 31, he impurity concetalin othe carer concentration splat oa the vertical ai The ep nto the wafer is plated on the hecizoetal aus. Typically tbe y variable wil aty over many ‘otters of rogaiade, For ht reson, th conentaom is orally given of & logathmic scale Recall tat he norber density of silicon is $% IO" atomsen so at typical impurity conenta- tion (10 aoc’ for active device regions are dped sigh afew pars per milion. ‘After the imports are faced they may edb inthe wafer. This ay be itentonal covit ay be pans effect of sone other thermal proces. In ther event, its be contd apd tmontored. The ston of impurity nome inthe wafer oxcrs primary by duo, the ot move tex ofa miter ht occurs neat conceit radiant a esl fandom thera movin, TH ‘haptr wil inode the diferent equations that describe difasion, solve te equation in closet form for to st of boundary condos, deseribe he piss involved i the difision coecient, prevent models tat dseribe the dfs beter of typical impurities inslicon apd Gus, and Inrodice SUPREM, «program tht calls dffeson profiles under a wide variety of conditions. 3.1 Fick’s Diffusion Equation in One Dimension ‘Any material tats eto move wil experience a et redsibation in respon to a concentration ‘raicn, The movemet wil tendo reduce the sie ofthe grains, The sure ofthis movement is ‘te random mation ofthe material. Since the high coaccation region has more impurity som, there isa net movement of purtios away fem the concentration maximum. This an effect not Timid to impurities in semleanductor by any means, The basic law of dilion inouced hee a ood to deerbe beat transfer, the motion 0 eletons, gaseous imparts soc 2 air plac, land even animal population sass "he banc equation that esrtes fio Fes st aw acts) as 6‘iia i Degas wa Pout ty conan topes Pr aatonsrssemalesde Rector Rgie2_A ona ve cc inst of SEivecteeclcsteetaTasrbetat Gaertn wea ana hha of py ‘erin Int and ou of he vole oben ‘where Cte imu cnncetration, 1 the coffin of diffusion. and Fis he pet x of mae Ja The unis of Fae eurber por ani ine er unit aren The neptve sgn expresses he fet Oat ‘here is net movement nthe decon of decreasing concentration, ‘Wile Fick's ist law accurately deseribes he iusion process. inthis pplication there is no convenient wry lo ease te cutet density ofthe imp. alike local curet, dees aerials oul poorly confined and not ex detected. Therefore a second expression for Fick's tow fas been devloped that deeribes the same concept. but wih more readily measurable psn ties. deveoping ts expesin it sean tore ih log ba of material with uniform {ros ection A (Figure 32). Consier» small volume of length de, then BoA y ae an where hex Fenving the volame and J, isthe hx ering she volume. If hee tw Hes are ‘ot te same he concentration ofthe ising species i the volume must change. Recall hat the umber of pares his volume element st the product the conceation andthe differen tal volume element (A=) Then he conc equation is expressed as ac solemieMuse done 4 pation 3.4 the most general representation of Fick's second aw. If the fusion coefficient i _stumed tobe independent of poston this reduces tote simpler form Fou a ‘where the postion variable as been changed ot wes that the rection nto te wale (eth) [ste one of primary intre. Fnally, in hee dnensions fran isotope medium, Fick's second law iexpressed a Pd pec an (Oncis eft then, with he soition of difredal eguatin thats second err in position and srt onde in ime. Ts routes the knowledge of test wo indepecat boundary comitions. The soli of he diverenal equation wil be diseased lei the chaps. is we wl Focus. he {lication of Fick's second le tothe proble of difsion in semiconductors and cscs the fe ‘or that deterine he difuson celica. 3.2 Atomistic Models of Diffusion Argument begins by assuming th he crystal isotropic. Widow tis appoint Fick’ second Tew cannot be applied. Altkugh tallow st drive solutions to Equation 3.6, beaks dowa when the concent ofthe dopam is fe. Then the differnt becomes a function ofthe doing con tration and therefore dep, Ima crystal te lt ies ate represented asthe minis of parbolc potent! wells. Each son ina ex only inte limit of OK. At nonzero temperatures the dors sla about he Tum positon Now inset impurity ato iat this ryt. The stom sit etwecn aie sites ian mterattal postion Typical. some tha do ot bond realy wi he max mail a ine ial parties These impure Siow rapidly, but they donot irclyconibate to doping, A Second type of input tone tha places the silicon atom onthe ntice se, These substtaons nurses wll ete primary focus ofthe chap. Table 3.1 ste a pomber of icon impurities and ategois them ino sbttuona nd ters “Assume that te impart aim ia Figure 33A moves one late site tothe sg. By symmetry, no et energy was expended. Yet fora subattatioal atm to move i te crystal. mus have sul ‘Gent energ) to surmount ptt well in which res. For the dct exchange shown in Figure SSA a leat sin Bons mast be broken for tbe Has kom and the input so exchange positions. ‘Thin comiserably emior however if the adjacent latices is occupied by a vacaney (Seton 28) Then oly duce bonds mt be broken, Vacancy exchange Figure 3.38) therefore one ofthe ‘desea fest mechanisns fr sbsitional impurities. 2 Sioa ~~ Sastional = BA Al GaSb Ge incon Oman FasCa ZAM42 sofuion vovvee v2000 vvvvee 990000 200000 2vVe00 do0000 wove. w wove vvvv08 vee v0 ve e200 wove. dv000 sovvee 900000 o gure 33. Din of inary tom by cies ‘harp (A andy vocab enchange (0). The srs ‘oh ms ly ac th wer energy eg. umber of charged vacances is poportonl othe rato [CLV where Fairs vacaney mode can be wed wo saccessuly esribe the difsion of many inperis it ow and ‘dere concentrations a terjeratres below JON. Tete te simple pctre from Figure 338 and als fone atonal dtl vacancy clare. Recall ht each Som inthe silicon matrix must for a covalent bond ‘ih it for nearest neighbors in oder tis valenee Shell Inthe presence of neu Yacancy hee out ‘toms are et with an unstiiedsll I the vacancy apres an elec, ste oe aos valence, but ‘becomes negatively charged Silay. an aiact som can lowe an elton and the VacAney 29pEs 1 be ponively charged ‘Since vacancies are very due in semicon- ductor a pial procesing conitins, each of the possible charged snes can be weated ab independent nies The diflsion coefficient then becomes the Stim of ll possible difsion coefficients, weighed by thee probability of existence we assume dat the prt f che ape cnt hen tin, ms the itis eae concerto, and js hearer ofthe charge tt. Then the ost 3m. tral expression forthe tl diasion ceficiotin the vacancy models given by > sae [alos fafon [ayo + ep om « [2] om + [Ef om an “Te nin carer concentration fr silicon can be fund from 1] new"? nerigerer a ere my = 7.3% 10% em? for scam snd mp = 4.2 10! cm for Gas. The bandgap canbe ‘determined by ant? = Fe BETO 89 where Ej and are 1.17 €V 0.000473 eV-K,an8 636K for silicon an 152 eV, 0000541 eV-K, nd 201 for GaAs. The intrinsic carer cncentatons fr sicon and GaAs ae shown ia Figure 318 heavily doped scm he bandgap i ao reduced by the Bandgap narowing effet Ag, = 2110" ev a0, tei ari Cone) gure 34 tin carer cncenttin of sco aad kraea incon oftampesare s2hmitelewedOtinke "43 For heavily doped difusions (C >> n) be etecuon of hale concentsion iz jest the imps fly conenaation, Fee low conceataon difiioas (ea) Cy Then a deth wl exis a wich the concentration of born Exactly equals tht ofthe background concentration Since boron ka pype dopant and pasphores ‘San ype dopant in sileon apa freon wil exit st dep, wich alld he jmcon ‘ep ibe dfsion ia ve a difsion oe can bow fom Ean 3.16 fool 2] Be el CN aba ci) teas pat ee a anion oan 3.4 Corrections to Simple Theory Substintiona} impure ar alaost completely fond at and above rom tempers, Fr tht ea- son, ian electric fel exis inthe sobstate, she total creat will ave both Ja ad isin com ents Recall Ohm's depts =o Ka e% # -rennof-€-c84] i secrete yt a eee ers mat ie o-alT Lee eo amy he isting cer ht eo Oia hein ton 2 yeoa +e ro) For high concentration doping Care > Me Cut he profi's own elect eld wil ence the movement ofthe impuriy. This quai ena o F's it aw, exept at he fois ‘ernie by afd entancerent er (1 + 9). Farthermore, the differion of a impurity may be ected by the presence of cer inure through ees fed fle fi By comparing inet, oriing. and ning dopant diffsion experiments, some ig has buon she onthe processes by which various impusiss dite [3). The dunvg oF puss i semiconductor depends on he concenization of tacancies, When a semiconductor is xsd, x ish onceiation of excess interiial are penerated ner the xidelsemicondacto interac [5]. Thea sofa ‘exces eoncentaton dcays with depth dv wo vacancy ira recombination. Near the surfs EN SoRttns tnreae the dif for boron and pospbors. 1 is belived therefore, hat see TReariies auc primary by the intertiaky process. Anenic diffxivity is found © aan eet odin condos. An excess fri concentratio i expected to depress the IEE concntian, Arsenic therefore belived wo iffse primary vine vacancy mech ee re acanen in onidzing cxlitions, Experneats cn alo be done ding terms ii Sr eh ths oxen arly done m practice it inet high concentration of vacancies at ae Eels hae Conirmed the contusions ofthe er results by showing he ‘oppo rends of oxition. He coped dopant profile aftr a dfesie nan oxidizing ambient, we nod 0 St the ately undertone cotins, Not th, swith high concentration dition the ifsiity aaron of pontion, Stl speaking, ercor, Equation 3 is mo longer valid, To fs aoe eee is amal compared 1 dClds and ean be ignored. Since the encentation of ae tals Jopende he ons and ecosiation rates, he tivity mast be a Fre Tey in entation te hasbeen shown hat for sfuion under exisicng conditions, p-p+49 ae av= Soniag or engl aner concn @ aa ficdea see am “hiss ca abe sao fd the verge Hal wii fe —_ sanpl ifthe fou ovate ae aso used for Van der Pauw measrement Fagre316.Toetidtecinate Then he average Hall bility i ven by fotos rence cae ea wR SoingnsalomesRotis 55 Fora ditind pro, this verge mobility i of le interests however, he Hall obit isan often- ‘quoted figure of mer forte gua of an eptail ayer wih email uiforsconcentaion All ofthe preceingtechnigues havea serious Limitation: They provide intermatcn only abot ‘be ister of the profile. Several methods can be tae to mente the caer eonceraton 3 3 fametion of depth. The fs ses the eapaclancevolage characteristic of «diode (pp junction ot Schotky) or an MOS capacitor. Although the MOS technique i wel wed ts more difia dive ad rogues a low inerface state density atthe SSO; interface tobe teliable, Te dade ‘method wll be sesirod ee, bu he techniques ae very smile “Asame thal the stture canbe desetbedin he depletion approximation Fra one-sided step {nction or Scothy contac the depletion wth given by pH cs w. V 842) theres the leans constant ofthe seiconducor. Vs the bul i voltage of the diode, Nan {he suerte doping concentration, and Vi he exteralyapplid voliape. The capacitance ofthe ‘odes [im on 4g [ation Wo arts ton) Ditfretning with espect to voltage and solving forthe impurity concentration, rata oY [ss nie a een “To mearure the substrate doping then, one seed wo measure te capacitance in depletion as fine tion ofthe apledvolige and find the frst derivative. The doping concentation a a faction of alge for ear data point can be determined using Equation 345, andthe depth coespnding 10 hat oie may be oad sing Eouaion 343. "he C-V method hae several significant Kmitaons. The Sst sat impurity concentrations In soon above 1% 10" om? cannot be measured. At tase concentratns, the semicundacte becomes degen and acts moe like metal tan 2 semicondictor. The second is thatthe dep tion edges ae not abr. Hsesd they are rade ont afew Debye eal, whe [an w= (ae oo) Consequaly, abet doping profs ae not well described by their caer roles. Finally the C-V {echniue can profile only t the depth conesponding to breakdowa vole in Schou diodes or {aversion a MOS capacitors. ‘ ‘Several aanitrive 2 D dopant profiling echniqds are being develope including nanospread- ing sestance snd advanced dopant seve etch systems. Petbap the most pronsng is Scanning ‘Capone Microscopy (SCM) [24], The SCM tchigoe uses an stom forse croscope 0 san ‘Sonn lp ever a sans. Typically the sample x cleaved aed measured edge om. The conductive- os cnet om?) Hi i a o apt ym) Foere 2.17 Tyica sedig resistance pote showing mere ci cnczton a8 Bc anpermsion Son) spinon he cpicnc in inyrson This ce ely covet 0 pam sone ai ypc tapactances are tan U9 (25) Aough clan chang, shel guaine eene poste Hahn cecicaypoilg be ae concenaion ee spreading resiance et pce fear ting Nn in elas onthe cl an ce gare 317 sows apa sreaing rescence. The sale ist beveled ett ty ing ou pany Hr od ia ck sl a ur of pres eee sae ace mia pede ce. Th espitin of e poe we beeved 0 Figue.18 4 pis SIMS angen The angie toned by hakenry fre Tepe eee ast analyaed to dae compan of esi be Simos tomes 57 petra th semiconductor surface 10 a depth of oder tens of angstroms. The curent is crowded ino the aspen, leading wo Fine resistance betwecn the probes. If this restance is compared toa ‘alitraon sander of known concenration, methods hive been developed (26) decovolute the Tesi gece efi, The ce can ed metas poe ging fo 10 10 ea? “There are hee primary limitations o spreading resivance measurements. The measurement ani HO) ambit by Day = 12 10" omacche 0" ean “The pico boro dtason in SiO, as ceive a et deal of interest ney Yo the pob- tec of Brom ifn from heavily doped ype polyryualline gate eles wo he channel of FEMOS devices Not only does this change the tvesold voltage, it degrades xe relobility and Tatcxee suscepti to device Instabilies (23. Boro I beled to ifs sbstiotonally for ‘iicen atoms [347 Comiderabe work has gone ni invesigzng the effect of SiO, impurties on tn fio, Nirogen oles difasionpaways reducing the difsivity, primarily by increas hg the diffeion activation energy (3S. Abavesut most gate odes wed in exp submicon FETS iar ponte some nose. Hyarogen, ot theater hand, increases boron diffi ia SiO, 3.8 Diffusion Systems tm st moder devices feature sizes ae small fen es than 1 jm. Most doing is aow done by too umznaon be tan predepoiion difinion. When very Newly doped layers are require twevedifsion bes re sometimes bed t nredce de Gesired dopant. These famacs ae Momus to oxidaton tes, except that «controled Nw of no inest gas such as Ns or Ar wed Thier tan Oy (See Secon 49 fora desiled description of these systems) There ae two metods ted to hes dope layers furnace we: sold source ad ge source opin. ‘Moat gud sour dopants reapplied though a vapor transport method. Ax shown in Piure 1.20, sala container of he igi emerson a const erperatare bat prac a know, ‘aber pesare ofthe dopant above the surface ofthe igi A metered ow of an ier gas sly ‘Htopen a njted i Oe bubbler, ond the sultant str of Nand dopant coming vapor are 1 the furnace. The petal pressure of dopant in the ambient ofthe forace fs conuoled bythe temper tre ofthe bath, te restue of the gas above the iid, tnd the ratio ofthe ow hough be babble fo the sm of “Thether Bows into th furnace, A bypass configuration is to tpl employe to allow the Now of vapor fo the buble oe pecs svitched on and of provide more contol over the doping time. Ustlly an onygeh oorce must aso e supped to react with he ieoming open “Te most common bores sources BB, which is bolting point of °C, Te Believed Ot the reactions thar ocarin he farce ielade dissociation rae BB, + 2B + 38, ean) Foue 20 Ayriainiticnmgione certs and xin usawisrSasmeore ne 48 +30, 28,0, es) 29SVPROMSrulserslDion Paes 61 “The oxides transported tothe wale surfice where it oriies the snace release fre ore: 28,0, + 38i-+4B +3810, as “The concentration of BB in he frmace must be carefully conoid, even though the surface concentration of torn vill be xed by its so soli in silicon at the diffusion temperature. I the BB, concentration soo tig with respect tothe O; coneenaton volatile icon boride com pounds wil frm ate rice. These compounds lead 9 nonuniform doping and may be diffi 0 Fomove. This eat lado contac sistance problems the device. Liu source phospbores doping {is armally done wing x bubbler of POC, which has aboilag poim of 107°C. The reaction peo ‘ceeds ina rasner silat tht of BB, The oxide tat forms 0, Thin oxide dssoiotes whe {face ofthe wafer lesing P and forming SiO, Ligh sources have several disadvantage. They av often highly corsive. Bublers most be pressirint and have Boon known fo explode, Becaac the vapor pessre above the qui increases ‘exponentially with temperate, the procs is sensve o small bobbiereoperaure changes. Fu thermore, there i signieat danger of fring iosleble silicon compounds tthe surace ofthe ‘afer hat are invisible, but ae extremely desirable “The dopant species cat also be inoduced though th use of solid sources. These dss ae about the ame tn a he wafer and are loaded m ltt slt in furnace oats. For difusing pe layers in lion boron nite (BN), dics are commonly wed: When ovidad at 730-1100. {thin fim of B,0, forms te surface. ln he presence of Hy, the vlaile compound HBO; forms ted dite tote srface ofthe wafer where bronco glass formed. This las serves 3 he boron source for difsio into te uhrat, The rrface ctnceniration fe tpialy said Sluiliy Site Both arsenic sn phosphors slid source dics con be used a ype dopa for con. Phas: horas containing dics come inthe form of hot pressed snuneniaza menopbosphate(NHI,PO,) or “rumonium dipbopbat [(SHL),M,PO,] i ert cera Binder Fora more ball profile, seni Sourees conan aluninura ascii (AIAO,) ae alo availabe. The areaic Is wansportc to the ‘wafer serface as As,Oy For bot arsenic nd phosphorus oid source difsin, care must be ikea {void forming an undoped thermal oxide a he srface of the wafer prior doping. The presence of ‘heh layer ca block he difusion of he dope note subse 3.9 SUPREM Simulations of Diffusion Profiles Iahas probly become apparent to the rade ht the varios complications ht risen the eat tion of tse profiles, auch ax concentration dependent dius, precioe analytic calculations forall bu the simplest exarples. For ha eon, numerical methods have been develope for the prediction of profes is +2 and 3-D. Ot the real eat be hehe wo device simulators so dat the effec hata change in so inprity profile ould have cn he device characteris can be pre: (iced in tsaightorvard manger. fhe situation rele ae aeurate, the device designer ean ‘optimize peformancs al txt process sensitivity with fat ewer rns through the aiation facil ‘ealng in temendows savings cost and ine. ‘While some corporations have developed proprietary software, one of he mos: poplar pac ges for elclating inpiriy” profes isthe Stanford Universty PRocess Engineering, Modsle (GUPREM), SUPREM Ill performs detsed calesatons im -D. SUPREM TY performs cleula- tion in 2-D, The ult of hse prams athe chemical, carer and varsicy concentrations as functions of depth int the semiconductor. This section wil we SUPREM Il as a0 investigatea some vie impurity profiles ina ore reais anne Inthe soeceedng capers he use of SUPREM I vl be expanded to cover oxidation ion impaction, an rap henna pocesng ‘Before proceeding however, word of cation iin order. Students end 0 regard the ont of these programs being nfaliby caret. Thi i ofcourse. not rue. The predictions of his coe ae font) good asthe models and numerical techasqus tit are employed. In practice these modst parameters must be tigroualycherked lo ensue accuracy. These rogram should be reganed 3 culation tooled allow the proces engicer o acess moe complicated difeion made. These Imodels ve ls more reat and usually ot at away, ve aly acura esl {Ai ifsion process simulators ae ult on tee banc exuations. Ia 1-D there are the fax a ae +n sn where Zs the charge sat and is he mobility ofthe imply. The comtniy equation gives Gu 64a g, as te ih meron ambition airy. an Poise’ seton Lieei=ap- 24 N5-ND as whee is the dlc constant, and pare the eecton and hole concentrations, nd Mj and Na {ue the concentrations ofthe ionized danrs and acceptors. These equations are solved Sian ouly overa LD gi that he user defines. "The divi wed for SUPREM is based on he vacancy model of Fair. The difsiviy el: cuted using Equation 37, Te values off and D, are inceded in software look-up table for ‘oron antimony, aan in silcon. Finally empirical modes are aed 0 ake into account Ged ‘sided, oxidation enhanced, and oxidation ead difsion. "Torn SUPREM I, an nput deck must be provided. This le conains a series of comments, the inal sttment, meri sateen, proces saiemens, and ouput statements. A descip- tion of some of tbe mst commonly used SUPREM Ill coommands is given in Appendix. VI “The deck starts wits he il car, which is smply a comment repeated oe each page of the up Several comment cards may follow, Th user s encouraged 10 use these cards fo document the process ow. "The next ard ie «control sateen, he iialie cad. ses the subst ype, orientation, and doping. also sts the thickness ofthe egon to be simulated and it esabishes a grid. THe trmount of pridspcing neces depends onthe doping pradients present, but typically total of 100 vo 200 grid poi are ured. the default coefiens are ot fou to be adequate, mates as can be ued to ar the ode, For example, ifthe user messues the diffusion coefficients of neni and ide at he activation energy forthe neual vacancy fasion coefficient i ferent ‘an the fel, tis parmeter can be change by invoking “arsenic de = (vale in eV)” Si Tay one can rhe various parameters of silicon oxide, plyicon, or ide ‘Once the subscale and ites ze seta sce OF procestcdh are used to callout he sequence of procesting ses they are completed. This example wil Besa with the diffusion card that cals ou the time, tempest, dflson amblct (xing or not oxidizing), and srface com A9SIRFEMSinsrrscrDMa Fetes 69 centration, ifs doping proces is bring cried oot. Muipe difions an Be ron sequently 0 ‘Simulate alate anne nally th chemical, active, and pet impurity concentrations at each ai point can be ited ‘x pote The ouput options vary wth the particular version of SUPREM I ht ssa is tsp possible to printout he materials parameters that ae being sed and information about each layer of the smlition. A sound type of out satement involves inverting the effet of elec ‘scaly biasing the top andr bolo of he vlume being simulte, These can be wed to determine the shee esstance of iused ayer andthe eso voltage of MOS stucues. ‘ample 22 Us SUPREM te simulate a predepesion cision In this example, SUPREM I wil be wed simulate a peepoiton dition of slcon with phosphors a 1S0"C, wih he surface concentration set by the sd Slab of hor ‘Boris at hat tempera Run the following exarcple, and theo repeat be exercise uit the Saye exuation suming simple inne ifn. How large isthe ference? Can you ‘aplin the ducrepany? Title eeanple 3.2-Predeposition Diffusien of Phosphorus Initialize (100)Siticon Soron Concentration=1e16 Diffusion ‘Tines20 Texpe: 050 Phosphorus Solid Set Print Layers Active Concentration Phosphoris Boron Net Plot. Active Net Gnin-iBi5, stop Bed example 1 Example 33 Use SUPREM to siratate «ised bipolar traneistor. (One snp way ta ake an NPV bipolar ranssor isto diffe born and arsenic from the surface ino an mye substrate. The diffosed asic becomes the emit, the difsed boron ‘becomes the se, athe subwrate suse ap commoe collector Of eel importance 1 the Ite oie eects ie impuiy. AS a esa it acumultes Ine leon under he growing fil, reaching a maximum at the rte This effect can be oft.be waar (<1) ) Stee Sie —t ce ae cmp >) —, | see | “ NE Ge as ae ea wine) y Figure 4.17. Temperature dependeoe of boron ‘Speen osc for ator pes a sions (Chptaed ype Meron i he Kat = Datuieteecdesiow (Main nee at 1) tad of pts ty Dion Fen ions Figure 418 Sion onic ches year nt ‘rdaton tine fore ier sre concen of Bex ar Dea et a ere by prion The [Beomchomal Se ee rer gure 419 Osidon conics fr dy oxyzen HBO a fctns of te face cone osphris fier Hot al eprimed by permion The “leche Soc Figure 4.16 The efx of ermal edt oe be Input Sebusen bons som done (A) So difon nose m= | Gorn nea or ‘hing ambien) ft inion aide, w= | {Gorm mn hyropen seta) (sow taxi, ino pump, asec (D fit ier onde, '55 gli fer Gove eral were if the inary ditfases mpidly in the SiO, Io thi case, the dopant is rapidly removed from he ine face. Te panty cenceouation inte subst te ‘mere, although larger tun inte oxide, sil es than he concentration the bal: Hn < I the oxide Sai oak up the dopant. Here de impurity concent thon ine ube decreases est the nerve igue 4.17 shows he segregation coeficent of ‘econ in Si for a varity of oxidizing contions (32) In these experiments, near dry otis reams an oxiizngfuratce tat uses O; a the feed Eas; Rowever no special provisions have been Trev remove wate rem te embiat Obviony, the segregation coefcient an ary, bat is wel (lsc by an Arbeit fection, Phosphor, enc, and antimony al ve segregation coef ‘ents of about 1033) "The common silicon dopants tnd 0 enbance the oxidvon rat of silicon when prescat s te subst in high conceataons, Boron, which sepegaes into the oxide, eters and weakens the ‘lay suture, ediing ts vscoty. When te boron surface conenration exceeds 10° mths ho haste fect of increasing the difesiiy of molealr oxygen. As a result the pabolie rie ‘ocfcien increases [34] when the surface is heeily doped with boron (Figure 4.18) ‘With heavy phosphors doping the parabolic rt coecient shows only modes inctases, bat he tinea ite coffin incoares rapidly for surface doping levels greater than 10° cm? (Figwe 149) (35, 26} Thiseelieved Wo ocerbocaue the segregation cece causes the phpnut © 7 wd ‘sn bans Xam dae (181 5 weap dapat) 81 won pam ess Time (ou “ mats ® Flows 420 Th iin sp pn (A) wee) yan afer arg ea. piney e eert aon sccamulat athe surface. A model explain he neeased reactviyof be surface gst that his ign conccorstion of phospora hi he ern encrey and therchy Increses the surface vactncy et ton [3], These vacces provide bition Oxsatin ts and so neem the ress, “The onkaion of olsen sof consdeabe iret fer aplieations seh th prxuction cof hia onises between poy yer in EEPROM, the oxidation of polysitico plugs for DRAMS, and (he idan of polyenes ht occurs ding roxio scp. has ben found that an enbaneed (Sisaon rat ceur deo ses a he grin boundaries 38) Figure 4.20 sows the oxide thickness fas not andy undoped plyeniaton for varius tempecatres (38), For onion temperatures Tess thin 1007, the xiaton aes or edoped polysilicon are ger than ithe (100) (11 toon a shor times For longer oxidation he oxi thickness alto level intrmedite between (Gy aad (LI) sion, Whea the polysico is hesily doped with phosphors, the plyoxidation tats less than at of eter (10) oe (LL singers sition 4,7 Oxidation-Induced Stacking Faults ‘As metioed inthe peevous chapter, thermal oxidation ha the side effect of releasing high coe ‘Aiton of aon sleimertl. This isthe caute of the exidaloenhancd difision, These ‘herr mera toms coms pine defects AS mentioned in Chapter 2 the fe eneray of eaten wit Signs 87 soup of point defects can be reduced thy agglomerate ino larger defect n oxidation processes, ‘Be acted defects hn are sill creed are Oxidation infoced Stacking Faults (OSP). Stacking fats me PD defects that ae analgocs fo dsocatons. They are an extra plane of sts of tite ‘ett inetd int the latice. The OSP wstaly Bis isthe (111) plane ad is bounded by parti ialyons the defects often occur cose tothe Si-SiO, ineface whet he excess inersialcom Eitan large OST te very readily induced a rexisng defects such 38 tose cause by 3m {mplazation (se Chapter 5) Mfr defect can have several undeiele effets In bipolar transitory, the dislocations that terminate he stacking faut ean be pi sion pth forthe emiter dopant. Te res are sbors (Show the bees layer aled pipe. In MOS techoolgis the primary eoncem is that these defects can Ear heme atl imports thot wil reside im the depletion repion of sorefdan junctions. The ‘porter wil ct s recombination center ht wil cause exces Feskage i he device. Figure 421 rpms ope alcrograhs of samples afer preferential etching sep used to delineate the defects Hoy Seeking aun the diamond Sate fe slong te 111) planes. For (100) wafers hese planes Intercept te surface along be (110) directions (4, Ttnas bons shown dt length the stocking falis almost nearly proportions othe ox anion te (a2, ach ime tretng, however, the dependence of the Ingth on temperatire [teas thw in ignre 422 there ae two distin! temperate regimes. AChigh temper the Tamper) Tempera ota Te 38 F a_i eh al Sin enc te in) soi o Fgwe 421 Osteon-ndce king esa (10 wafers at pect cing. Ate peal ing umors ef he et sexes er ar Fgura 22 pica acing ft eagh a econ fener for (A) dy (Bw nation shi [eet ered ins gh tmp (ae —6 he tn omation of OSE sot favored. Sticking aus ily grin his teiperre rez bu sin Jer cada me Any essng fu wil lo tent ho. Since dopant ri aan any precio tes Bighicmpertereoxiatons Dowever, Fle 4.22 so cant idan shill be done a eed Temperate, An avatar of Heh Pra et tat oda ve roth ine, ie temperature canbe weed ante foomaton of OSF rid gus Roo sown ta he 36 OF HCLin the ambient empl suppres th tation of stacking fl 4.8 Alternative Gate Insulators" "rn such for aheatve acest for he MOS gt xi his ong a a iy aa a eet ume die sleeper dete isnt {nl io. The yen dete ack on eae he ty of te ge ke forces a ace ea eouce ey fo gate lode impure, The pea we wit en tener ie ety tht eds eed wy ae © tat en paid a ey come hes vlinge. Depsied ims fr VLSI pe costal saber fet ems the excel thi is typical ses dee tn ar A ln le ohee cis chage. Pain depose ns cation, a aa nes comm) be iran ach asthe RE an eal ws ema the de 0 ne Sad 285 Cem fort apn These ins wil be conred in aa A He ne i atom gcse ae simple dice. The polio is Ce ese ae cel ceo A lan canbe veloped or te preity ese tei 16) 3 r | -Thes creasing he pemiaviy dacs te bandgap. Ashe bandgap estates, it som nie 9 Tee She te gate ison ands he gat leakage curentes shaply, AS Toto da a vein permitvity sould be coesiered for simple delet since neater dies is maura 0 cose the oe of ion sie Lth-whh na asl constant abut wie that of oxi. Deposit ni ls are eal we 11 wha cenologics In adin oh higher dive constant ii ws eas exe Io tes tht in MOS transisors can prevent impuris sch o bron in the bealy de tion ue ro ning te chnel. Tere re ee ices wih thermal is Sor a dciaan ifsc rng tization is icon, nt N, o NH This means ak a on fonns a te tp surface, hot the i-SiN, interface sno sping tbe that hes, i jt have a hgh nrc date deny. Second he hema expansion coefficient fr ra ict tie tof silicon, Since ermal ntrdization equives very tgh emery et cots popes a iftson beri) ding het up and cool ow his fen es aa at Faber degra he terface. Te third ifeuly associated with heal ities eo ‘e eluse des ere good difsion bres Resting te force te to 120 aan re mie eyes tr fan 40 A because he siicon dis sso smal (45, $6 ‘ret capuues re ena not lated Gs dapa ition ee ese ee sougated ihe ase of niides oxides as an aboctive alieratve wo S10; (47, by expning stil one 10 4 gh tempernne NH) anocl, he oxide reat form om 420 w {seen cies 89 cylide:S10,N, whee wl «an» deeded o he pes conto, Anon Se de gers nnpsnch S08 noe be sre of oie a ori eo acne i, cls he ns mcs Spy dag he poses he lee cw a eereepe anaes ee at fs ie Bs wt te rian to eldown 11. Ott ee r—— Seerstgc ce shh en spss ate day of ese ms elated ss ee Shien vrer Hyararn, wih piv he dangling on he ete TS Ritte weed upon cng Osytier ny pe toe, vease ttm ccerng te nA meron kta, vay ies ak ‘Shean oe “uy wi se ne tha el ve ph capeematn of lk ton ve ic epee ot edwin cae nec een to ae de dig be ihcegrae Ny mea as SEERELINST roto fies RN) can ees Kayan (4, ST Fain erect mhen wn andr fel proeing coon se set Ft es UCR of ime gales n ULST Sve [6] mee the ude ites thst pve close ome ae evra Peis ore impr when hei aa ee enters ung cee crane At eh NMOS hens cube to ces apie te lath pone os. evenly» mor grape Baebes ive sium tym 18m thon eae Sinee ‘stag high peri ayes that might somedsy be ] That to replace SiO, The reason for this intrest sth thservtion fat a tbe gale insulator bs sealed below Fe 428 Ment ate cet Vet or & Jeo he ate kaage cet Senay cs hal. As | hoe inthe messrenens of Bra tal (7) and Bachan nd oS) igure 42, be caren density fcr abo 2 eyo agi for every 5 am Secrest. Cin pj ae al power Stone wil pave! ring af Be Si, below 13 fom Toveone ie hikness ers bang elon {hip (anion 42), ene ewe late porate frais Irie Sow, oe oF foe sans wil shi fosion in espowe o an ener api ee eT wslam ted ech pods sale ipl as ea pe pms At pees the tclng canes se Hy 10, TxD NOs HDs toirows esr thes ours One of ie many robles wih is search the eng of he Srranyem bom Sicon fom in ayer af SiO, Sag be deposi ofl tt one Teepe tts ttn ye pee Secon hgh et capctane of teh pert 1 Sottero ass ce trea ciple St, scalng ape 0D appencng8 foment it, ieee ie ae es ae ase ‘wom~” {ral ston 49 Oxidation Systems Figure 424. tren be cisiatin sy {plas cmp coon stan on ou es. {phot couney of 3M erations). “The horizontal diffs farsce has bees the mainstay of te semicondctor industry for decades. ‘Abough many iacovains have Been inrodsced, the basic ea resins unchanged. As shown in Figue 424 tne farce consists of four components the gas rower cabinets the frbace cabinet, ineuding power supplies, tubes, hermocouples, and clements the load station: and the computer enol: Ashe name impli, the gas abit contains the source gasses, typically (a hgh- presse Esliners, and means for producing wconoled Gow of hese gases ia the race. Type ses of presarergulto,pecumatc valves, and gas Gers ae used i his appction. The sis ae plumbed to sel aoe endo the face be This shel contains ditional valves and mas Now ‘Somers (ee Chapter 10) tat conto tbe Bow of gases eto the Famace ake, "The furmace cabinet outs lng tubes, epicaly fr, tht ae tacked vercally. Horizontal farmaces designe for 200mm wafers typically Rave Bees tabos. Furnace heating. elements re ‘wound 0 high pry ceramic forms large enough to accept a 150-1 30-rmimeer ase iia ‘ube. The windings soft separated nt three heating sone nd fed by thes phase power rough thigh eurent power cooler The furace temperature Is monitored i at eat thee oetions wit Thesmocouples. The themacouple volages are ead, compared othe died veperatres, ad the ‘ror signal is ampli and fed back othe power onli. Its ot unusual forthe at zoe inthe ‘ener of the formae to exh °C uniformity over temperate ranges of 400 vo 1200. I wet niaton arto be doe, aon guipent ese reed wo ncae tat the Myrogen gm ely combusts upon injection, “The wafers are lade int fused sca holes call bot the led station The boats cally Dold 25 wafers in 2 vercal ck. The bows are Toodod oto cits tat can holdup to 200 wafer any carers were actully fused ica carages, with skids or fond silica Wheels Gat were slowly fold int te furnace. Concems with parculaion, Dowever, caused these cares 1 be replaced by antlvered Joa systems im which the baa ar ipported on two lng rode. ln these systems the wafers never touch the furnace walls. Due to dif ‘oly mintining the rod near, many of these ‘Syms ave now bon replaced by sof landing 95- tems. in thve atone loading ester aris the toate nto the farce depts ter, and hen with draws minimising the me at temperate fr the bat spp syter. In each system care must be taken to voi jostng te wafers during tis proces, to avoid fet formation ’A micocompeter coms all of the farace ‘operons. Specie eipes ar programmed or eck proces stp. Disk dives ae provid 9 stor ese recipes fr fur eal For example, 2 gat oid ‘Gon sp might inde speciation ube cleanin a mintre of O; and HCI at HOP for 60 rit fo Towed by a ntzopen purge and col dove te 80°C, — cotton tne Freee ra se | zene cae Metenting een Peon etn Pasview gure 4.25 Pin vew of vei famace, Css wih 25 wae TERE otic usando th ses ape wr ey ‘sed mnt fra poe cury of ASM emt {followed by stow posh orang ofthe wafers ina mixture of 0; and Ns followed bya coated famace rap 16 1000: fllowed by sn oxidation Ia Op and HC, followed by shor N, anneal to TOS0°C wo reduce the oxide fined charge followed by called coal down to SDC, fllowed by low pol or removal the wale. The microcomputer allows this to be “ane but” peraton For thahiy produce resus Ican als be programmed t aatcipate thermal oa ach he pre Ituerdon by ramping the cmperane jest hor foadig € mini crperatie Ructunions. The temperature con! systems are mow comple digal and interface wel with the race conor, Tie furmce coil slo ean be ineraced to failty management compuse. With he ase of Toot loa sation, his allows he fin firmaces tobe completely automated ‘Vena farnacen ae oten wed for lrge-chreter wafers. As shown n ges 428 and 4.25, these femmes resi os hriona frmace tuned on end. Wafers are pushes fom bei the fonace pinto the the. These systems hav four ruin eVantgrs. The vet! orton means (hat he water remain horizontal As rest these furaces ate ease 0 automate. Robo wae han ‘ers can csily oud and ead the tbe. Furthermore, the nifory spacing improves proses ni focrity soon he waft, paca fr large Samer substrates. AsO, there m0 ee 0 depositFigure 425 Vere! xinton sm showing cue, ‘eta ed was cout ob ase no eae {het corns of ASH Iterations. the wafers in he tube. Tate no nt fore on the ae: tlevers except dow, 20 they Jo mat ted o wasp ith tage and ean remain ia the furnace. Fealy vertical {ermaces tend to havea sme clesn room fospit ‘an horizontal faces, Athi ype of system finding vre scepance is called uniatch of fst rap faraes. These 55 ‘ems typically bold 200 $0 wafers and ean ramp up at TOOPCHnin snd. door ot SOC without sip (99) “This compares to approximately 10°C jn con ‘etna frac 4.10 SUPREM Oxidations* “Te last chapter itrdced the numerical eaeulaton tool SUPREM to simulte he difsion profiles of Innpucis in leon, The model canals be sed 0 ‘Perform oxidations based oa the Deal-Grove mel ‘The took bas Incorporated Anteius functions to esribe te near and paraDoie ae oelents for ‘wet and dy siconeoefclns, a: well sa rudimen {ary mode for chlorinated oxiato, ‘Oxidation processes we accessed by the same ‘command at diffusion proceses: DIFFUSION. For ‘oxidation 10 occu, simply all he parameter DRYO? for WETO? for dry snd wet oxidations, respectively “The parameters for thse processes can be adjusted before invoking the DIFFUSION sistem, with he RYO? and WETO2 commands, High-pressure ex ations can be accomplished by alo adding be pra ‘ler PRESSURE = where i he oxygen or stam pressure in atmospheres, Te presure cn be ramped by using te parameter, PRATE = x, where xis te Time rate of change of the pressure i aumospbers pr rina, For chlorinated oxidation he parameter is HCI = x, where xs the percentage of HCL in the ambien. For diluted flows on can ako we the commands, PHZ = x, FH20 = x, FHCI= x, EN2 = 1, and .02 = x, where the x valves corespond othe pas ows in standard Hers per minute ofthe comesponding pais Inthe thin ide regime, SUPREM It se n empirical oxidation pode! 60) a asat oe «25 whse B and A se be onion rt cocci fom the Desl-Grove model, and C and L ae pins constants Notce that thr eqpon cls flows the model of Masao! for fa Ly ‘tht is tou 10 A Impriy segregation coctcientan oidatonenanced inion modes 2 Sie ineportet ae ade oat pay reditbat ding exon ar De models e arisammy’ 93 SUPREM ondationexample—gate oxidation Mele Oxidation Rxanple~thin Gate Oxidation in Het Initialize (100) Silicon Boron Concentration=1el7 + Thickness=0.5 af=.0025 Hbe.01 Spaces Push the wafers for 30 min at 800°C in %, ‘Tine=20 Teaperatures27 Nitrogen P.zate=25.7667 comment Ramp the furnace to 1000 over 108 0, and 908 Ny Diffusion Tine=i0 Tenperature=600 F.n2e1.8 F.o2= 2 traver20 comment Oxidize the wafers for 20 min at 1000°C in a mixture of 0, with 38 BCL Diffusion ‘Tneu30 Temperature=1000 Deyo? Hel=3.0 coment Anneal the wafers at 1000°C for 10 min in a Sow of Timeri0 Tenperature=1000 Nitrogen Rasp the furnace to 800°C over 10 min in a fow of M, ‘Mmes10 Tonperature=1000 Nitrogen T-rates-20 Puli the wafere for 30 min at 900% In ‘Timer30 Tenperature-800 Mitrogen T.raver-25.7667 nd oxidation example Alter ther is complet, lad the onde thickness. How much ofthe oxide was grown du ing the ramp? In ths proces ae assumed that here was no inl oxie. How Would you Incorporate nial ons (sch thn stive exe ito your imolation? From the put ‘rofl determine the boron segregation coefcien tht SUPREM assumes, Which ofthe four ‘egos in Figure 4.16 does bor fal into unde hse condos? Taking ino conseration the stating thickness andthe change in he oni thickness for he HCI proces, by wi per ‘centage ba the oxidation rae been ented by uring HCY? Calculate the answer daly sing the Deal Grove model and check i using SUPREM by eliminating the HCI inthe simulation sd ervning SUPREM. 4.1 Summary “This chapter introduced the topic ofthe thermal oxidation of sco, presenting the Desl-Grove rode. Tis model accurately predic he oxide tickess of a wide range of oxidation parameters. hanced growth ates are seen for thin Orde. Altough ts rp seer several ode! that tiempo ena the enue were presented. Oxidation also known 1 induce defi nthe bulk ‘icon because ofthe igh conentaton of selPotrsttas Ua he process produces. Techniquesae 94 Teer Osan foc avoiding these defects are describe, Filly, ypicl oxidation systems ae described andthe ‘opliatin 0 SUPREM to oxidation i presente. Problem: «100-4 gt oxide is rtd for swe techcogy hasbeen decided tht the xian Will ‘a Sad dutat 1000 in dy oxygen theres nia oxide fr bow lng shoul he ve Grabs done sh nication nthe nes reine he parabolic este between he Wo? Repeat Prem if the oxidations dove ina wt O; ambien Reet etedcrded io grow te exe in Paclem | in vo steps. A SO0-A oxide wil be gown Tra tic the wafers willbe eine 03 al hicknes of 1000 Af the oxidations ae ‘eked out at 1000 ia dry O, calla th ine required for ech ofthe oxidations ftir peony to grow a L/h Red oxide to sola the transistors in a ceain biol TEAESiy, Bue te concerns with dopant ifason and tacking fut formation, the oxidation ‘Bon beCarid ot 10S0° Ihe proces caried ut ina wet ambien at atmosphere eure clit the requied elation tie, Asse tht the pabolic ton resect inte oxidation etre Clee the oxidation tine reited at 5 an at 0 atm SeRicon water, wbich is» ped 10° pype head to 100°C fr |. the wafer sia a ee wre, bow much oni il grow? Re eet inci rapid owt ets Sorat nately charged O: bs exactly tice he dfsion coefficient i SiO; a5 neva Bed othe el aide xm but 1 mes the reactivity athe src, with exactly te sae eee cry forth reaction ate coefcien Repeat Problem ina sure of faim of O5 Forsabuicron MOSFETs itis often nossa to grow gale oxides of order 100 A. Akbogh frosts coal ey difictdc fahe shot exation times involved itis peers to [Bow dese oxides at high tempera. Explain why. Betchus tat hasbeen wed wt some sucess io sole the problem mentioned 9 Probie 7 to row te onides inact mite of oxygen anda net pies ach era: sue tat we hve amintre containing 105% Oy and 15 Arf we ana the ap cr ige reine nonalyssocated with hin oxides at assur, ain Problem 4 that he puthote rae cotciesB depends onthe presto th oxidant acute he promt ime fora 100° cxiaton of 100 A. Assumes nial oxide TrelSe [0 Awe can ignore th term Equation 4.16 Ie aio reset ou attention redial hin nies, we con make the aproxtoatin (<< A. inthe Deal-Grove mol i {the nar appeoximaton) For tat eae, tegrate Eguation 418 and find an analyse epee for), Take he oxide thickness to be eo a ime # = ~ SRte that Ls 70 8 and Csi 50 Ain. he 100-A oxide described in Problem 8 sat tO i dry onyen aie, nd tere oil xi, dteine te oxidation os bath wth sd witout he hin oxide rt cakancemen tr fom the eatin deriv in Problem Ar thf the is equired fo te derivation in Problem 9 sti sais? ot alitavey desribe te effet. Repost Problem 10 fora growth ne in an ambient of 10% oxygen and 90% argon Neal onde hiknes smeared bth by soo «Nanospee ae hy measuring tbe .Sitacd capacitance. Toe resus are fund dilerby 208, even tough the same wafer MIE for bon meararements Give the possible errs hat might account forthe Seep. ‘RUISIEA pte oxde is found to hae a 15 temperature bis stress shit Calle he omborof mobile ons per nit wea a he oxide Referenct 1 fiers 98 Moxy the example SUPREM deck to multe 30min wet oxidation at 920, 1000, ei Car the eaulted onde ches with the Deal-Grove precios. Cate crepes coin! rom your ests ad compa iio the graph in Figure 4.17 Cha th subante eacentation 013% 10" emf boon and rerun be 920°C earn Coopare theres to those of Figure 4.18, What des hist you abou the ‘model ued by SUPREM? aspen aw rom several dy oxide at 1000 for 2, 5.and Wain, Calle the (hig ick a fonction of me, Dovs your versio of SUPREM ater 0 move the aa eres reainc? fot ow cana program user increase te accuracy of moderate thskmens 200 A <1, < 1000 A) dry oxidation ras? es OS Deal and A. 5. Grove, “Gener Relaioship forthe Thermal Oxidation of Sic,” 1 App Phys, 36.3770 1965) A Re aptoinin Properies of Elemental and Compound Semiconductors, H. Gates Imencince, New York. 1960.13. Bg Ronen end PH. Robinson, “Hydrogen Chri nd Chloe Geteing An Ete 7 Smear Improving Peformance of Sitcon Devices” J. Electrochem, Sc, 119-47 (1972). Ton Reosand 8 ©. Deal "Kinetr of Thema Onan of Sfcon in OJHCI Minas 1 Blectrchem Soc. BATES QTD. RR Rayo, N. Liab BE, Deal, “Kinetics of Hi Pyrovenie Stam". Electrochem Soc. 1282214 (980), PrP Nssod) D.Plrste and E. A. Iroe, "Thermal Oxidation af Silieon in Dry Onysen: Grout hate Eahancement i the Thin Regime "J Electrochem, Soe 132:2685 (985) pifest of Oxtton Induced Oxide Charges onthe Kinetics of S608 ‘Sold Sate Electr, 26:79 (1982) $'M Hr "Themal Oxidation of Sion" Appt Phas, 58:095 (1988), 1 IN. Meatin PRD. Dissertation, Sanford Universi, Stanford, CA, 1983 RG. Rover an Evans, “Kinetics and Mechanism of Thermal Oxidation of Siticon Sia shetal Empat on tmp fect” JP. Chem. Solids 0:51 (1969) see eeReG himudo, and G. Kamarmos, "A Revised Analysis of Dry Oxidation of ‘Shicon” J App. Phys. 82878 (1982) Se tack el. Majkoiak, “The Iaal Gros Rate of ThexmalSicoe Dios” Ps Siar, Sol ANI6S13 (1989) Fee ed 3D. Plomer, and E. A. ree, “Thera Oxidation of Sitcom in Dey ‘nyaes GrotieateEmanceren in tb Thin ride Reps Physiat Mechanisms” 2 Hectrhon, Soe 1322683 (1989) eae arandS. A Campbell "Gros Kictcs and Fletical Characteristic of aoe ne oe Diode Orown at Low Tempera” J Elecirocken, Soe, 40:50) (199) Ci Han and C. Helms, 1 Flecirochem, Sc. 1341299 (987) Cen agin apd Signs "An "O Sty ofthe Oxkion Mechanism of Son in Diy Oxygen" J Electrochem, Soc. 131914 (198 PBy plletos, €.R. Hee, DB. Keo, 04 B.E, Des, "Paraiel Oxidation Model fr S Joncer Bath Molecular and Atomic Oxygen Concentrations.” ApS Sc 3989 0989) Fa a eT Gustafson, and E. Garfinkel, “Te Intl Oxidation of Siow New ton Seater Rests che Ulstin Regi,” App. Su. Sci, 1OA185:329 (1990) Presa Oxidation of Sion inChapter 5 lon Implantation “The imrodction of dopant impustios by predepostion difsin was described in Chapter 3 ta is rn dopant was difased noth seaconductr from an infinite sore a the surface of te eee eeeeran conratation was int by the solid solubility, and he depth of the profile was JEL OY te une and alias ofthe dopa. To principle. seems hat amare Ey dope Sete cold be achved ithe suppy of dopant at the surface of he wart aproritelyHnie. a cea wey de mintre of dopant n an ier carer gas can rece th rare concent re thn prose was ured in aly miroeletonie technologies; however twas fou very fl seas cont was sb Fund th he Highly doped poles were often the mos real The bese ft biglranssor aed the chum of a MOSFET are two examples of moder doped prfles ‘hatte be very wel conzle, since they date the gin and thresh olin, especie ‘ens plantation nized impeiy stom ccleraod Ouough a lecostatc Hk tke the sate ofthe wale, The dave can be tightly conlled by measuring te fon current. Doses fo the eS Tange om 10 cn for very hgh tpt o 10 cn fr lawrence segoms ech a reas dale contacts, cites, and bred collectors. Some specializes applications require dois of aa i ac By coming te ekssoitic Bell che penetration depth of te impart ons rte cooled on implantation tetefore,povies the api tar the Gopant profile $e Rapsote to some extent Typicl ion energies range fom 50 200 keV, Certain special a aan ing Toning deep Hructres such a rekograde wells (ee Chap 16), can eqse energies upto several Me. re coarse vesearch demonstrations daring most of the 1960s, the Git commer spleen werenrduced 1973, Despite fil reluctance, the new mathe of Sopa inode Tarata becune btwn By 1980, most processes were fully implaed. Abbough now wiely on ian nplmabon abe has ever Grwcks. The incident fons Gamage the semiconductor I ee Th dutage unt be epoited and in some eases complete repair ano be on. Very sallow SoS Vay dary roles are feu imponsible. The thought of jo implaters i ited fe Figanve inplans,prticaly compared to difsionprocesies in which 200 wafers can often be aaaeatcncoly. Fal fon implgtaon equipment s expensive. A state of the at ystems tore han $2000.00. “The prove tha his chapter describes provides a blanket dose tht i essentially enifora eos the foes To elena dpe region ofthe wafer, a mpant mask mse used A variation area oe iglanton isto fos the on Beam © smal spot and we this pot to provide ‘deat rina Sens 99 located proces capebilty. These process ae elle om beam ecaiques. For example, he ions Can be wid dco pride str! vation in he doping role cross a devi. Tas ead is too expensive and too slow fo in) widespresd application in manufacturing. Yon beams ae use, however. orepairmask defects nd scletively remove ayers for dagrostc week. : 5.1 idealized lon Implantation Systems to iepaaton stems canbe ded ne Ose compet (ow $1) on sei neon ec stn Te se owe 32) su th fest ta om ‘Sse died ipl prion Como nt uc rn aon chou By Al ‘sii, Freak eopcs omnes Sits Hy Mos nano ep re Soe wil clon aya ter pans te sod yet te per vai ow of Shoe conateg wht re oc Ire desta tna See on sue pc fam as shown gue 32a che an be edd ean opr ed ae sce The tants bead in even se oper ows pt earn or gon can he Rens ah asinp ed AI igh ps e San cs hen sati o asain pow aur gure 6:1 Schema of en in inp Mayer a repre permisin, Ace res)tee ] \ cum / \ scan iin Faure 52sec ra een ion sue Sis canbe aid oven te wie ns fara csc neo cait eprnedyprmsn ser Sci Freeman “The gus flows ino an are chamber. This chamber as two purposes to beak up he fed gs Into a varity of omic and mecla species and wo onze ome ofthese species In the snes re jae te feed gan flows though an ence ito the Tow-pressire source chamber where it ‘ite boween sot Samet and a meal pn. The kmcot i tsned t large negative pteo- ‘Bw eapoct othe ple Electrons bo off he lament and ae accelerated toward he ste. As thay do vothey cli wih fod gas molecule, transfering some of tic energy. the wansered rely ts lng cooups molealr isoiton ean acest. BF, fo example, beaks up into BB. SURE. Fo a's vary of eter spss in varying quanies, Negative ons may also be pro deed te ar lem sbundan. To improve he onion eicincy 2 magoeti eld i ften imposed iDibe region of be electon cure. Tis produces a spina path fr We ciecrons,draasally Increasing the ionization pstabity, The posive fons are atcted the ext side of th sow ‘haber wich based aa are gave poten! with espect othe flame The positive fons Sraveat ne source chamber tragh ali Te result bon bear i often afew mimes by 110 Pons Thc prcsure ths prt of the source typical 10-10 10-tr, resting ata ae Famcaniky omen andthe srode Maxi or mets are typically few willimpers “The Seam now coi of vary of pecs, most of he fouized The nex sks eet the dened plat species. nthe previous example, we may want ro select oly the B* fm the ‘luo and preven te ther species fom cotineing down the lane. This normally done wit Figure 63 Mass seprsion sg of ning imple ‘Sowing perpen rpnoe ed and iene Desai othe dale fran ono MOH. ‘tas neyo Sams 01 sn ying magnet gue $2) The fea ct 3 igeconter thn samalnind aoe psa A opel el perpen tthe ea ely ea intchambe aang eso cron Me 9s an tere wis he magne ofthe on vey. he hog on eas on na Bist ns etd mca. andr teat avr eon ‘bey casi mech = vu - ay 62 where Vas is the extract poesia. The derivation of Baton 5.2 ignores the energy imparted 0 the fons by collisions with elecons i the source. The spread of in enrBes due to this eflecis of| fer 10 eV. Sioce the extraction potent! i tpialy tee oes of magaitade Inger an this Egoton 8:2 proves a good approimation ofthe te ener. ‘Ashe sit ean be made athe mas analysis chamber sac at ony oe mass (or ore acu stely one charge to hss rato) wil have exsclly the cortect radios of curvatre to ext the Sou i (Eigure 54). The primary limitation to the esoltion — Figure. typical mas spc fora BF sce gs fof such system f the fat tat the bean Tas some Sina vergence, This arses du w the it sit ize {nd rll vrais inthe on energy. Such a system ‘as, however, eal distinguish between he sop ‘of borom, Band By ‘Cnmbiaing Equations 5.120852 em 69 ‘Normally, dhe analyzing Sek i everywhere perpen: ‘cule ote fon velit andthe inlet and outlet are Symmetric, Now ase that he Geld has Bee tuned jn such away af allow an ion of as Aw exactly fellow a ile of radius R anf of mass M+ 3M fener the ier the bear: ail be displaced by = stance 2h pao deiitl ions thane] 6m ‘Two mases are sid to be resolved when D1 than the width of te ear plus the wh of the ext ithe best resolatoneccurewon large sn Af Leeann pemenaa Wics ee is smal. (Due to beam divergence, Las tess effet a ‘han this simple ests Would suggest as Hong sissan ae 02 ‘rangle 1 ‘Stn inlaaon Mass Reson 1am analyring magnet bends the ion beam through 45° and L = R = 50 cn, find te di ace D tha wuld be sen I By steak dough the syste when tis ted foe By Ae Exwacton potential 20 RV ed the required Bel. ‘Since the ference in assis am, Ht oo oes sod = soem ttt — con 45 + sin 45°] = 2.5 om =! soem fyi ~ const + sings) ‘ince sit wids re ipiealy a ew millimeters, tis analyzes ould easily resolve these. 60 aes pearly. bewit mass species wil be move dcal 0 resolve and may require & Targer radios magick. According to Equation 5.3, B= hg fe a x rot = 013T Gsm? 16x 10e here the nis of fl re tesa) and Kilogats (60). of onder a mts oe more) Most mas err used fr TC abication hve fiers with rads of reer ores Retteation ofthe ons ean be Gone ether before or alter te mas analysis. Aseleratig Bit reduce te kel tht ons sil Hose thei charg before reacting the surface of the wafer tut ‘Ties amuchlrer magnct The folowing dsconson wil ase analysis before acelin Fake abe is typi: aly several ters long and mast be maintained ata relatively igh vacuum Tig Meno. Ths ie resenary to avoid collisions during acceleration. The bea sist focused isto (Shh spor a ibbon ung sto electotatc lenses. then enters inca electrostatic acer sete scccletorcomiss of se of rings tached to voltage divider network, Adjutng the okernaply that fends the eider etwork ads the on energy. In he event hatte desire ereay in than he extcton potential, an opposing or bucking poten canbe apied. This Seize the sabity and sata coherence of the beam however, ad ss ot often sed, “Ine bear ts pnt paraily composed of Sos. Some nels may have reappeace Common the earls on hat conhined with dermal electrons: 6 “They may also eon that collided with ther on nthe beam undergoing & charge exchange. New Tass bigly undesale since hey wil pot be delet in eleewostatic end station scanning waesctime They wil ave ina Boum 10 the wafer where hey wil continuously mac nr the => 7 ttt raring common selina se Src me e~ Sintec on naan yrs "108 center of the wale. To avoid tis problem, ost Jom implantaien sjtens are equipped with = bend. The beam pases between the pull pts ofan electotate defection sytem The ‘evils arent deflected ands dont follow the tend: but stead wri beam top The ons ae Sufcienly dedected by te plates to cominue 0 travel dow he abe ‘Near the end ofthe tbe re adonal sts of deflection ples (Figure 53). In many Inmpiamers bod horizon and vere! pats of ‘lls are wrod ina manner analogs 1 lei: om set. The Bein ase back and oth and ‘upand down, wing wrsfonnly actos the wafer, systems designed for high teoughpi. the beam i unl tered ne ection. Hoizotal rasering 18 dooe by mechanically woving the sraer past the eam. This i done by pcg 2 umber of wafers on dhe pero ofa spinning sc. tne wales ey be clamped, oF 381s DOW Common, held by ceninfuga fore. Tere ae 2 umber of advantages to ich a sem. The ‘wafer does at havea re a heal Load, ice {batch of them ae inpaned tte same tine “Te ange ofthe beam with rept 1 the wale remains unchanged in the mechanically scanned ietion. The ttl pump down imei reduced by aati a tatch of wafers smtaeously In many soc systems. wo whels are moaned in side bysige conigurion, Ths allows ave wheel o lad aod pump down while the oer is Being imple. in some mer high- ttn ‘Asan example conser pial soucdin pants for an FET. This wou SO Asancxant erty of 2 eV, Phones s commonly wsed as he plan mask. The sr inmates 201. Ti nog to ae he ermperaa of e Y depo ore, he erg 00 depois uniformly though the wafer, ba rae ne tap 1000 ore. Since photre ee poe eral condacor, ican get quite bot during 1 sore ny ow o be Raed i sich exe th it Te ee 6, S52 Co Powe 56 Fae att paca anaes dare ROE rc impacts bed i Repel rc at hcg othe wae, where thicker Bead of poses cat In pales ne en sans fl ome with provisions cont he wales at fom Tits tmpernre. Te ther pce fen cn planing tou a se Sk th iar iing he sac resk aa the egal he cee EP oe Tasos Hy tat evolves from the surface, leaving behind inva cvbon cd esi ayers fc havea hardened carborizd Iyer ner he surface hat OO Healy ier The ctgssng can rise the pes inthe end sation suey 9 <5 So ec baum Ogi impact with he H, molec, resting i sigieant dose te cro [sh uslomb Scattering” Coulenseancing ually Sense while saying clio mecha, This ei 6 ee co rac fo pnt. Te pes scaring expres a sown for De is eae teen in Fge 6, On wank ofthe atoms iste wale ashaing Aco 1 erin, hove oe Caehgt regia low hr opens he ee fate. Th uncles of he atm inthe wafer. Asaenl he rgt ont more appropiate Ct esticns wih srecing coal of electrons. The tare on italy a 8 Be Ia ef mrance, A ow apgreaces wi cet veo w abd an mas a ars cae acess approach between te cents of the two fom if mo SCTE tree to ccur). Te target iom is assumed 10 be fe ‘Once agai, tis is 2 good spproximaton forte Na retention onesies commonly wsed in miro ees trie fication. Te cbjptve sto calcu the aout of emery trasfened tothe tage stom ding te elisin. The “Elion of tis problem requires the coseration of nergy, momen, and angular momentum, The calc Sine is more involved than Is waraned for OW Pu ‘ves ard orally involves a ansatin into center of Pe condinats, is covered i many odegrohate ‘Janie mechanics txt, Lez us simplify he problem fy comadeing he two also be hard spheres tha (er cuay I py pare de imal momen ofthe {melden ae tore spheres and Oe iat ome turn of the inlet sphere, BAB =P 6n ‘rypialscaaig ple. Fize act Conseving angular momentum, Laat Pd oo Aveta ges e105: Conserving nee, By 2m, ) “Then one cam show that the enegy lst bythe indent sphere - n6 wee) armed ixoaa) a0 “Ths, the corr bs is proportions oh niece and . tery nd depends ote ig snes. “These angles depend om the ion masses and the impact parameter. sone 5.3 Vertical Projected Range Fgue5:7 Tes dvance that aon aes inthe ‘dle ane The pon a tc sng pha the prose chee “This section wil use he satin results to deus what happens tothe ener on i an Tolan oe they che te f te wae, Some nce at hve een Seve fo SS itd ey lt a pian trvdvices willbe poimed ot, When a nrg on otra a wl bein se ee The Sader aPench be scnteascr so rmgs, gu) Aroncased me re “on ect, cney ls opens on he npc parameter. Sins ons erering ali the ‘erin the team ll ave ge of imput preter. Atel he mare ofthe ener Hus Technion can oa good epproimon, be coded probit. Fer = giver fx of ons a Tee es ic frst a egy irs el ce traveled, ater tbe average dT mye rj ange The ener To in cee ae ofe retonn (2) Te ft foto teres. imvlnes nt onl the valence elesrons, bt alo fe core eles the Bost material Sie a rest {ator pace inthe is made up ofthe eles lads rr the sos, many of se Seton will cc Bue fhe elas i 90 he pair the on nctgy may e ranted tough Extomb. intercon For 8 fpice somicondctor {plant handeds of howsands of ese imercons our, Fartermore temas betwen them ad Se ecevon fof rer 10 Ary spe eke fo irc wi no aril stor be once soc incnt on ‘Dust the lrge nob so nat inividl effscs involve, thew sce interactions cat be spprosimed by 2 canon esas Tat th eto the cecum on he oo very och fie 3 forte moving trough ui A vnc do oe Siccrons cn be asined tote eral media Te ht Rode here oa vscows dag foe same ob p> fal othe voc or energies of MeO O Tea mcrocecronie pesos FoeveVE 6Sn a \ 108, Station Since he on mst do work 0 move though he mada, tis force can sso be exprosed a am ney ‘etic Th energy los pe vit length dew elceonie topping is ven he symbol Sand a 4, aa where is aconstant of propotonality hat depends on he on and are species (6) jx [PAM ry MM a +2) tn Bastion 5.13, 2 he charge number (numer of protons) and Mis he mas (neutrons plas tans he acide and target fons. At very high eeepc the viscous Mid mode! can no Foner be Uiveked lasted. 5 peaks ad dereses a he niet iam energy i oie fre. “The om inieracton with the ace ions is very deen fom the imeraton wth de eetons Consider for the tne being an amorpocs solid. ts Known experimenally that ions eneinic recor ey to dep of howd of angstroms Since the aloe spacing i ofthe ore ‘Trenguron,sboat a thousand ineacions can occur. Frtbermore he incident and target ons aoeatees of te sare onder of mage. Ris posible forthe incident fn t be seatred at + Tego toca le to sien! welt. As a feu, nuclear interactions cannot be treated 3 + ‘SSS Entead bey must be urate at seve of dice evens As desribed inthe prevons serrate angle a which the fon is sated wll depend on the impact parameter and onthe See reac ponitns ofthe two tons, Tis means a the result of ay interaction depends “ier ae nractoms that qccured previously, back wo he Bist atomic layer of the soi. Sie the ‘das uniformly Sibuod ver the surface ofthe wafer as ey ene, a tate distribution of Sept wil sul “Torta onde, Gaussian distributions canbe used wo mode the range of depths tht an iow night feoch Ths, the impunity conection as 8 function of depth nan amorphous soi wil be svenby ae Vaeak, where By ste projected ange AR, i the standard deviton ofthe projected range, and i the RE ate coming faciors ze chosen sch hat the lzegrl ofthe profile from x = 010 ges the dose. Doe fo thesis natre ofthe on implantation process, the ons wil also Be seated tnely,penctsng pst the edges ofthe mask, Te profile most therefore be considered ia wo fdmensons wit ot tral and vertical standard deviations "Toad Rone must Setermine the Sth cer os ofthe acidet fon pe oi engin of travel do to mica sopping. Tne theory of nclear topping is iavolved The reader, Hf neste. is (Crono to Deamaey ea. 2] foram excellent weatment, It can be qualitatively described ty ‘Sfaed apere model described in Sesion $2. The enigy transfer during any colon will be & crave Rani of he hpoct parameter. The lower Ce impact parame, tho rete the ena) tone The ancrage energy lose wil alo bea function ofthe ati ofthe mass oft fon otha of che feeget mom. The sale hs rato the larger dhe average energy loss pr colisian wil be. Finally, {nc average energy los wil ba funtion othe energy el, The sold atm is chemically bonded This ang in an appronittely parabolic pea minimum. Ato low energies tho average ol Trek oes ot antler eooigh coergy to break tis bon. The result isa elas colision. The on mo 619 8a Pcie ange 107 Ima change det, at wl ot se mc . wer every. Th, 5 epee 1 areas wh on ‘energy at low energy. The momentura transfer is given by = “ ap =sPae 15) A igh velocities the olson time became 0 bart that he Ato cs so shot tha the energy loss decrees, Ths, Shs & um sore energy. The max vale ofS, can be pod bythe relation S28 10% eV-on? where 22M, wae, 619) wae zrt em Shas a weak energy dependence Figure 5.8 shows he nacleat and eectunic compo shows the nuclear and eecwonie components of ‘or several corsmen silicon dopants as 3 function of ecerey (7 8 ™ ‘Once 5) and 5,(6 ar known, one can peer the integral no fran Sists on to gtibe projected ange, Once own, the projected range can be wed to etna (9), gue 8.8 Nocera isc ric ompooens of SI oe Seige ree eaimteey (ser Smt as olnen By Sse “on npn "rode by pean, McCraw 138), e- vi ane 3a) em To avoid these compicstions, the projected range and its standard deviation are often obiaiped from LSS (Lndhar, Seba, and Sebi) tables [10] ‘or Monie Carlo simulaions These tables repose ‘euled vales that assume a pariolar model for the electron density distibutions of the ion aed the ‘old stoms, The ange values predicted by the model agree well wih experiment ets for concentations lose 1 the maximum, Figure 59 shows the projected, ‘ange and impliot simgale for several commonly {planted impurities [11 ‘Additonal moments can headed 1 the profile to help describe the behavior a lower concentations (gure 5.10). The eh moment of « diibuton is ened by [le-aymnd am “The fst moment jst the normalized dose, The se- cond moment sth prac of he dose aod AR The