Human Biology 2A/B 2012 Study Notes

Organization of the body

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Organism: Body systems that are all integrated into one living thing.
System: A group of organs that work together for a common purpose. For
example the respiratory system.
Organs: Two or more tissues make up an organ. The lung is an example of an
organ.
Tissues: Specialised cells that carry out a common function. e.g. a group of
muscle cells make up muscle tissue.
Cells: Basic unit of the body. Carry out different functions. Red blood cells,
white blood cells, etc.
The basic structural and functional unit of a living organism.
Organelles: Structures that carry out specific functions inside a cell.

Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that makes up the cell. This substance suspends
organelles in the cell.

Organelle Functions
Endoplasmic reticulum: Membranes of E.R provide a surface for chemical
reactions to occur on.

Stores and transports material. Network of channels formed by parallel

membranes.
Rough: proteins
Smooth: other material (molecules). Produces lipids (fats) which make up cell
membrane.
Golgi body (complex): Series of flattened, membranous bags stacked upon
each other. G.A positioned near nucleus. Package, modify, secrete proteins
(materials). Vesicles contain material being removed/ transported in or out.
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis occurs. Contains RNA (which enables protein
production). Nucleus controls ribosomes.
Free ribosomes : Production for cell
Attached ribosomes: Production for transport out of cell to other cells
Lysosome: Contains digestive enzymes to break down materials (lipids,
proteins, etc.). Also digests worn out organelles.
Nuclear membrane: Separates nucleus from cytoplasm. Controls movement of
material (in/out of cell).
7. Nucleolus: Contains RNA; helps in protein production.
8. Nucleus: Controls cell functions and cell division.
9. Chromatin: Long thin strands, involved in reproduction of cell.
10. Centrioles: Involved in reproduction of cell; spindle fibres.
11. Mitochondria: Cellular respiration (energy production)
12. Cytoskeleton (microtubules): Give shape to the cell and assists with cell
movement.
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Endocytosis: The process by which the vesicle is formed. A cell surrounding some
extra-cellular material with a fold of cell membrane, the enfolding membrane then
breaks away. The material is enclosed within the cell in the form of a small bubble
liquid sac which is called a vesicle.
Two forms of endocytosis include:
Phagocytosis (cell-eating) : This is when the material engulfed includes solid
particles.
Pinocytosis (cell-drinking) : Material taken in is liquid.
Exocytosis: Process in which the contents of a vesicle are pushed out through the
cell membrane. The membrane around the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane
and the vesicle contents are pushed out to the exterior.
Transport Mechanisms
Passive Transport: Cells energy does not have to be used to transport materials
which come in/out of the cell.
Active Transport: Requires cell's energy for transfer of materials to occur.
Cell membranes are differentially permeable which means they allow certain ions
and molecules to pass through, but restrict movement of others.
Three basic processes that result in transport of materials into, or out of the cell:
Diffusion:
Carrier mediated transport
3. Vesicular transport

1. Diffusion: Spreading of particles in random motion from a high region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration. This is also known as net
diffusion. The greater the concentration difference the 'steeper' the diffusion
gradient and the faster diffusion will occur.
Alcohol, steroids and fat-soluble substances can easily enter the cells because
they can diffuse through the lipid portions of the membrane. Oxygen diffuses
into the cell as it is constantly used for cellular respiration. Concentration inside
the cell is higher than concentration if oxygen outside the cell.
Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a differentially permeable membrane from a
region of high water molecules concentration (e.g ditilled water) to a region
of low water concentration (e.g. salt water).
Small molecules (e.g. water) are able to pass through pores in the cell
membrane however larger molecules such as sugar, starch, proteins are not
able to pass through at all.

As shown above, beaker is divided by a semi-permeable membrane. On one side is

a sugar solution on t he other is pure water. The concentration of water molecules is
less in the sugar solution than the pure water solution. As water molecules pass
through the membrane they distribute themselves easily over the whole beaker, but
the sugar molecules remain on the same side of the membrane. due to the
difference in concentration of water molecules, more water molecules will move
from the water to the sugar solution than in the opposite direction. The sugar
solution will gain water.
The higher level on one side is known as osmotic pressure. The higher the
concentration of solute, the higher the osmotic pressure.
2. Carrier mediated transport is the transfer of special proteins bind that bind to
an ion or molecule in t he cell membrane and help it to move across the cell
membrane. However they only work with one particular ion or molecule.
Many substances that a cell needs are too large to pas through the cell membrane
by simple diffusion and move through the cell membrane through a process called

facilitated diffusion. This is a passive process that moves substances from a high
concentration on one side of the membrane to a lower concentration on the
opposite side.
This is a type of carrier mediated transport in which the transported molecule
binds to a carrier protein which then changes shape to move the molecule to
the opposite side of the membrane where it is released.
Once all the carrier molecules are in use the process cannot go any faster
which make sit slower than simple diffusion.
All cells transport glucose molecules through their membranes by facilitated
diffusion.
Active Transport is the movement of substances across the cell membrane against
the concentration gradient using cellular energy. Substances that are more
concentrated inside the cell can still be absorbed. In the same way, some less
concentrated materials can be exported from the cell.
Energy for the cell's active processes come from the mitochondria. At the
mitochondria cellular respiration breaks down glucose to release energy that the
cell can use.
Vesicular Transport
An active process in which materials move in/out of the cell through vesicles. Two
basic types of vesicular transport includes endocytosis and exocytosis.

Metabolism
All the chemical reactions that occur in the body. Made up of two different types of
chemical reactions: catabolism or anabolism.

Catabolic reactions release energy whereas anabolic reaction use energy.

Metabolism concerns the maintenance of a balance of energy released and used.
Enzymes are proteins that allow chemical reactions to take place at normal body
temperature. Without enzymes chemical reactions would be too slow (organic
catalysts). Breaking molecules apart and putting molecules back together is what
enzymes do. There are specific enzymes for each chemical reaction needed to
make the cell function.

Maltese enzyme is a protein shaped to accept a maltose molecule and break

the bond.
The bond is broken and the molecules are released.
3. A single maltose enzyme can break 1000 maltose bonds per second and only
accepts maltose molecules.

Factors which affect enzyme activity rate include temperature and pH. Enzyme
activity decreases at pH levels higher or lower than the required level. Enzymes also
have an optimum working temperature. In humans that is a temperature of 37*C.
Cellular respiration is a metabolic process which occurs in any cell. It is a process
by which organic molecules, taken in as food, are broken down in cells to release
energy for the cell's activities. Cellular respiration is a chemical process and is not to
be confused with respiration (breathing).
The main material involved with cellular respiration is glucose (C6H12O6)
Respiration can be summarised as an equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
The breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water involves over 20 reactions
which occur sequentially one after the other. At each step a compound is formed
and catalysed by a different enzyme. Small amounts of energy are released as the
reactions proceed. The release of energy is controlled and does not occur at once.
There are three main processes in cellular respiration:
1. Glycolysis
This is the first step in which one glucose molecule is broken down, in a series of ten
steps, into two pyruvate molecules. Glycolysis occurs in the cell's cytoplasm and is
an anaerobic process in that it requires no energy. Pyruvic acid is then converted

to lactic acid. Production of lactic acid is called anaerobic respiration. Glycolysis of

one glucose molecule releases enough energy to convert ADP to ATP. Anaerobic
respiration allows cells to produce energy in the absence of no energy.
2. Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
This is a process of aerobic respiration and occurs in the cell's mitochondrion. The
pyruvic acid (glycolysis) is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. In the
mitochondrion there are enzymes available to use the pyruvic acid to form 2 more
ATP molecules.
3. Electron Transport System
Generates more than 34 ATP molecules of ATP from the products of glycolysis.

Energy from cellular respiration is important as the body uses this energy as heat energy to keep
the body at a constant temperature. The remaining energy is used to form ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)
Adenosine triphosphate is formed when an inorganic phosphate group is joined to a
molecule of adenosine diphosphate. The phosphate groups in ATP are joined by high chemical
bonds. Some of the energy from cellular respiration is stored in the bond between the ADP
molecule and the third phosphate group.

The cell's nucleus contains DNA which carry genetic information that determines the structure of
the cell. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules are in the form of long strands and have a twisted
spiral shape in called a double helix.
The DNA is made up of bases known as nucleotides that are attached to sugar and phosphate
molecules. Nucleotides are the units that make up the DNA structure:

Adenine pairs with Thymine

Cytosine pairs with Guanine

Each strand of DNA is bound to special proteins called histones. DNA strands are coiled around the
histones so that these long molecules can fit into a small space. In a cell that is not dividing the
coiled DNA forms a tangled network called chromatin.
When a cell divides, exact copies of each DNA molecule in the tangled mass of chromatin is
distributed to the daughter cells.
Mitosis
The division of the cell in which the nucleus is divided and ensures that each body cell recieves
exactly the same DNA as that possessed by the parent cell.
Interphase: DNA molecules duplicate. Molecules form exact copies of themselves. The
quantity of DNA in the nucleus doubles between one cell division and the next.

There are four main stages of mitosis:

Prophase

First stage of mitosis after interphase. Pairs of centrioles become visible and move to
opposite ends of the cell.
Chromatin coils to become chromosomes.
Nucleolus and nucleus break down.
Spindle fibres grow from centrioles.
Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell.

Metaphase

Chromosomes lie along the middle of the cell.

Some spindle fibres attach to centromeres.

Anaphase

Centromeres divide in two.

Spindle fibres pull new chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell.
Each pole (future daughter cell) possess an identical set of genes.

Telophase

Chromosomes gather at each pole of cell.

Chromatin uncoils.
New nuclear membrane appears at each pole.
New nucleolus appears in each nucleus.
Mitotic spindle disappears.
Cytokinesis also takes place while telophase is occurring. The division of the cytoplasm is
known as cytokinesis.
A furrow develops in the cytoplasm between the nuclei. The furrow gradually deepens until it
cuts the cytoplasm into two parts each with it's own nucleus.
Mitosis and cytoplasmic division result in the formation of two daughter cells. Each daughter cell
contains the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. An altercation in the passing of
hereditary material is known as a mutation.

Protein synthesis
During interphase, the DNA molecules undergo the process of replication; form exact copies of
themselves. The two linked chains of DNA molecule separate and each seperated section contains
half of the original information, which serves as a template for the nucleotides that will form in the
new half.

DNA carries genetic code which provides instructions for protein synthesis (combining of amino
acids to form large protein molecules). Protein that is made is essential for chemical reactions that
occur in the cell which are controlled by enzymes which are also proteins. Proteins are also
important as they make up most of the structural materials of cell.
The specific types of proteins that can be made are determined by genes. The order in which the
four bases (adenosine ,thymine, cytosine and guanine) occur in a DNA molecule is the genetic code.
Each of sequence of the three base is the code for a particular amino-acid.
Amino acids are assembled at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of the cell. Instructions/information
contained in the DNA located in the nucleus must be accurately transferred to the ribosomes.
The information is gotten form the DNA to the ribosomes via the RNA (carries the message).
RNA differs from in DNA in that it is only a single strand of sugars and phosphates and thus
the bases occurs singly. RNA also contains the base uracil (U) instead of thymine.
During protein synthesis the DNA unzips, separating its bases with the help of an enzyme.
Messenger RNA move in and take a copy of one side of the DNA strand. Then it moves out of the
nucleus heading for the ribosome. Ribosomes are organelles found attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum or surrounding the cytoplasm. They help build protein molecules from amino acids.
The messenger RNA attaches itself on to the ribosomes while the transfer RNA brings the correct
amino acid to ribosome. The three bases of messenger RNA found on the ribosome must match up
with the three bases on the transfer RNA before the right amino acid is found. The three bases on
the ribosomes are called a codon/triplet. The body has 22 different kinds of amino acids. They
combine to form a protein molecule.

Cell differentiation
It is the process in which unspecialised cells develop characteristics and functions of particular
types of cells.
Cell expansion
Multiplication or reproduction by cell division of a population of identical cells descended from a
single progenitor.
Transcription: Formation of complementary RNA.
Translation: synthesis of RNA using a DNA molecule as the blueprint. There is a corresponding RNA
nucleotide for each DNA molecule.
Messenger: copies info to ribosomes
Transfer: brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes.

Cells need nutrients to supply energy and matter for synthesis. These nutrients may be
organic or inorganic.
There are six groups of nutrients:
1. Water : fluid in which other substances dissolve in. water molecules take part in some
reactions.
2. Carbohydrates: main source of energy for cells. Complex carbohydrates are broken
down into simple sugars through the process of cellular respiration and in turn release
energy.
3. Lipids (fats): broken down to fatty acids and glycerol which enter the glycolysis
pathway and is broken down to release energy.
4. Proteins: Broken down into amino acids. Most important proteins made are enzymes.
Enzymes control metabolism by controlling the rate of chemical reactions that occur in
the body. Proteins can also be used as a source of energy, only if there is an
inadequate amount of carbohydrates or lipids.
5. Minerals: Part of enzymes. May function as co-factors of enzymes or may be part of
substances like ATP that are involved in metabolism.
6. Vitamins: Act as co-enzymes for many chemical reactions of metabolism.
Organic Substances
Contain large amounts of carbons.
Large molecules.
Most carbon contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ONLY!
e.g. Glucose
Sucrose
*Twice as many hydrogen as oxygen ALWAYS.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars. These are sugars such as glucose, fructose and
galactose.
Disaccharides are two simple sugars joined together. (i.e. sucrose, maltose and lactose)
Polysaccharides are large numbers of simple sugars joined together ( e.g. starch, glycogen
and cellulose)
Protein

*Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (may have sulfur or phosphorus)
*Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. They are needed to be absorbed by cells.
*Amino acid + Amino acid = Dipeptide bond
*10 or more bonds are known as polypeptide bonds.
*Proteins consist of 100 or more peptide bonds.
Lipids
Same 3 elements as carbohydrates
Larger molecules - a smaller amount of oxygen compared to carbon and hydrogen.
Lipids - fatty acids + glycerol
Saturated or Unsaturated

Nucleic acids
Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphates.
Made up of smaller units called nucleotides(sugar phosphate and nitrogen base)
Vitamins
*Organic compounds
*Don't supply energy but are needed for energy release from carbohydrates,proteins and lipids.
(vitamin D and Vitamin E)

Non-organic substances
Minerals e.g. calcium, iron, phosphate, potassium and sodium
Water (H2O)
Essential for body functions
A balanced diet
Involves getting the correct amount of all the nutrients required for the body to function at its
optimum level.
*Malnutrition: Occurs when you do no not get the correct amount of all nutrients required. They
may be deficient in certain areas (e.g. proteins, vitamins, minerals, etc)
Factors affecting a balanced diet include:
Basal Metabolic Rate
Amount of energy needed when body is at rest during metabolism.
Level of activity
Age
Gender

Digestion

Body cells require simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals and water in order
to function properly. Vitamins, minerals and water are in the form of small molecules and are able to
pass through the differentially permeable membrane surrounding each cell. Carbohydrates,
proteins and fats are larger molecules which need to be broken down into smaller particles which
can be absorbed by the cell.
Digestion is the process where large carbohydrate, protein and fat molecules are broken down into
smaller particles by physical and chemical means in order to be absorbed by the blood and into the
cells.
The organs of the digestive system are structured to carry out six basic activities:
1. Ingestion of food and water
2. Mechanical digestion of food
3. Chemical digestion of food
4. Movement of food along the alimentary canal
5. Absorption of digested food and water into the blood and lymph
6. Elimination of material that is not absorbed.

Mechanical digestion
Breakdown into smaller particles.
e.g.:
Teeth: Physical process; breaking & grinding food.
Stomach: Churning and mixing
Muscle: Peristalsis (a series of wave-like muscle contractions that moves food (bolus)
down the oesophagus and through the intestines.)
Bile: Increases surface area; emulsifies fats
Chemical digestion
Breakdown of food molecules into smaller, simple molecules by the action of enzymes.
Mouth (saliva)
^Salivary amylase- breaks down starch molecules into smaller units.
Stomach (gastric protease = protein broken down into polypeptides (amino acids)
Small intestine: Intestinal amylase, protease, lipase
The Mouth

Saliva
The intake of food is known as ingestion. It occurs at the mouth.

The action of the jaw and teeth begins mechanical digestion where the food is broken
up into small pieces.
As the food is chewed it is mixed with saliva. A fluid which is secreted by three pairs of
salivary glands. It contains mucus and a digestive enzyme, salivary amylase which
begins chemical digestion of starch.

*Mucus: - lubricates food

Holds food in lumps
Dissolves food-taste receptors are stimulated.
Teeth
4 incisors: Chisel shaped teeth for cutting and biting.
2 canines: On each side of the incisors. Conical teeth used for tearing.
4 pre-molars: On each side of the jaw, for grinding and crushing.
6 molars: Grinding and crushing, three on each side of the jaw.

After chewing, the food is formed by the tongue into a lump (bolus).
It is then swallowed as the tongue moves backwards and upwards,
pushing the food into the back of the mouth, the pharynx. The
pharynx leads into the oesophagus (23-25 cm long) that connects the
pharynx to the stomach.

The Alimentary canal

Has 4 layers:
1. Mucose: Mucus membrane lining the entire alimentary canal.
2. Submucose: Consists of glands and connective tissues, through
which blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves run.
3. Muscular: Circular muscle; muscle fibres arranged in circles
around the canal. Longitude muscle. Fibres arranged along the
length of the canal.
4. Serose: Outer layer of connective tissue.

The stomach
From the oesophagus the food enters the stomach which has a jshape. When empty the stomach lies in longitudinal folds known as a
rugae.
The stomach lining is made up of mucosa which is specialised for the
secretion of gastric juice. Gastric juice is secreted by gastric glands
located in gastric pits in the mucosa.

Gastric juice contains HCl, mucus and digestive enzymes which are secreted by different cells
in gastric pits. The stomach has an oblique muscle layer allowing it to contract in a variety of
ways to churn food and mix it with gastric juice.
The food is then converted to a thick 'soupy' liquid called chyme.
Most of the chemical digestion in the stomach deals with the start of protein digestion.
The enzyme pepsin (gastric protease) breaks the bonds between certain amino acids, forming
smaller polypeptides.
Pepsin is secreted in an inactive form (pepsinogen) before it is activated when it comes into
contacted with HCl (low pH)
Protein stays in the stomach longer which leads to more efficient protein digestion.
The low pH kills bacteria entering the stomach with food.
In infants, rennin is also secreted which coagulates ( changes to solid) protein in the milk.
Nutrients are not absorbed into the blood through the stomach as the internal surface is
covered by a thick layer of mucus. However, some alcohol and a few drugs may be absorbed
by the stomach.
At the lower end of the stomach is a thickening of circular muscle which results in constriction
known as the pyloric sphincter. This sphincter prevents the stomach contents moving through,
or intestinal content from flowing back.
After 2-8 hour the stomach contents are gradually pushed into the next part of the alimentary
canal, the small intestine.

Small intestine: Digestion

The small intestine is approximately 6 metres long, the longest part of the alimentary canal (6m
long!)
It receives the cyme pushed through by the pyloric sphincter form the stomach.

The first part of the small intestine is the duodenum; which is 25cm long and extends from the
bottom end of the stomach in a curve around the pancreas.
Digestion continues in the small intestine by the influence of: 1. intestinal juice which is secreted by the lining,
2. pancreatic juice which is secreted by the pancreas.
3. bile which is secreted by the liver but is stored in the gall bladder.
The mucosa and sub mucosa are modified to suit the functions of the small intestine. Both layers
have permanent folds that extend into the interior of the small intestine.
Mucosa has finger-like projections extending form folded surface known as the villi. Microscopic
projections, called microvilli project the external surface area of the villi.
These three modifications: folding, villi & microvilli serve to greatly increase the internal surface
area.

The main mixing movement in the small intestine is segmentation. Circular muscle fibres contract
forming segments. Contents of the small intestine are 'sloshed' back and forth mixing with digestive
enzymes.
Pancreatic juice, which has a pH of 8, enters the duodenum and helps to neutralise the acid that has
come with the material from the stomach.
Many enzymes are involved in digestion of food are contained in pancreatic juice. These include:
Pancreatic amylase: Breaks down starch into disaccharides
Trypsin ( pancreatic protease): splits proteins into smaller units
Ribonuclease & deoxyribonuclease: Digest RNA and DNA
Pancreatic lipases: Enzymes that breakdown fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Intestinal juice contains enzymes such as:

Maltese/sucrose/lactase: breakdown
disaccharides(maltose/sucrose/lactose) into monosaccharaides
Intestinal peptidase: breakdown of peptides into individual amino acids.
Intestinal lipase: Breakdown monoglycerides into glycerol and free fatty
acids.
Bile does not contain digestive enzymes but do contain bile salts which are
very important in the digestion of fatty acids. These salts act as an emulsifier
and break fats into tiny droplets.
The small intestine completes the chemical breakdown of large food
molecules.
Small Intestine: Absorption
Most of the absorption occurs in the small intestine. After food is mechanically
and chemically digested in the mouth, stomach and intestine, it is in the form
that can move through cells lining the villi and into the blood and lymph. This
movement is known as absorption.
Nutrients are absorbed through the internal surface of the small intestine; this
is because absorption requires a large surface area. The structure of the villus
is ideally suited for its function of nutrient absorption.
Inside each villus there is a lymph capillary called lacteal surrounded by a
network of blood capillaries.
Monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose and galactose are actively
absorbed. They pass through cells on outside of the villi and into the blood
capillaries.
Amino Acids are actively absorbed as well.
Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by simple diffusion. In the cells of
villi, glycerol and fatty acids recombine to form triglycerides, which are
coated in protein. They enter lacteals as tiny droplets of chylomicrons.
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed in association with the fatty acids and
glycerol.
Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by simple diffusion into the blood
capillaries.
Water is absorbed by osmosis.

Substances that are absorbed into the are carried to the liver via hepatic portal vein.
In the liver, they may be removed for processing or carried to other blood cells.
Fats absorbed into the lacteals are transported in the lymph system, which empties the blood.
Liver

Besides processing digested foods the liver plays vital roles:

1. Blood glucose regulation
The liver regulates the blood glucose level by taking glucose from blood into cells or release
glucose (stored glycogen) from cells into the blood.
This is controlled by pancreatic hormones insulin an glucagon.
Insulin reduces blood glucose concentration.
Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration.
Glycogenolysis: glycogen breaks down into glucose.
Glycogenesis: glucose is converted to glycogen.
2. Deamination
Any excess amino acids that cannot be stored are converted in the liver into carbohydrates.
This process involves the removal of the amino group NH2 from the amino acid molecule, a
process known as deamination.
The amino group is converted into ammonia NH3, then into urea, which is filtered by the
kidneys and excreted in urine.
3. Bile formation
Bile salts emulsify fats for easier chemical digestion by enzymes.
4. Plasma protein production
5. Blood-clotting factors production
Many chemical substances required for clotting is produced by the liver (e.g. prothrombin,
fibrinogen)
6. Storage
In addition to storing glycogen, the liver also stores iron and the fat soluble vitamins A & D.
7. Toxin and hormone breakdown
Toxins and drugs are broken down into harmless substances. Hormones that circulate in the
blood are also inactivated in the liver.
8. Heat production
Heat is released as a by-product of many chemical reactions. It is important for maintaining
constant body temperature.
9. Lipid metabolism
When glycogen stores in the liver are full, excess glucose is converted to fat. This fat is
transported to fatty tissues for storage.
Between meals, fat storage tissues release fatty acids in the blood. Liver converts fatty acids into
substances that are used by tissues as energy source.
The Large intestine
The large intestine (colon)n is about 1.5 m long and is named 'large' as it has a wider diameter than
the small intestine. It is arranged in an inverted 'U' shape.
There are no villi in the large intestine and no digestive juices are secreted however the lining
secretes large amounts of mucus.
Structure: At the part where ileum joins large intestine, there is a blind pouch called caecum. The
caecum is about 6cm long and ends in a tube- the appendix.
The final part of the large intestine (colon) is the rectum which opens to the exterior at the anus.
Around the anal opening is a circular muscle, the anal sphincter.

Movement of materials through the large intestine is very slow (18-24 hrs.). During this time most of
the remaining water is absorbed, so that the contents become more solid.
Colonic bacteria (micro flora) break down much of the remaining organic compounds. Some bacteria
produce vitamins, which are then absorbed through the walls into the blood. Mineral nutrients are
also absorbed. In addition, short chains of fatty acids are produced in digesting fibre. They are also
vital for proper function of the colon.
The semi-solid material left after water absorption and bacterial action makes up faeces.
The Rectum
The semi-solid material in the colon is pushed by peristalsis into the rectum. As the rectum
stretches, it triggers a response to defecation - the emptying of the contents of the rectum.
Expelled faeces contain:
Water
Undigested food material, particularly cellulose

Bile pigments, which gives the faeces colour

Remains of cells that have broken away from the internal lining of the alimentary canal
Excretion is different from defection in that it involves the removal of metabolic waste, waste that
has been produced by chemical activity of the body cells. Except for bile pigments, the contents of
faeces are not metabolic waste so defecation is better referred to as elimination rather than
excretion.
Amylase

Protease

Lipase

Enzyme

Salivary Amylase

Pepsin

Pancreatic Lipase

Source

Salivary Glands

Chief cells in
stomach lining

Pancreas

Substrate

Starch

Proteins

Triglycerides such
as fats and oils

Products

Maltose

Small
polypeptides

Fatty Acids and

Glycerol

Optimum pH

pH 7

pH 1.5 - 2

pH 7

Circulatory System
The circulatory system acts as the body's internal transport system which circulates blood flow
throughout the body. It is the link between cells inside the body, which have certain requirements
and the environment outside the body to supply those requirements.
The Heart
The heart is an organ which acts as a pump to push blood around the body. It is located in the
middle of the chest cavity between the two lungs. The right atrium is bigger than the left.
Around the heart is a membrane called the pericardium which acts to hold the heart in place but
allows the heart to move as it beats. This muscle prevents the heart from overstretching.
The wall of the heart is made up of a special type of muscle, called the cardiac muscle.

Arteries: carries blood away from heart

Veins: Carry blood back to heart
Capillaries: tiny vessels that carry blood between the cells

Circulation of Blood
Double circulation: This is the process in which blood passes through the heart twice. As explained in
the diagram below blood from the body enters the right atrium and into the right ventricle with the
aid of the tricuspid valves. The blood then enters the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. The blood
then returns to the heart via the left atrium and into the left ventricle. The blood then moves into
the aorta which transfers the blood back into the heart.

Circulation of blood through the lungs:

As deoxygenated blood flows through the capillaries of the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the air into
the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air. The blood becomes oxygenated.

Circulation of blood through the body:

As oxygenated blood flows through the capillaries of the body, oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the
blood into the body cells, and carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse from the cells into the blood.
The blood then becomes deoxygenated.

The transport medium (blood)

Blood is made up of a liquid part known as plasma and a liquid part consisting of cells and cell
fragments called formed elements. The formed elements that are suspended in the blood
plasma include red blood cells, erythrocytes and white blood cells, leucocytes.

Haemoglobin is able to combine with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin can be

easily broken down to release oxygen.
Oxygenated blood is blood with a proportion of oxygen. Oxyhaemoglobin is bright red in colour, so
the blood in the arteries is red. Haemoglobin is dark red or purplish in colour.
The deoxygenated blood in the veins (except veins from lungs) is therefore dark red.