Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Concepts in Industrial Organisation
Basic Concepts in Industrial Organisation
Co-Written
Note
1
I. Introduction
A definition of industrial organization:
Industrial organization is concerned with the workings of markets and industries, in particular the way
firms compete with each other.
10
mark. As a benchmark, it is very convenient, but one does not often believe the
assumptions of perfect competition in reality.
11
P
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
ZZ
Z
P
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
12
Welfare and Perfect Competition: Under perfect competition, the first-best outcome is achieved.
When you are thinking about evaluating a paper,
the question of what is the first-best outcome should
be paramount in your minds. Is there Allocative Inefficiency, i.e. do the people with the highest valuations get the good? Moreover, is the right quantity
produced in the market?
Examples: Small Business Preference Programs create both allocative inefficiency and quantity distortions. Lack of a Carbon Tax may create quantity
distortion.
13
14
15
|d | =
%Q
Q/Q
P/Q
dQ P
=
=
=
%P
P/P
P/Q
dP Q
16
Lecture 2: Monopoly
Definition: A firm is a monopoly if it is the only
supplier of a product in a market.
A monopolists demand curve slopes down because
firm demand equals industry demand.
Four cases:
1. Base Case (One price, perishable good, non-IRS
Costs).
2. Natural Monopoly
3. Price Discrimination
4. Durable Goods
17
BASE CASE
Monopolists Profit Maximization Problem:
max = p(Q)Q C(Q)
Q
=0
dQ
dQ dQ
P (Q) + Q
dP
dC
=
dQ
dQ
MR = MC
18
Z
J
JZZ
J Z
J Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z MC
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Q
JJ
Z
Z
MR
(P , Q ) is profit-maximizing choice.
19
P (Q)
dC(Q)
dQ
P (Q)
=
(Q)
Q dPdQ
P (Q)
Q dP (Q)
P
dQ
1
>0
|d |
20
2. Natural Monopoly
Definition: Declining average cost over all meaningful quantities. The most efficient outcome is for
a single firm to produce all output.
Note: IRS is sufficient but not necessary for a natural monopoly.
21
Pd
Z
J
JZZ
J Z
J Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
AC
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z MC
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Z
J
Z
J
Z
Q
JJ
Z
Z
Qd
MR
D
Natural Monopoly
Definition of natural monopoly: declining average
cost over all meaningful quantities. The most efficient outcome is for a single firm to produce all
output. (For example, public utilities)
22
23
3. Price Discrimination:
1. We distinguish between three types of price discrimination:
First degree (i.e., perfect price discrimination)
Second degree (i.e., non-linear pricing such as
quantity discounts)
Third degree (i.e., market segmentation)
2. Price discrimination always increases profits (producer surplus), but its effects on consumer surplus
are ambiguous.
24
P1
H
@HH
@ HH
@
HH
@
HH
H
@
HH
@
H
@
HH
@
H
HH
@
H
@
HH
@
H
HH
@
H
@
HH
@
H
HH
@
HH
@
HH
@
H
@
HH
H
@
HH
@
H
@
HH
H
@
HH
@
Q
H
@
HH
Q
1
@
H
@M R
H
D1 H
1
25
P2
BJ
BJ
BJ
B J
B J
B J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
J
B
B
J
B
J
J
B
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
J
B
B
J
B
J
J
B
B
J
B
J
B
J
Q
B 2
JJ
M R2
D2
26
BJ
BJ
BJ
B J
B J
B J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
J
B
JX
HH
XXX
XXX
H
HH
XXX
XXX
H
HH
XXX
XXX
H
HH
XXX
XXX
H
HH
XXX
XXX
H
HH
XXX
XXX
H
XX
HH
XX
XD
H
HH
H
HH
H
HH
H
HH
H
HH
H
HH
HH
HH
H
HH Q
H
Q
MR
27
28
29
Coase Conjecture.
Consider the example of a monopolist who owns all
the land in the world and wants to sell it at the
largest discounted profit.
In year 1, the monopolist sets a monopoly price and
sells half the land. (Think of a linear demand curve
with marginal cost at zero.)
In year 2, the monopolist will want to do the same
with the remaining land, but unless the population is
growing very quickly, demand for land will be lower.
Thus, the monopoly land price in year 2 will be
lower.
30
31
32
33
34
Define a game:
Players: firms.
Action/Strategy set: production levels/quantities.
Payoff function: profits, defined:
35
36
1 (q1 , q2 )
= a 2bq1 bq2 c1 = 0
q1
Best response is:
q1 = R1 (q2 ) =
a c1 1
q2
2b
2
37
q2
J
J
J
J
J
J
R1 (q2 )
J
J
J
J
J
ac2 Q
J
Q
2b
J
Q
J
Q
Q
J
Q
J
Q
Q
J
Q
Q J
Q J
Q
QJ
Q
q2c
JQ
JQ
J QQ
J
Q
Q
J
Q
J
Q R2 (q1 )
Q
J
Q
J
Q
Q
J
Q
J
Q
Q
J
Q
J
Q
Q
J
Q
J
Q
Q
q1c
ac1
2b
q1
38
q1c =
a 2c1 + c2
3b
q2c =
a 2c2 + c1
3b
Qc = q1c + q2c =
2a c1 c2
3b
39
pc = a bQc =
a + c1 + c2
3
40
41
We need N of these equations. However, if we assume that firms costs are the same (T Ci (qi ) = ci),
its a lot easier. Each firm has the same reaction
function, which is
N
ac 1 X
qi = Ri (qi ) =
(
qj )
2b
2
j6=i
42
ac 1 X
qi = Ri (qi ) =
(
qj )
2b
2
j6=i
q=
ac 1
(N 1)q
2b
2
Thus,
qc =
(a c)
(N + 1)b
Qc =
N (a c)
(N + 1)b
43
Sanity checks. . .
Do we get the monopoly result for N = 1?
Do we get the duopoly result for N = 2?
What is the Cournot solution for N = ?
Take the limit as N for q c and Qc and pc . They
are:
lim q c = 0
lim Qc =
ac
b
lim pc = c
44
Under the assumption of Cournot competition, market supply approaches the competitive supply as
N .
Note that market supply depends on the slope and
intercept of demand, and the (common) marginal
cost. Individual firms output levels approach zero
as N .
45
X
i
= a 2bqi b
qj ci = 0
qi
i6=j
46
Q
bqi
Rearrange...
p ci
bqi Q
=
p
Q p
p qi Q
p ci
=
p
Q Q p
qi
Q
The term
is the market share of firm i. Denote
this simply as si .
47
48
ac
2b
12 q1
49
ac
4b
ac
2b
= 34 q C
50
51
52
53
54
Bertrand under capacity constraints (keep the assumption that costs are the same):
Note that if firms choose capacity then prices, you
can get outcomes more like Cournot. This depends
crucially on the rationing protocol via which consumer match to transactions. Tirole is quite good
on this. This model is called Kreps-Scheinkman
(1983).
55
56
Differentiated Products
We now finally drop the assumption that firms offer
homogeneous products.
Differentiated product models are among the most
realistic and useful of all models in IO.
If you understand the basic elements of product
differentiation theories, then you should have an
awareness of the economics underlying:
1. product placement
2. niche markets
3. product design to target certain types of consumers
4. brand proliferation, etc.
57
58
59
R2 (p1 )
R1 (p2 )
p1
a
2b
pb2
p2
61
62
Notation:
N is number of firms
Q is total industry output
PN
qi is output of firm i, so Q = i=1 qi
qi
si is % share of firm i (ie., si = 100 Q
)
Two Measures of Concentration:
1) Four-firm Concentration Ratio:
P
I4 = 4i=1 si
Examples (1992, 2-digit SIC classifications):
Tobacco: 91.8
Furniture: 29.3
Department stores: 53.8
Legal services: 1.4
Problems with this or any other linear measure:
No difference between (80,2,2,2) and (20,20,20,26)
(ie, cant distinguish concentration between the top
4.)
63
PN
i=1 (si )
64
65
Entry
We will focus on entry in two different contexts.
1. Non-strategic Effects on Entry (Entry Barriers)
These are features of firms costs or production
technologies that affect how many firms can efficiently serve a market. For example, natural monopolies, generally the m.e.s. compared to the market size. Other features could include absolute cost
advantages, regulatory restrictions (licensing, etc.),
capital requirements...
2. Strategic Effects on Entry (Entry Deterrence)
These are costs of entry borne by entrants (or potential entrants) that are a result of strategic behavior by incumbent firms. Some examples are capacity commitment, spatial preemption, limit pricing,
long-term contracts, and other actions that an incumbent firm might take in the presence of an entry
threat that he would not take otherwise. (Possibly
also tying or other arrangements that have been
discussed in the Microsoft case.)
66
67
Examples:
1. Exogenous Sunk Costs or Barriers to Entry:
Capital requirements
Scale economies
Absolute cost advantages
Asset specificity
Regulatory restrictions (licensing)
2. Endogenous Sunk Costs or Barriers to Entry:
R&D
Patents
Excess capacity
Control over strategic resources
Contracts
Advertising?
68
Why advertising?
There is debate about this. The argument for thinking of advertising as a barrier to entry is:
It does not depend on the level of output
The effect of advertising is to increases consumers
willingness to pay for that product
There are no spillovers that benefit other firms (usually)
All consumers in the market are affected
The opposing side of the debate says:
If capital markets are efficient, a new entrant will
just borrow the money necessary to do his own (possibly higher) level of advertising.
Both sides have a point: perhaps it depends on the
market. (i.e., pepsi and coke vs. kitchen appliances)
69
70
71
72
73
Often vertical restraints used by firms in verticallyseparated markets are grouped into 5 classes:
Exclusive Territories: a dealer/ distributor/ retailer is
assigned a (usually geographic) territory by the manufacturer/ upstream firm and given monopoly rights to
sell in that area.
Full-line forcing: a dealer is committed to sell all varieties of a manufacturers products rather than a limited
selection. (the upstream firm ties all products when selling to the downstream firm).
74
75
p=aQ
(ie. Im keeping things super simple to show you
flavor fast)
Suppose we have a monopolistic manufacturer and
we have given exclusive rights to a dealer to sell the
product of the manufacturer, so both the upstream
and downstream firms are monopolistic. The downstream firm has marginal cost of selling the product
of d which is equal to the wholesale cost of purchasing the product from the manufacturer, and
the manufacturer has marginal cost of producing
the good equal to c.
76
d = p(Q)Q dQ = (a Q)Q dQ
F.O.C.:
d
= 0 = a 2Q d
Q
ad
Q =
2
a+d
p =
2
(a d)2
d =
4
77
m = (d c)Q = (d c)
ad
2
F.O.C.:
m
= 0 = a 2d + c
d
a+c
d =
2
(a c)2
=
8
ac
Q =
4
3a + c
p =
4
(a c)2
d =
16
78
Results:
1. The manufacturer earns a higher profit than the
dealer
2. The manufacturer could earn a higher profit if
he does the selling himself. Total industry profit
in this case is lower than the vertically integrated
profit. Shown here:
V I
(a c)2
3(a c)2
=
> (d + m ) =
4
16
79
Pr
Pw
Z
BJ
BJZZ
BJ Z
B J Z
Z
B J
Z
B J
Z
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
J
Z
B
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
Z
J
B
Z
B
J
Z
J
B
Z
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z MC
Z
B
J
Z
B
J
Z
J
B
Z
Z
B
J
Z
J
B
Z
J
B
Z
JJ
Z
BB
Z
Dr
M Rr = Dw
M Rw
80
81
82
p=
AQ
83
Why?
Firms compete in price, and they sell a homogeneous product. What does p equal in this case??
84
p
Q = (A1 + A2 ) pf
Assume that quantity demanded is split evenly between the two retailers. The only strategic variable
for the retailers is A. Thus, writing profits as a
function of A and finding the F.O.C. yields:
p
i =
(Ai + Aj ) pf f
(p d) Ai
2
85
F.O.C.:
pf d
i
= p
0=
1
Ai
4 (Ai + Aj )
Note that we can only identify the sum of A1 + A2
and not A1 and A2 individually. But the idea is
that retailers will compete on promotion now. As
long as pf > d then at least one retailer has an
incentive to advertise, and the total dollars spent
on ads increases with the markup.
86
87
Legal Issues
There are a lot of ambiguities in legal treatment
of vertical contracts.
Until 1970s,
RPM and E. Territories were per se illegal under Sherman Act.
But many states passed fair trade laws that were
interpreted to cover some of these cases.
Thus, although price fixing remains per se illegal,
its not always applied in vertical settings b/c it
conflicts with freetrade notions between mfgs and
their distributors.
Non-price issues have been generally accepted to
be ok by the courts
Exclusive territories
Refusal to deal
. . . Foreclosure?
88