1.

1

. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .1 N .
N = {0,1, 2,3,} .
.

,
. .
,
, . Z. ,
Z = { , 3, 2, 1,0,1, 2,3,} . ,
.
,
, . ,
.

. ,

2
6
1
, = 1 +
3
5
5

6
. Q.
5

, Q = { | , Z, 0} .
,
.

.
, , ,
.
1

,
.

.
.
.
, , 1.
.
, .
-4

-3

-2

-1

,
=. 2. (
) 3.
.

. .
.

7
, :
4

7
4

, , 4 .

1
7
1 . .
4
4

: ,
.
, .

2,

2, .
,

 1.
() .

, .

2=

2 = 2 2 . ().
, (
;) o . = 2 , .

2 2 = 2 ,
2 .

2=

2=

. ,

.
.
, ()
, .
.

.
, .
, .
,
, .

2 =1,4142135623730950488016887242097......

. .

, . ,
0,23809523809523809523809523809524........,

5

21

 . , ,
,
. R.

.
.

2 , .

x 2 2 = x 2 + 0 x 2 , .
. , ;
,
. Joseph Liouville,
. , 0,110001000000000000000001......,
1=1!, 2=2! = 1 2 , 6=3! = 1 2 3 ,
24=4! = 1 2 3 4 ..., . 1882 Karl
Lindemann = 3,1415926535897932384626433832795.....,
, .
! , ,

.
19 , Georg Cantor,
, ,
!
,
.
:

1.2

.
() .
1.2.1

:
i) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), a, b, c
ii) a + b = b + a, a, b

iii) 0
a + 0 = a, a

iv) a, a a,
a + ( a) = 0 .
v) (ab)c = a(bc), a, b, c
vi) ab = ba, a, b

vii) 1
a 1 = a, a

viii) a, a 1
a, aa 1 = 1 .
ix) (a + b)c = ac + bc, a, b, c

.( ).

.
.

.
. ,
, ,
, .
.
1.2.2
1. 0 () 1 () (iii) (vii)

: .

0 a + = a , a R .
a = 0 0 + = 0 . 0 + = + 0
, (iii) 1.2.1. 0 = , . 0
.
.
.
2.

.
: a a a, :

a = a + 0 = a + ( a + a) = (a + a ) + a = 0 + a = a .
(iii)

(i)

.
3. : (i) (a + b) = ( a) + (b) , a, b R , (ii) a 0 = 0 , a R
(iii) ( a )b = a (b) = ab , a, b R .
: (i) (a + b) + (( a ) + (b)) = (a + b) + ((b) + ( a )) = ((a + b) + (b)) + ( a ) =

= (a + (b + (b))) + ( a) = (a + 0) + ( a) = a + ( a) = 0 . ( a) + (b) = (a + b) .
(ii)

a 0 = a (0 + 0) = a 0 + a 0 .
(ix)

a 0 = a 0 + a 0 a 0 .
a 0 = a 0 + a 0 a 0 + ( a 0) = ( a 0 + a 0) + ( a 0) 0 = a 0 + (a 0 + ( a 0))
0 = a0 + 0 0 = a0

(iii) ab + ( a )b = (a + ( a))b = 0 b = 0 . (a)b = ab .

, ab + a( b) = a (b + (b)) = a 0 = 0 . a(b) = ab .
4. ab = 0 , a = 0 b = 0 .
: a 0 . a , a 1 .

, ab = 0 a 1 (ab) = a 1 0 (a 1a)b = 0 1 b = 0 b = 0 .

. ,
n , .

. :

5. x 2 3x + 2 = 0 .
: : x 2 3 x + 2 = x 2 2 x x + 2 = x( x 2) ( x 2) = ( x 2)( x 1) .

( x 2)( x 1) = 0 . x 2 x 1 ,
. x 2 = 0 x 1 = 0 , x = 2 x = 1 .

.

1.3 -

. (ix)
1.2.1. , (a + b) 2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab
: (a + b) 2 = (a + b)(a + b) = (a + b)a + (a + b)b = aa + ba + ab + bb =

= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 .
.
1) (a + b) 2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab b b,
2) (a b) 2 = a 2 + b 2 2ab .
3) (a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b3 , b b,
4) (a b)3 = a 3 3a 2b + 3ab 2 b3 .
5) a 2 b 2 = (a b)(a + b) ( ).
6) a 3 b3 = (a b)(a 2 + ab + b 2 ) .
7) a 3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2 ab + b 2 ) .

H 1) .
1.3.1

a1 , a2 ,, an n ,
(a1 + a2 +

+ an ) 2 = a12 + a22 +

+ an2 + 2 (ai a j ),

i < j

, (a1 + a2 + a3 ) 2 = a12 + a22 + a32 + 2a1a2 + 2a2 a3 + 2a1a3 .

: (a1 + a2 +

+ an ) 2 = (a1 + a2 +

+ an )(a1 + a2 +

+ an ) .

(a1 + a2 +

+ an ) 2 = a12 + a22 +

+ an2 + (ai a j ),

i j
ai a j . ai
a j , a j
ai . , 2.

. , : ( a1 + a2 +

+ an ) 2 = a12 + a22 +

+ an2 + 2

1 i < j n

ai a j .

H 6) :
1.3.2

n , :
a n b n = (a b)( a n -1 + a n-2b + a n -3b 2 +

+ a 2b n -3 + ab n -2 + b n -1 )

, a 4 b 4 = (a b)( a 3 + a 2b + ab 2 + b3 ) , a 5 b5 = (a b)(a 4 + a 3b + a 2b 2 + ab3 + b 4 ) .

: (a b)(a n -1 + a n -2 b +

b(a n -1 + a n -2b +
a n -2b 2

+ ab n -2 + b n -1 ) = a (a n-1 + a n -2b +

+ ab n -2 + b n -1 ) = a n + a n 1b +

+ ab n -2 + b n -1 )

+ a 2 b n-2 + ab n -1 a n -1b

ab n 1 b n = a n b n .

a = 1 , (1 b)(1 + b + b 2 +
: 1 + b + b 2 +

+ b n -1 =

+ b n -2 + b n -1 ) = 1 b n , b 1

1 bn
.
1 b

7) , n. :
1.3.3

n , :
a 2 n +1 + b 2 n +1 = (a + b)(a 2 n a 2 n -1b + a 2 n -2b 2

+ a 2 b 2 n -2 ab 2 n -1 + b 2 n ) .

(a + b)(a 2 n a 2 n 1b +
+b(a 2 n a 2 n 1b +

ab 2 n -1 + b 2 n ) = a (a 2 n a 2 n 1b +

ab 2 n -1 + b 2 n ) +

ab 2 n 1 + b 2 n ) = a 2 n +1 a 2 n b + a 2 n 1b 2

+ a 2 n b a 2 n 1b 2 + a 2 n 1b3

a 2b 2 n 1 + ab 2 n +

ab 2 n + b 2 n +1 = a 2 n +1 + b 2 n +1 .

a n + b n n .

 . , a 6 + b 6 = (a 2 )3 + (b 2 )3 = (a 2 + b 2 )((a 2 ) 2 a 2b 2 + (b 2 ) 2 ) =
= (a 2 + b 2 )(a 4 a 2b 2 + b 4 ) .

Euler:
1.3.4

:
a 3 + b3 + c 3 3abc = (a + b + c)(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab bc ca) =
1
= (a + b + c)((a b) 2 + (b c) 2 + (c a) 2 )
2
: a 3 + b3 + c 3 3abc = a 3 + b3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + c 3 3abc 3a 2b 3ab 2 =

= (a + b)3 + c 3 3abc 3a 2 b 3ab 2 = (a + b)3 + c 3 + 3(a + b) 2 c + 3(a + b)c 2

3abc 3a 2b 3ab 2 3(a + b) 2 c 3(a + b)c 2 = (a + b + c)3 3abc 3a 2b 3ab 2

3(a + b) 2 c 3(a + b)c 2 = (a + b + c)3 3ab(a + b + c) 3(a + b)c(a + b + c) =

= (a + b + c)((a + b + c) 2 3ab 3( a + b)c) = (a + b + c)(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + 2ab + 2bc +
+2ca 3ab 3ac 3bc) = (a + b + c)(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab bc ac)
a 3 + b3 + c 3 3abc
1
a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab bc ac = (( a b) 2 + (b c) 2 + (c a) 2 ) .
2

: (a b) 2 + (b c) 2 + (c a ) 2 = a 2 + b 2 2ab + b 2 + c 2 2bc + c 2 + a 2 2ca =

2a 2 + 2b 2 + 2c 2 2ab 2bc 2ca = 2(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab bc ca) .
1
a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab bc ac = (( a b) 2 + (b c) 2 + (c a) 2 ) .
2
1.3.5 ( Lagrange)

:
(a + a +
2
1

2
2

+ a )(b + b +
2
n

2
1

2
2

: (a12 + a22 +

+ b ) (a1b1 + a2b2 +
2
n

+ an2 )(b12 + b22 +

+ an bn ) =
2

1 i < j n

ai
aj

bi
bj

+ bn2 )

ai2bi2 , ai2b 2j i j .

(a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn ) 2 ai2bi2 ,

,
2ai bi a j b j , i < j .
(i, j ) , i < j : + ai2b 2j , + a 2j bi2
2ai bi a j b j .

 a b + a b 2ai bi a j b j = ( ai b j a j bi ) =
2 2
i j

2 2
j i

ai

bi

aj

bj

, (a + a )(b + b ) (a1b1 + a2b2 ) =

2
1

2
2

2
1

2
2

a1

b1

a2

b2

a
(a + a + a )(b + b + b ) ( a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 ) = 1
a2
2
1

2
2

2
3

2
1

2
2

2
3

= (a1b2 a2b1 ) 2 ,

a
b1
+ 1
a3
b2

b1
a
+ 2
b3
a3

b2
=
b3

= (a1b2 a2 b1 ) 2 + ( a1b3 a3b1 ) 2 + (a2 b3 a3b2 ) 2 .

1.3.1
1. :
(i) x m y m + x m 1 y m +1 x m +1 y m 1 , m n .
(ii) ax 2 + bx 2 + a + b + ax + bx .
(iii) x 2 y 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) + ab( x 4 + y 4 ) .
(iv) (m 2 x + n 2 y ) 2 + (n 2 x m 2 y ) 2 .
: (i) x m y m + x m 1 y m +1 x m +1 y m 1 = x m 1 y m 1 xy + x m 1 y m 1 y 2 x m 1 y m 1 x 2 =

= x m 1 y m 1 ( xy + y 2 x 2 ) .
(ii) ax 2 + bx 2 + a + b + ax + bx = a( x 2 + x + 1) + b( x 2 + x + 1) = ( x 2 + x + 1)(a + b) .
(iii) x 2 y 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) + ab( x 4 + y 4 ) = a 2 x 2 y 2 + b 2 x 2 y 2 + abx 4 + aby 4 =
= ay 2 (ax 2 + by 2 ) + bx 2 (ax 2 + by 2 ) = (ax 2 + by 2 )(ay 2 + bx 2 ) .

(iv) (m 2 x + n 2 y ) 2 + (n 2 x m 2 y ) 2 = m 4 x 2 + n 4 y 2 + 2m 2 xn 2 y + n 4 x 2 + m 4 y 2 2n 2 xm 2 y =

= m 4 x 2 + n 4 y 2 + n 4 x 2 + m 4 y 2 = x 2 (m 4 + n 4 ) + y 2 (m 4 + n 4 ) = (m 4 + n 4 )( x 2 + y 2 ) .
.
2. :
(i) 144 x 2 y 2 121a 2b 2 , (ii) x 2 (a b) 2 , (iii) (ax + by ) 2 1 ,
(iv) ( x 2 + xy + y 2 ) 2 ( x 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 .
: (i) 144 x 2 y 2 121a 2b 2 = (12 xy ) 2 (11ab) 2 = (12 xy + 11ab)(12 xy 11ab) .
(ii) x 2 (a b) 2 = ( x + a b)( x a + b) .
(iii) (ax + by ) 2 1 = (ax + by + 1)(ax + by 1) .
(iv) ( x 2 + xy + y 2 ) 2 ( x 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 = ( x 2 + xy + y 2 + x 2 xy + y 2 ) ( x 2 + xy + y 2

10

 x 2 + xy y 2 ) = 4( x 2 + y 2 ) xy .

.
3. :
(i) 64 x 2 y 4 160 x 2 y 2 + 100 x 2 , (ii) 169 x 2 y 2 z 2 286 xy 2 z 2 + 121 y 2 z 2 ,
(iii) 4 y 2 2 2 + 361x 2 y 2 2 2 76 xy 2 2 , (iv) 2 2 2 2 ,
(v) 2 2 + 2 4 2 + 12 9 2 , (vi) 9 x 2 6 x + 2 2
: (i) 64 x 2 y 4 160 x 2 y 2 + 100 x 2 = 4 x 2 (16 y 4 40 y 2 + 25) = 4 x 2 ((4 y 2 ) 2 2 4 y 2 5 + 52 ) =
= 4 x 2 (4 y 2 5) 2 .

(ii) 169 x 2 y 2 z 2 286 xy 2 z 2 + 121y 2 z 2 = y 2 z 2 (132 x 2 2 13x 11 + 112 ) = y 2 z 2 (13x 11) 2 .

(iii) 4 y 2 2 2 + 361x 2 y 2 2 2 76 xy 2 2 = y 2 2 (22 2 + 192 x 2 2 2 2 19 x) =

= y 2 2 (2 19 x) 2 .
(iv) 2 2 2 2 = 2 ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) = 2 ( + ) 2 = ( + + )( ) .
(v) 2 2 + 2 4 2 + 12 9 2 = ( ) 2 (2 3 ) 2 = ( + 2 3 )(

2 + 3 ) .
(vi) 9 x 2 6 x + 2 2 = (3 x ) 2 2 = (3 x + )(3 x ) .

4. :
(i) x 2 + 4 x 21 , (ii) x 2 7 x + 12 2 , (iii) x 2 + 2 xy 3 y 2 .
: (i) x 2 + 4 x 21 = x 2 + 7 x 3x 21 = x( x + 7) 3( x + 7) = ( x + 7)( x 3) .
(ii) x 2 7 x + 12 2 = x 2 3 x 4 x + 12 2 = x( x 3 ) 4 ( x 3 ) = ( x 3 ) ( x 4 ) .
(iii) x 2 + 2 xy 3 y 2 = x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 4 y 2 = ( x + y ) 2 (2 y ) 2 = ( x + y + 2 y )( x + y 2 y ) =

= ( x + 3 y )( x y ) .

5. :
(i)

x2 + 4 x 5
x4 y4
(ii)
.
,
x 2 + 3 x 10
( x + y )( x3 y 3 )

: (i)

( x2 y 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 )
x4 y 4
( x 2 )2 ( y 2 )2
=
=
( x + y )( x3 y 3 ) ( x + y )( x y )( x 2 + xy + y 2 ) ( x + y )( x y ) ( x 2 + xy + y 2 )

x2 + y2
.
x 2 + xy + y 2

11

(ii)

( x + 5) ( x 1) x 1
x2 + 4 x 5
x2 + 5x x 5
x( x + 5) ( x + 5)
=
=
=
=
.
2
2
x + 3 x 10 x + 5 x 2 x 10 x( x + 5) 2( x + 5) ( x + 5) ( x 2) x 2

6.

(2 x 1)3 + ( x + y )3 + 8 y 3 = 6(2 x 1)( x + y ) y

x y.
: : (2 x 1)3 + ( x + y )3 + 8 y 3 = 6(2 x 1)( x + y ) y
(2 x 1)3 + ( x + y )3 + (2 y )3 3(2 x 1)( x + y )(2 y ) = 0 .

Euler
1
(2 x 1 + x + y + 2 y )((2 x 1 x y ) 2 + ( x + y 2 y ) 2 + (2 y 2 x + 1) 2 ) = 0
2
(3x + 3 y 1)(( x y 1) 2 + ( x y ) 2 + (2 y 2 x + 1) 2 ) = 0
3x + 3 y 1 = 0 ( x y 1) 2 + ( x y ) 2 + (2 y 2 x + 1) 2 = 0 .
1

3

3x + 3 y 1 = 0 x = y +
1

y + , y ,
3

yR .

( x y 1) 2 + ( x y ) 2 + (2 y 2 x + 1) 2 = 0
x y 1 = 0

(
x y = 0
2 y 2 x + 1 = 0

) 1 = 0 , .

y + 3 , y ,

yR .

1. :
2
3
2
1
1

(i) 2 x3 y 2 , (ii) ( 3 x 2 y 3 ) , (iii) ( 2 x 2 3 y 5 )( 2 x 2 + 3 y 5 ) , (iv) a 2 x ay 3 .

2
3

2. :
(i) 4 x 5 y 3 6 x 7 y 2 + 8 x3 y 4

(ii) 2a 5 6a 4 b + 2a 3b 2

(iii) ( x 1)( x 2 + 2) 2(1 x)( x 2 1) 4( x 1)

(iv) 6 x 2 + 3 2 x + 8 x + 4 3

(v) 5 x3 y + 10 xy 3 + 5 x 2 y 2 2 x 2 4 y 2 2 xy

(vi) 6 x 2 4ax 9bx + 6ab

(vii) ab( x 2 + y 2 ) + xy (a 2 + b 2 )

(viii) ax n +1 + ay m x + bx n +1 + by m x , m, n > 0

(ix) a 2 36b 2 c 4

(x) a 3b3 a 3 b3 + 1

12

(xi) x 2 + 10 x + 9

(xii) 6 x 2 + 17 x + 12

(xiii) y 2 + 4 xy 96 x 2

(xiv) x3 3 x + 2

(xv) a 2 x 2 + 2a 2 xy + a 2 y 2 (a + b) 2

(xvi) (a ab) 2 + (a ab) 4 (1 b) 4

(xvii) a 2 8ab 2ac + 16b 2 + 8bc

(xviii) ( x 2 + 9)(a 2 + 4) (ax + 6) 2

3. :
6 xy 3x 2
(i)
4 xy 2 2 x 2 y

(ii)

a3 + a 2
a3 + 1
x 2 y 5 xy
(v) 2
x y 4 xy 5 y

x3 8
x2 4
a 2 5a + 6
(vi) 2
a 6a + 9

(iii)

(vii)

(2 x + y ) 2
xy 2 4 x3

(iv)

x 2 4ax 21a 2
( x 2 + 3ax) 2

(viii)

x3 + y 3
x xy 2 y 2
2

4. :
(i)

x = a 3 + 3abc , y = b3 + 3abc , z = c 3 + 3abc a + b + c = 0 , x + y + z = 12abc

(ii)

3(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) = (a + b + c) 2 , a = b = c .

(iii) xyz 0 x +

1
1
1
= y + = z + , x = y = z xyz = 1 .
y
z
x

(iv) a b , b c b(a + c) = 2ac ,

(v)

2
1
1
=
+
.
b ba bc

2b = a + c 2c = b + d , abcd + (b a ) 4 .

1.4
< >.
.
:

1.4.1

, R +
:

i) x :
) x = 0 , ) x R + , ) x R + .

ii) x, y R + , x + y R + xy R + .

13

 R + . R = { x | x R + }
.
R
: R , R + {0}
.

. .

1.4.2

x, y R . x y
x > y , x y R + . y x.
y < x . , x > 0 x R + x < 0 x R .

(i) 1.4.1
) x = y , ) x > y , ) y > x
.

1.4.3
1. x > y y > z , x > z .
: x > y x y R + y > z y z R + . (ii) 1.4.1

x z = ( x y ) + ( y z ) R + . , x > z .

2. x > y z > w , x + z > y + w . (

).
: ( x + z ) ( y + w) = ( x y ) + ( z w) . x y R + ( x > y )

z w R + ( z > w ). (ii) 1.4.1

( x + z ) ( y + w) = ( x y ) + ( z w) R + x + z > y + w .

14

1.4.4

i) .
ii) .
: x > 0 y > 0 . (ii) 1.4.1 xy > 0 .

x < 0 y > 0 , x > 0 y > 0 . (ii) 1.4.1

xy = ( x) y > 0 . ( (i) ), xy < 0 . x > 0 y < 0

.
x < 0 y < 0 . x < 0 y > 0 , ,
xy = x( y ) < 0 . , xy > 0 .

1.4.5

x : x 2 > 0 . (
) 1 = 12 > 0 .
: , x .

1.4.6

x y x y x > y x = y .
, x y y x . x y x y 0 .

1.4.7

: (i) x x , x R , (ii) x y y x , x = y ,

(iii) x y y z , x z .
.

1.4.5 ( ) :
x 2 0 , x R .
, x12 + x22 +

+ xn2 0 , n- ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) .

x > 0 y 0 , x + y > 0 . ( y = 0 x + y = x > 0

y > 0 , (ii) 1.4.1).

15

1.4.8

a1 , a2 ,, an R . a12 + a22 +

+ an2 = 0 a1 = a2 =

= an = 0 .

+ an2 = 0 a1 = a2 =

= an = 0 .

, a1 0 , a12 > 0 . a22 +

+ an2 0 , a12 + a22 +

+ an2 > 0 ,

. a2 =

= an = 0 .

: a12 + a22 +

1.4.9

i) x 0 , x x 1 .
ii) .
: i) x x 1 , (ii) 1.4.4,

1 = xx 1 .
ii) a, b , ab > 0 . b 2 > 0 .
a
(i) (b 2 ) 1 > 0 . = (ab)(b 2 ) 1 > 0 .
b

1.4.10

i) a > 0 x > y , ax > ay

x y
> . ,
a a

,
.
ii) a < 0 x > y , ax < ay

x y
< . ,
a a

,
.
: i) x > y , x y > 0 . a x y .
x y x y
a( x y ) = ax ay
=

a
a a
x y
. , ax > ay > . (ii) .
a a

1.4.11

x, y , : x > y

1 1
<
,
x y

, ,
.

16

: x, y , xy > 0 .
x
y
1 1
, , x > y
>
> .
xy xy
y x

1.4.12

x 0 y 0 . n = 1, 2, : x n > y n x > y .
:
x n y n = ( x y )( x n 1 + x n 2 y +

+ xy n 2 + y n 1 ) .

x > y 0 . x > 0 , x n 1 > 0

1.4.8, x n 1 + x n 2 y +
x n y n = ( x y )( x n 1 + x n 2 y +

+ xy n 2 + y n 1 > 0 . x y > 0 ,

+ xy n 2 + y n 1 ) > 0 , x n > y n .

, x n > y n ( 0) . x n > 0 x 0 . x 0 ,
x > 0 . x n 1 + x n 2 y +
x y=

+ xy n 2 + y n 1 > 0 .

xn y n
> 0 , x > y .
x n 1 + x n 2 y + + xy n 2 + y n 1

1.4.13
1. a > 0 b > 1 , a(1 + b) > a b .
: a(1 + b) > a b a + ab > a b a(b + 1) > 0 , a > 0

b > 1 b + 1 > 0 .

2. a 2 + b 2 2ab , a, b R . ;
: a 2 + b 2 2ab a 2 + b 2 2ab 0 (a b) 2 0 , .

, a 2 + b 2 = 2ab (a b) 2 = 0 a = b .

3. : (i) a , a +
(ii) a , a +
: (i) a +

1
2.
a

1
2 .
a

1
2 ( a- 1.4.11)
a

a 2 + 1 2a (a 1) 2 0 .
1
(ii) a + 2 ( a- 1.4.11)
a
a 2 + 1 2a (a + 1) 2 0 .

17

4. a 2 ab + b 2 0 a 2 + ab + b 2 0 , a, b R .

;
1 2 1 2 1 2
1
a + b + (a + b 2 2ab) = [a 2 + b 2 + (a b) 2 ]
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
a 2 + ab + b 2 = a 2 + b 2 + (a 2 + b 2 + 2ab) = [a 2 + b 2 + (a + b) 2 ] .
2
2
2
2
1
[a 2 + b 2 + (a b) 2 ] 0 ,
2
1
.
2
1
, a 2 ab + b 2 = [a 2 + b 2 + (a b) 2 ] = 0 a = b = 0 ( 1.4.8).
2

: a 2 ab + b 2 =

, a 2 + ab +b 2 = 0 a = b = 0 .

5. Cauchy-Schwarz:
( x12 + x22 +

+ xn2 )( y12 + y22 +

+ yn2 ) ( x1 y1 + x2 y2 +

+ xn yn ) 2 ,

x1 , x2 ,, xn , y1 , y2 ,, yn R .
: Lagrange ( 1.3.5),

( x12 + x22 +

+ xn2 )( y12 + y22 +

+ yn2 ) ( x1 y1 + x2 y2 +

+ xn yn ) 2 =
i< j

xi

yi

xj

yj

0 , .

6. a + b 1 , a 4 + b 4

1
.
8

: (a + b) 2 1 a 2 + b 2 + 2ab 1

(a b) 2 0 a 2 + b 2 2ab 0 . ,
1
2a 2 + 2b 2 1 a 2 + b 2 .
2
1 1
1
, (a 2 + b 2 ) 2 2 = a 4 + b 4 + 2a 2b 2
2
4
4
(a 2 b 2 ) 2 0 a 4 + b 4 2a 2 b 2 0 . ,
1
1
2a 4 + 2b 4 a 4 + b 4 .
4
8

7. a, b a + b = 1 ,
1
1 1
(i) ab (ii) 1 + 1 + 9 .
4
a b
: (i) (a + b) 2 = 1 a 2 + b 2 + 2ab = 1 a 2 + b 2 2ab = 1 4ab

18

1
.
4
1 1 1
a+b 1
2
1
1 1
(ii) 1 + 1 + 9 1 + + +
9
+
8
8 ab ,
a
+
b
=
1
a b ab
ab
ab
ab
4
a b
1 4ab = (a b) 2 0 . , 1 4ab ab

8. 2a 4 + 1 2a 3 + a 2 , a R .
: 2a 4 + 1 2a 3 + a 2 2a 4 2a 3 a 2 + 1 0 2a 3 (a 1) (a 1)(a + 1) 0
(a 1)(2a 3 a 1) 0 (a 1)(a 3 a + a 3 1) 0
(a 1)(a(a 2 1) + (a 1)( a 2 + a + 1)) 0 ( a 1)(a( a 1)(a + 1) + (a 1)(a 2 + a + 1)) 0
(a 1) 2 (a (a + 1) + a 2 + a + 1) 0 (a 1) 2 (2a 2 + 2a + 1) 0 (a 1) 2 (a 2 + ( a + 1) 2 ) 0

9. a > 2 . a 3 a 2 + a + 2 .
: a 3 a 2 a 2 = a 3 2a 2 + a 2 a 2 = a 2 (a 2) + a 2 2a + a 2 =
= a 2 (a 2) + a (a 2) + a 2 = (a 2)( a 2 + a + 1) . a 2 > 0 . ,

4 a 2 + a + 1 > 0 . a 3 > a 2 + a + 2 .

10. a 2 (1 + b 2 ) + b 2 (1 + c 2 ) + c 2 (1 + a 2 ) 6abc .
: a 2 (1 + b 2 ) + b 2 (1 + c 2 ) + c 2 (1 + a 2 ) 6abc a 2 + a 2b 2 + b 2 + b 2 c 2 + c 2 +
+ c 2 a 2 6abc a 2 + a 2b 2 + b 2 + b 2 c 2 + c 2 + c 2 a 2 6abc .

a 2 + b 2 c 2 2abc = (a bc) 2 0 a 2 + b 2 c 2 2abc . , b 2 + c 2 a 2 2abc

c 2 + a 2b 2 2abc .
c 2 + a 2b 2 2abc

a 2 + b 2 c 2 2abc ,

b 2 + c 2 a 2 2abc

a 2 + a 2b2 + b2 + b2 c 2 + c 2 +

+ c 2 a 2 6abc .

3
1
1
1
<
+
+
.
a+b+c a+b b+c c+a
1
1
>
: a + b < a + b + c
( 1.4.11).
a+b a+b+c
1
1
1
1
>

>
.

b+c a+b+c
c+a a+b+c
11. a, b, c > 0 ,

12. : (i)

2 x + 1 x 3x 1
1
1
>
+ 2 (ii)

0.
3
6
2
3x + 2 x + 1

19

2 x + 1 x 3x 1
2x + 1
3x 1
>
+ 2 6
x > 6
+ 12
6>0
3
6
2
3
2
2(2 x + 1) x > 3(3x 1) + 12 4 x + 2 x > 9 x 3 + 12 3 x 9 x > 2 + 9

: (i)

7
6 x > 7 x < .
6 < 0
6
-7/6

x< -7/6

2
x + 1 0 x 1 .
3
x + 1 3x 2
1
1

0
0
:
3x + 2 x + 1
(3 x + 2)( x + 1)
2x + 1
2x + 1
1
2

0
0 . , 1
(3 x + 2)( x + 1)
(3 x + 2)( x + 1)
2
3

(ii) 3 x + 2 0 x

2 x + 1 , 3x + 2 x + 1 ,
: ( : ).
x

-2/3

-1

-1/2

2x+1

3x+2

x+1

2
,
3
2x + 1

.
(3x + 2)( x + 1)
2
1
x < 1 < x .
3
2
x = 1 x =

-1

-2/3

-1/2

2x + 1

(3x + 2)( x + 1) 0
13. :
12 x + 7 < 0
x + 2
: .
2
1
x x < 1 < x .
3
2

20

 12 x + 7 x + 2
. :
x

-2

-7/12
+

12x+7

x+2

12x+7
x+2

2 < x <

7
.
12

:
-2

-1

-2/3 -7/12 -1/2

12 x + 7
< 0 . (
x+2

2x + 1
0 . .
(3x + 2)( x + 1)
2
7
: 2 < x < 1 < x < .
3
12

1. :
a+b
a
b
<
+
(i) a, b > 0 ,
.
1+ a + b 1+ a 1+ b
(ii) 3( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ( x + y + z ) 2 , x, y, z R .
(iii) 0 < a < 1 , 1 a 3 > 3a (1 a) .
(iv) a, b > 0 a b , a 4 + b5 a 4 b ab 4 > 0 .
1
(v) a + b + c = 1 , a 2 + b 2 + c 2 .
3
2. 0 < a < b , A = b3 a 3 B = (b a )3 .
3. x : (i)

x+5 x3 x

>
4
6
3

(ii) ( x + 1) 2 x 1 2 .

. , ,
. :

21

1.4.14

a, b R . :

i) (a, b) = {x R | a < x < b} .

a

ii) [a, b) = {x R | a x < b} .

iii) (a, b] = {x R | a < x b} .

a

iv) [a, b] = {x R | a x b} .

v) (a, + ) = {x R | a < x} .
a

vi) [a, + ) = {x R | a x} .
a

vii) (, b) = {x R | x < b} .
b

viii) (, b] = {x R | x b} .
b

a = b , i), ii) iii)

. [a, a] {a} .
a > b , i), ii), iii) iv)
.

22


[k , k + 1) , k Z . ,
x x [k , k + 1) ,
k x < k +1.

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

( ,
, , ).

1.4.15

k x [ x] , [ x]

[ x] x < [ x] + 1 .

, ,
. , [2,34]=2, []=[3,14159....]=3 ...
. ,
1. , [7,593] = 8 , [3,76666...] = 4 ...

1.4.16
1. k [ x + k ] = [ x] + k , x R .
: [ x] x < [ x] + 1 [ x] + k x + k < ([ x] + k ) + 1 .

[ x] + k x + k ,
[ x + k ] = = [ x] + k .
a
2. a, b ,
b

a : b .
: a : b () ()
a

a = b + , 0 < b . , = + .
b
b

23


a


, = + . , 0 < 1 = 0 .
b
b
b
b
a
b = .

0,
1. : (i) x [ x] [0, 1) , (ii) [ x] + [ x] =
1,
0,
x [ x]
(iii) = , n = 1, 2, , (iv) [2 x] 2[ x] =
n n
1,

x Z
,
x Z
x [ x] <
x [ x]

1
2
1
2

(v) [2 x] + [2 y ] [ x] + [ x + y ] + [ y ] , x, y R .

1.5

,
.

-5

0
5

2
2

, :

1.5.1

x x 0,
x R . | x |=
x x < 0
| x | x.

.
| x | ( ) x x . (
x = 0 ).

1.5.2

(i) | x | 0 , x R . , | x | = 0 x = 0
(ii) | x |=| x | , x R .

24

(iii) | x |2 = x 2 , x R .
(iv) | xy |=| x || y | , x, y R .
(v)

x | x|
, x, y R y 0 .
=
y | y|

(vi) x 2 = y 2 | x |=| y | x = y .
: (i) (ii) 1.4.1.
(iii) 1.5.1 | x |= x | x |= x . , | x |2 = ( x) 2 =

= x2 .
(iv) a, b ,

a 2 = b 2 a = b . [ " " . a > b , 1.4.13

a 2 > b 2 , . a < b , 1.4.13 a 2 < b 2 ,

]. | xy | | x || y | .
, | xy |2 = ( xy ) 2 = x 2 y 2 = | x |2 | y |2 = (| x || y |) 2 | xy |=| x || y | .
(iii)

(iii)

x
x
x
| x| | x|
x | x|
.
= = 2 =
=
=

y | y|
y (iii) y
y (iii) | y |2 | y |
(vi) x 2 = y 2 | x |2 =| y |2 | x |=| y | . , x 2 = y 2 x 2 y 2 = 0 ( x y )( x + y ) = 0
2

(v)

(ii)

x = y x = y .

1.5.2 ( )

x, y R : | x | | y | | x + y || x | + | y | .
: | x + y || x | + | y || x + y |2 (| x | + | y |) 2 ( x + y ) 2 | x |2 + | y |2 +

+2 | x || y | x 2 + y 2 + 2 xy x 2 + y 2 + 2 | xy | xy | xy | .

.
, | x | | y |=| x + y y | | y || x + y | + | y | | y || x + y | , | y |=| y | .
, | y | | x |=| x + y x | | x || x + y | + | x | | x || x + y | .
| x + y |
| x | | y | | y | | x | ,
| x|| y| .

25

: ,

A = {a1 , a2 ,, an } , max A

min A .

1.5.3

: (i) max{x, y} =

x + y+ | x y |
x + y | x y |
(ii) min{x, y} =
.
2
2

: (i) x y . max{x, y} = x . , x y 0 | x y |= x y .
x + y+ | x y | x + y + x y
x + y+ | x y |

=
= x , max{x, y} =
,
2
2
2

.
x < y . max{x, y} = y . , x y < 0 | x y |= y x .
x + y+ | x y | x + y + y x
x + y+ | x y |
,

=
= y , max{x, y} =
2
2
2
.
(ii) x y . min{x, y} = y . ,

x + y | x y | x + y ( x y)
=
= y ,
2
2

x + y | x y |
.
2
x + y | x y | x + y ( y x)
x < y . min{x, y} = x . ,
=
= x ,
2
2
x + y | x y |
min{x, y} =
.
2

min{x, y} =

1.5.4

x, y R . x y
.

1.5.3
x + y+ | x y | x + y | x y |
x y max{x, y} min{x, y} =

= | x y|.
2
2

x
|x-y|

26

1.5.5

> 0 . :
(i) | x |< < x <
(ii) | x |> x > x < .
: (i) | x |< | x |2 < 2 x 2 < 2 0 < 2 x 2 0 < ( x)( + x) .

x + x .
x < 0
< x

< < 0 , .
,
+ x < 0
x <
x > 0
< x < .

+ x > 0

|x|

-
x

(ii) | x |> | x |2 > 2 x 2 > 2 0 < x 2 2 0 < ( x )( x + ) .

x x + .
.
, x .
x > .

|x|

, x + .
x < .

|x|
0

1.5.6
1. : (i) | x 4 |=| 3x 2 | (ii)

27

2 | x + 1| 3 | x + 1| 1
+
=| x + 1| .
3
2


x = 1
x 4 = 3x 2

: (i) | x 4 |=| 3 x 2 |

x 4 = 3 x + 2

x =
2

(ii) | x + 1| .
2 | x + 1| 3 | x + 1| 1
:
+
=| x + 1| 4 | x + 1| +9 | x + 1| 3 = 6 | x + 1| 7 | x + 1|= 3
3
2
3
4

x + 1 = 7
x = 7

3
| x + 1|=

3
10
x + 1 =
x =
7
7

2. | x | 1 , | y | 5 | z | 4 ,

A = 2 x + 3 y + 5 z .
:

| x | 1 1 x 1 . ,

5 y 5

4 z 4 . ,

2 2 x 2 , 15 3 y 15 20 5 z 20 .
2 15 20 A = 2 x + 3 y + 5 z 2 + 15 + 20 37 A 37 .
[37, 37] .
3 | x 2 | 1 2 | x 2 | +2
5 | x | 3 3 | x | +2

0.
<
(ii)
2
3
7
5
3 | x 2 | 1 2 | x 2 | +2
: (i)
<
9 | x 2 | 3 < 4 | x 2 | +4 5 | x 2 |< 7
2
3
7
7
7
3
17
3 17
| x 2 |< < x 2 < < x <
x , .
5
5
5
5
5
5 5
x 8
5 | x | 3 3 | x | +2

(ii)

0 25 | x | 15 21| x | 17 0 4 | x | 32 | x | 8
7
5
x 8

3. : (i)

4.

x+4
= 2 . | x | .
x +1

: x 1 . :
x+4
x +1 = 2
x + 4 = 2x + 2
x = 2

x+4

=2

| x |= 2 .
x +1
x+4
x + 4 = 2 x 2 x = 2

= 2
x +1

28

5. : (i) | a + b |>| a b | ab > 0 (ii) | a + b |<| a b | ab < 0 .

: (i) | a + b |>| a b || a + b |2 >| a b |2 ( a + b) 2 > (a b) 2

a 2 + b 2 + 2ab > a 2 + b 2 2ab 4ab > 0 ab > 0 . (ii) .

6. | a |> 1 b =

a
b
, a =
.
1 | a |
1 | b |

: a b ab =

a2
< 0 ( 1 | a |< 0
1 | a |

|a|
1
1 | a | 1 | a || a | ( | a |> 1 ).
1 | a |
2
a
|a|
| b |=
| ab | | b |=| a || ab | | a |=| b || a | (| b | 1) =| b |
, b =
1 | a |
| a | 1
|b|
|b|
| a |=
. | a |=
| b |> 1 ( | a |> 0 | b |> 0 )
|b| 1
| b | 1
| b | 1
b
b
=
.
, a b , a =
| b | 1 1 | b |
a 2 > 0 ). , | b |=

7. a 0 | x a |<

|a|
|a|
, | x |>
.
2
2
|x-a|

|x|

: | a | | x ||| a | | x ||

| x |>| a |

|a|/2

1.5.2

| a x |<

|a|
|a|
. | a | | x |<
2
2

|a| |a|
=
.
2
2

1. | a |< 1 | b |< 1 ,

a+b
<1.
1 + ab

2. | a + b + c | + | a b + c | + | a + b + c || a | + | b | + | c | .
3. ab 0 ,

a | b | +b | a |
| a || b |

= 2 ab > 0 .

4. b(1+ | a |) = 1+ | a | + a , | b 1|< 1 a(1 | b 1|) = b 1 .

2 | x 2 | +3 | x 2 | 1+ | x 2 |

5
2
4
| x + 1| 1 1 | x + 1| | x + 1|
+
<
(ii)
.
3
2
12

5. : (i)

29

1.6
:

1.6.1

a 0 n . x
: x n = a .
x n- a

a.

: n-

5.
.
x1 x2 x1n = x2n = a . x1 < x2 . ,
1.4.13 x1n < x2n , a < a , .

, n ,
a . ( n = 2 )

a = a .

1.6.2

:
(i) n 1 = 1 , n = 1, 2,
n

(ii)

an = a =

( a ) , a 0 .
n

(iii)

ab = n a n b , a, b 0 .

(iv)

a na
=
, a 0 b > 0 .
b nb

(v)

n m

(vi)

nr

ak =

( a ) , k.
n

a = nm a , a 0 .

a mr = n a m , a 0 .

: (i) (ii) n- . (iii)

anb

) =( a) ( b)
n

an b

= a b . n- a b

a n b = n ab .

30

( a)
n

( )
n

k
a =

( )

n
a = ak

na
a
(iv) n 0 . , n =
b
b

a

b

n m

(v)

a mr = n a m

nr

a mr

( a)
( b)
n

a
. n-
b

a n a
.
=
b
b

( ) ( )

a 0 . ,

n m

nm- a
nr

a k ,

= n ak .
n

(vi)

) ( )
nr

am

nr

n m

nm

n m

( a)
m

= a .

a = nm a .

a mr =

( )
n

am

mr
m
a = a

( )

a mr = a mr ,

: 1. . ,

a n b = n a n b , a, b 0 . ,
, . , a n b = n a n n b = n a n b .
2. a ,
n

a n = a . ..

(2) 4 = 2 ,

(2) 4 = 4 16 = 4 24 = 2 =| 2 | , , a

a n =| a | . ,

a 2 =| a | .

1.6.3
1. .

:
(a1 + b1 ) 2 + (a2 + b2 ) 2 +

+ ( an + bn ) 2 a12 + a22 +

+ an2 + b12 + b22 +

+ bn2 ,

a1 , a2 ,, an , b1 , b2 ,, bn R .
: n = 1 ,

(a1 + b1 ) 2 a12 + b12 | a1 + b1 || a1 | + | b1 |

1.5.2.
:

(a1 + b1 ) 2 + (a2 + b2 ) 2 +
(a1 + b1 ) 2 + (a2 + b2 ) 2 +

+ (an + bn ) 2 a12 + a22 +

+ (an + bn ) 2

a12 + a22 +

31

+ an2 + b12 + b22 +

+ an2 + b12 + b22 +

+ bn2
+ bn2

 (a12 + b12 + 2a1b1 ) + ( a22 + b22 + 2a2b2 ) +

a12 + a22 +

+ an2 + b12 + b22 +

+ b12 + b22 +

+ bn2 + 2 a12 + a22 +

+ an2 + b12 + b22 +

a12 + a22 +

+ an2 b12 + b22 +

+ bn2 + 2(a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ bn2 + 2 a12 + a22 +

a1b1 + a2 b2 +

+ (an2 + bn2 + 2an bn )

+ an2 b12 + b22 +

+ an bn a12 + a22 +

+ bn2

+ an bn ) a12 + a22 +

+ an2 +

+ bn2

+ an2 b12 + b22 +

+ bn2

, Cauchy-Schwarz,
a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn | a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn | a12 + a22 +

+ an2 b12 + b22 +

+ bn2 .

n = 2 ,

(a1 + b1 ) 2 + (a2 + b2 ) 2 a12 + a22 + b12 + b22 .

a2 +b2

b2

a2

b1 a1

a1 +b1

OA OB (a1 , a2 ) (b1 , b2 )
. O (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ) .
a12 + a22 ,

OA , OB O

b12 + b22

(a1 + b1 ) 2 + ( a2 + b2 ) 2

. || |||| || + || ||=|| || + || || ,
(a1 + b1 ) 2 + (a2 + b2 ) 2 a12 + a22 + b12 + b22 .

44 8
3
16
.
2

2.

:
24

233

24

32

2
2

44 8
3
16
=
2
3 24

44 8
3
16
=
2

4
3

233
232
=
2

3 24

324

44 8
3
16
=
2

72

2
2

8
3

(22 ) 4 23
3

72
72

236

32

24
2

= 72

8
3

28 23
3

24
2

2
1
= 72 35 =
36
2
2

211

24
=
2

1
72

235

54a 3 3 24a 3 + 7 96a 3 .

3. :
:

54a 3 3 24a 3 + 7 96a 3 = 2 33 a 3 3 3 23 a 3 + 7 25 3a 3 =

= 32 6a 3 3 22 6a 3 + 7 24 6a 3 = 3 6a 3 6 6a 3 + 7 22 6a 3 =
= 3 6a 3 + 28 6a 3 = 25 6a 3

4. :
(i)

4 2 3 (ii)

2 11 110 .

4 2 3 = 3 +1 2 3 =

(i)

( 3)

+ 12 2 3 =

3 1

= 3 1 ,

3 1 > 0 .
(ii)

2 11 110 = 22 2 110 = 11 + 10 2 11 10 =

( 11 ) + ( 10 )
2

2 11 10 =

11 10

= 11 10 .

5. :
3
5
1
, (ii)
(iii) 3
.
(i)
2 3
3 +1
332
3
3 3
3 3
3
=
=
=
.
: (i)
2
23
2
2 3 2 3
(ii)

5
=
3 +1

1
(iii) 3
=
332

( )

3 1

)(

3 +1

) ( 3)

3 1

) = 5(

3 1
2

) = 5(

3 1
3 1

).

3 1
2

( 3) + 3 2 + ( 2)
9+ 6+ 4
=
=
3 + 3 2 + 2
3

2
3

2
(
) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3

9+36+34
=
3 2

=39+36+34.
13

13

2
3
+
< 1.
6.

5
5

2 3
: + = 1 .
5 5
13

13

13

2
3
2
3
< .

<
5
5
5
5

13
2
11
2
2
2
2
2
,
< < < 1 211 < 511 , 2 < 5 .
5
5
5
5
5

13

3
3
< .

5
5

33


. ,
, .

1.6.4
m
x =
m, n Z n > 0 . a x = n a m , a > 0 .
n

m

. () . x =
n
m m
= nm = nm .
x m, n Z n > 0 ,
n n
,

(a)
n

(a )

m n

= n a mn

a m

mn = mn

( )

a mn = n a m

= a m . n -

a m = n a m .

.
x
,
, x Z , x
1
,

ax = ax ,

x.

.

1.6.5

x y .
:
(i) a 0 = 1 , a > 0 .
(ii) a x + y = a x a y , a > 0 .
1
ax
(iii) a x y = y , a > 0 . a y = y .
a
a

( )

(iv) a x

= a xy , a > 0 .

(v) a x b x = ( ab) x , a, b > 0 .

x

(vi)

ax a
= , a, b > 0 .
bx b

34

: (i) . (ii) x =

m
s
y = , m, n, s, t Z n, t > 0 .
t
n

a x a y = am / nas / t = n am t as

a mt nt a ns = nt a mt a ns = nt a mt + ns = a ( mt + ns ) / nt =

nt

1.6.2 (vi)

= a m / n+ s / t = a x+ y .
.(ii)
a x am / n n am
=
=
t
a y as /t
as

nt

a mt

1.6.2 (vi) nt

a ns

(iii)

(a ) = (a )
x

m/n s /t

(a )

m/n s

a mt nt mt ns
= a
= a ( mt ns ) / nt = a m / n s / t = a x y .
a ns

= nt

( )
n

am

a ms = nt a ms = a ms / nt = a ( m / n )( s / t ) = a xy .

t n

(iv) a x b x = a m / n b m / n = n a m n b m = n a m b m = n (ab) m = (ab) m / n = (ab) x .

(v)

a x am / n
=
=
b x bm / n

n
n

am
bm

am n a
a
= =
m
b
b
b

m/n

a
= .
b

,
x n = a , a R n . , a = 0
. a 0 . :
(i) a > 0 . x n = a | x |n = a . | x |> 0 ,

n- a | x |= n a . x = n a .
:

(i) n=2r, . n a

) = ( a ) = ( a ) = ( a )
n

2r

2r

x = n a x = n a .
(i) n=2r+1, .

( a ) = ( a )
n

2 r +1

( a)
n

= a ,

2 r +1

( a)
n

= a

x = n a . x n = a ,
x = n a .
(ii) a < 0 . x n = a | x |n =| a | . | x |> 0 ,

n- | a | | x |= n | a | . x = n | a | .
:
(ii) n=2r, . x n 0 , x R , x n = a

R .

x = n |a|

(ii) n=2r+1, .

|a|

) = (
n

|a|

2 r +1

|a|

2 r +1

x = n | a | .

35

|a|

. ,

= | a |= a

1.6.6

R : (i) x 3 + 8 = 0 , (ii) x 4 16 = 0 , (iii) x 3 27 = 0

(iv) x 2 + 25 = 0 .
: (i) x 3 + 8 = 0 x 3 = 8 x = 3 | 8 | = 2 , (ii) x 4 16 = 0 x 4 = 16 x = 4 16 =

= 2 , (iii) x 3 27 = 0 x 3 = 27 x = 3 27 = 3 (iv) x 2 + 25 = 0 x 2 = 25 < 0

R .

1.

: (i) 18 3 8 , (ii)
(iii)

2.

3.

4.

24 4 48 4 18 ,

a 5 a 3 10 a 4 , a > 0 .

: (i)
(iii)

a 3 b2
b a2

a 2 , a > 0 , (ii)

1
x
x
, x > 0,
3 3

b3
, a, b > 0 .
a3

:
2
1
6+ 3
5
11
(i) 3 , (ii)
, (iii)
, (iv) 3
, (v) 3
.
3
5+ 2
6 2
2+33
4 3
a b
a1/ 2 b1/ 4 + a1/ 4 b1/ 2
: (i) 3 / 4
, a, b > 0 ,

a + a1/ 2 b1/ 4
a1/ 2 + b1/ 2
a1/ 2 2a1/ 4 + 1
(ii) 1/ 4
, a > 0 a 1 .
a 2a1/ 8 + 1

1.7 ax2+bx+c, a0

,
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a 0 .
ax 2 + bx + c
.

, .
2
2

b
c
b

b b c

:
ax 2 + bx + c = a x 2 + x + = a x 2 + 2 x + + .

a
a
2a

2a 2a a

36

x+
. :
2a

2
2

b b c
ax 2 + bx + c = a x +

+ =

2a 2a a

b b 2 4ac
= a x +

2a
4a 2

= b 2 4ac ax 2 + bx + c .
:
(i) > 0 . a.
2

b
b
b+

= a x +
x
+
ax + bx + c = a x +

2
2a
4a
2a
2a

( )

b +
b
2 =

2a
2a
b
b+
x +
, . 1 2
x +
2a
2a
1 =

, > 0 .
ax 2 + bx + c = a ( x 1 )( x 2 ) . 1 < x < 2 ,

( x 1 )( x 2 )

a. x < 1 < 2

1 < 2 < x , ( x 1 )( x 2 ) a.
2 < 1 .
(ii) = 0 . a.
2

ax 2 + bx + c = a x +
. ()
2a

b
b
. x
,
2a
2a

x+

2a

a.
(iii) < 0 . a.
2
2

b
||
b
||
||

+
0
ax 2 + bx + c = a x +
.

x
>
+
+ 2

2
2

2a 4a
4a
2a 4 a

a, .
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 R .
, :

1.7.1

f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c , a 0 .

37

(i)

= b 2 4ac ,
1,2 =

b b 2 4ac
.
2a

x , a.
x , a.
(ii)

= b 2 4ac ,
b
= .
2a
b
x , a.
2a

(iii)

= b 2 4ac ,
R . a.

: 1. 1 2

ax 2 + bx + c

( )

ax 2 + bx + c =

= a ( x 1 )( x 2 ) .
.
2.

a , .

1.7.2
1. : (i) 2 x 2 3 x 2 , (ii) 9 x 2 + 12 x 4
(iii) 3x 2 + x + 4 .
: (i) 2 x 2 3 x 2 .

3 9 + 16 3 5
=
=
4
4

3 + 5
4 =2

=
, 2 x 2 3 x 2 = 2 x + ( x 2) = (2 x + 1)( x 2) .
2

3 5
1

=
2
4
2
. , 9 x 2 + 12 x 4 =
(ii) 9 x 2 + 12 x 4
3
2
2

= 9 x = (3 x 2) 2 .
3

38

(iii)

3x 2 + x + 4

1 1 + 48 1 7
=
=
6
6

1 + 7
6 = 1
4

. , 3x 2 + x + 4 = 3 x ( x + 1) = (3 x 4)( x + 1) .
=
3

1 7 = 4
6
3

2. : (i) x 2 xy 2 y 2 (ii) a 2 + ab 6b 2 .
: (i) x 2 xy 2 y 2 x.

y y2 + 8 y2 y 3 | y |
=
. ,
2
2
y + 3y
y 3y
= 2 y
= y . ,
.
2
2
x 2 xy 2 y 2 = ( x 2 y )( x + y ) .

= 2 y 2 xy + x 2 y.

x 2 xy 2 y 2 =

x x 2 + 8 x 2 x 3x
=
=
4
4

x + 3x
4 = x

=
, 2 y 2 xy + x 2 = 2( y + x) y = ( x + y )( x 2 y ) .
2

x 3x x

=
2
4
(ii) a 2 + ab 6b 2 a.
b + 5b
= 2b
2
2
2
b b + 24b
b 5b
, a 2 + ab 6b 2 = ( a 2b)( a + 3b) .
=
=
2
2
b 5b

= 3b
2

x 2 + y 2 = 29
3. :
x + y = 7
: : y = 7 x .

: x 2 + (7 x) 2 = 29 2 x 2 14 x + 20 = 0 x 2 7 x + 10 = 0 .
x 2 7 x + 10 = 0 2 5.
x = 2 , y = 5 . x = 5 , y = 2 . (2, 5)
(5, 2) .

39

4. ,

.
: x y .

= 2 x + 2 y y = x . E = x x = x 2 + x .
2
2
2

E
x
E = x 2 +

2
4

4E 0 E

x 2 +

2
16

x x2 +

x E = 0

2
16

x E = 0 x = . , y = = = x .
2
4
2 4 4

, , .

5. Cauchy-Schwarz

( x12 + x22 +

+ xn2 )( y12 + y22 +

+ yn2 ) ( x1 y1 + x2 y2 +

+ xn yn ) 2 .

: ( xxi + yi ) 2 0 , x R i = 1, 2, , n .

, , :
x 2 x12 + 2 x1 y1 x + y12 0
2 2
2
x x2 + 2 x2 y2 x + y2 0

2
2 2
x xn + 2 xn yn x + yn 0
, :
( x12 + x22 +

C = y12 + y22 +

xR .

+ xn2 ) x 2 + 2( x1 y1 + x2 y2 +

+ xn yn ) x + ( y12 + y22 +

A = x12 + x22 +

+ xn2 ,

+ yn2 ) 0 ,

B = x1 y1 + x2 y2 +

+ xn yn

+ yn2 . Ax 2 + 2 Bx + C 0 ,

4 B 2 4 AC 0 . B 2 AC ,
( x1 y1 + x2 y2 +

+ xn yn ) 2 ( x12 + x22 +

6. R :

+ xn2 )( y12 + y22 +

( x 2)(3 x 2 + x 4)
0.
x 2 + 3x 4

40

+ yn2 ) .

: .

x 2 + 3x 4 -1 4. , x 1 x 4 .
3x 2 + x 4 = 1 48 = 47 < 0 .
3 , .
( x 2)(3x 2 + x 4)
.

x 2 + 3x 4
x

-1

x-2

-3x2+x-4

x2+3x-4
(x-2)(-3x2+x-4)
x2+3x-4

1 < x 2 x > 4 .
2

-1

1.8
1 + 3 + 5 +

+ (2n 1) ( n

) n. :
n = 1 :

1 = 12 ,

n = 2 :

1 + 3 = 4 = 22 ,

n = 3 :

1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32 ,

n = 4 :

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 42 ,

n = 5 :

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25 = 52 .

n2 . ,
1+ 3+ 5 +

+ ( 2n 1) = n2 ,

n = 1, 2,3 .
, ,
..
1+ 3 + 5 +

+ 1999999 = 10000002 .

41

 , , k n,
, 1 + 3 + 5 +
1 + 3 + 5 +

+ (2k 1) = k 2 .

+ (2k 1) + (2(k + 1) 1) ;

, 1 + 3 + 5 +

+ (2k 1) = k 2 ,

+ (2k 1) + (2(k + 1) 1) = k 2 + 2k + 2 1 = k 2 + 2k + 1 = (k + 1) 2 ,

1+ 3 + 5 +
k2

, n = k , n = k + 1 .
. ( )

n = 5 . n = 5 + 1 = 6 . n = 6 ,
n = 6 + 1 = 7 ... . ,
- ,
n, : 1 + 3 + 5 +

+ (2n 1) = n 2 .

1+ 3 + 5 +

+ (2n 1) = n 2 , n,

.
:
1.

( )
n0 .

2.

k,
, k+1. (
) .

k,
n+1, n.

1.8.1
1.
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 +

+n=

n(n + 1)
1
1
1
+
+
+
(ii)
2
1 2 2 3 3 4

: (i) n = 1 1 + 2 + 3 +

+n=

1
n
=
.
n(n + 1) n + 1

n(n + 1)
1 (1 + 1)
1 =
,
2
2

.
1 + 2 + 3 +
=

+n=

n(n + 1)
. 1 + 2 + 3 +
2

+ n + (n + 1) =

n(n + 1)
+ n +1=
2

(n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1)((n + 1) + 1)
=
, , n + 1
2
2

42

(ii) n = 1

1
1
1
+
+
+
1 2 2 3 3 4

1
n
1
1

=
=
,
1 2 1 + 1
n(n + 1) n + 1

1
1
1
+
+
+
1 2 2 3 3 4

1
1
1
+
+
+
1 2 2 3 3 4

1
n
=
.
n(n + 1) n + 1

1
1
n
1
n(n + 2) + 1
+
=
+
=
=
n( n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2) n + 1 (n + 1)( n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2)

n 2 + 2n + 1
(n + 1) 2
n +1
n +1
=
=
=
, , n + 1
(n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2) n + 2 (n + 1) + 1

n , n! (n )
n,

n! = 1 2 3

n . 0! = 1.

2. (i) n! > 3n , n 7 .
(ii) 2n > n 2 , n 5 .
: (i) n = 7 . , 7! = 5040 37 = 2187 .
7! > 37 .
n! > 3n . (n + 1)! = (n + 1) n ! > ( n + 1) 3n (7 + 1) 3n > 3 3n = 3n +1 .
n7

, 7 8, 8 9 ... n! > 3n , n 7 .

(ii) n = 5 . , 25 = 32 52 = 25 . 25 > 52 .
2n > n 2 , n 5 . 2n +1 = 2 2n = 2n + 2n > n 2 + n 2 = 2n 2 (
2n > n 2 ).
, 2n 2 > (n + 1) 2 .
, 2n 2 > (n + 1) 2 n 2 2n 1 > 0 ( n 1) 2 2 > 0 . (n 1) 2 2 > 0
, n 5 , (n 1) 2 2 (5 1) 2 2 = 14 > 0 .
2n 2 > (n + 1) 2 .
2n +1 > 2n 2 2n 2 > (n + 1) 2 , 2n +1 > (n + 1) 2 ,
, n + 1 . , 2n > n 2 , n 5 .

43

 :
, ( ),
, ,
.

( k-) ;
...........

..

kk+1
( k+1) k+1, k+2 ...
, k- ( ,
!).

. :
n = n + 2 , n.
n = n + 2 , n.
1 (n + 1) = (n + 1) + 2 , , n+1.
. !
n = 1 . 1 3 , , !

3. n, 32 n + 2 + 26 n +1 ()
11.

: n = 0 : 32 n + 2 + 26 n +1 = 32 + 21 = 9 + 2 = 11 ,
n = 0 .
32 n + 2 + 26 n +1 11, n,
32 n + 2 + 26 n +1 = 11 r , r .

32( n +1) + 2 + 26( n +1) +1 = 3232 n + 2 + 26 26 n +1 = 9 32 n + 2 + 64 26 n +1 . 64,

11, 11. ,

64 = 5 11 + 9

9 32 n + 2 + (5 11 + 9) 26 n +1 = 5 11 26 n +1 + 9 (32 n + 2 + 26 n +1 ) =

= 5 11 26 n+1 + 9 11 r = 11 (5 26 n +1 + 9 r )

44

 r = 5 26 n +1 + 9 r . 32( n +1) + 2 + 26( n +1) +1

11, , n+1. .

4. n ( n 3 )

n(n 3)
.
2

: n = 3 . , 0
. 0 =

3 (3 3)
,
2

A2

A1

n = 3.
n,
n(n 3)
2

n
.

A1 A2 A3

An An +1

A1 A2 A3

An

A1 A2 A3

An An +1

n+1 . To
n

A1 A2 A3

An+1
A4

An

A5
An-1

An (

A3

n( n 3)
, ),
2

An +1 , A1 An .
An +1 n 2 . ( A1 An
). ,
A1 A2 A3

A2

A1

An An +1

n2 n 2
n(n 3)
=
+1+ n 2 =
2
2

A3

An+1

n 2 2n + n 2 n(n 2) + n 2 (n + 1)(n 2)
=
=
=
=
2
2
2
(n + 1)((n + 1) 3)
=
,
2

A4

An

A5
An-1

n+1.

Bernoulli. Bernoulli ,
.

45

5. ( Bernoulli) > 1 .
, n = 1, 2, :
(1 + ) n 1 + n .

: n = 1 ( ).
n : (1 + ) n 1 + n .
, (1 + ) n +1 = (1 + )(1 + ) n (1 + )(1 + n ) = 1 + (n + 1) + n 2 2 1 + (n + 1) ,
0

n + 1 . n = 1, 2,

6. Cauchy-Schwarz

(a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn ) 2 (a12 + a22 +

+ an2 )(b12 + b22 +

+ bn2 ) ,

n = 1, 2, , a1 , a2 , , an , b1 , b2 , , bn R .

: n = 1 (a1b1 ) 2 = a12b12 .
n. :
(a12 + a22 +

+ an2 + an2+1 )(b12 + b22 +

+bn2+1 (a12 + a22 +

+ bn2 + bn2+1 ) = an2+1bn2+1 + an2+1 (b12 + b22 +

+ an2 ) + (a12 + a22 +

+ an2 )(b12 + b22 +

+ bn2 ) +

+ bn2 )

( a1b1 + a2b2 + + an bn )2

an2+1bn2+1 + an2+1 (b12 + b22 +

+ bn2 ) + bn2+1 (a12 + a22 +

= an2+1bn2+1 + (an2+1b12 + bn2+1a12 ) + (an2+1b22 + bn2+1a22 ) +

+ (a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an2 ) + (a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn ) 2 =

+ (an2+1bn2 + bn2+1an2 ) +

+ an bn ) 2

i = 1, 2, , n :
an2+1bi2 + bn2+1ai2 2an +1bn +1ai bi (an +1bi ai bn +1 ) 2 0 ( ).

an2+1bn2+1 + (an2+1b12 + bn2+1a12 ) +

+2an +1bn +1a1b1 +

+ (an2+1bn2 + bn2+1an2 ) + (a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ 2an +1bn +1an bn + (a1b1 + a2b2 +

= an2+1bn2+1 + 2an +1bn +1 (a1b1 + a2b2 +

= (a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn ) 2 an2+1bn2+1 +

+ an bn ) 2 =

+ an bn ) + (a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn ) 2 =

+ an bn + an +1bn +1 ) 2

( ( A + B ) 2 A = an +1bn +1 B = a1b1 + a2b2 +

+ an bn ).

n + 1 !
.
, .
,

46

 ( k k+1), ( k+2).
, . ; ,
! , 1 2 , 3. ,
2 3 , 4 ...

7. n = (3 + 5) n + (3 5) n , n = 1, 2, n
n = 2n , n = 1, 2,

1 = 3 + 5 + 3 5 = 6 = 3 21 2 = (3 + 5) 2 + (3 5) 2 = 9 + 5 + 6 5 +

+9 + 5 6 3 = 28 = 7 22 . ( !).

6 n +1 4 n = [(3 + 5) + (3 5)][(3 + 5) n +1 + (3 5) n +1 ] 4 [(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] =
= (3 + 5) n + 2 + (3 5)(3 + 5) n +1 + (3 + 5)(3 5) n +1 + (3 5) n + 2
4 [(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] =
= (3 + 5) n + 2 + (3 5)(3 + 5)[(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] + (3 5) n + 2
4 [(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] =
= (3 + 5) n + 2 + (32 ( 5) 2 )[(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] + (3 5) n + 2 4 [(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] =
= (3 + 5) n + 2 + 4 [(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] + (3 5) n + 2 4 [(3 + 5) n + (3 5) n ] =
= (3 + 5) n + 2 + (3 5) n + 2 = n + 2 .
( 4 6 6 = (3 + 5) + (3 5)
4 = 32 ( 5) 2 ).
,

n = 2n r n +1 = 2n +1 s , r s . ,

4 n = 2n + 2 r 6 n +1 = 2n + 2 (3s ) . n + 2 = 6 n +1 4 n = 2n + 2 (3s r ) ,

n + 2 2n+ 2 . .
,

Cauchy.
2 , , 2 .

8. ( Cauchy) a1 , a2 , , an ( n 2 )
.
a1 + a2 +
n

+ an

47

n a1a2

an .

: , a1 , a2 , , an
, . ,
, a1 , a2 , , an .
, 2. ,
a1 + a2 +

+ a2n 1 + a2n

2n a1a2

2n
n =1

a1 a2

a1 + a2
a1a2 a1 + a2 2 a1a2 0
2

2n = 21 = 2 . ,

a2n 1a2n . (1)

0 , .

(1) n = k ,

a1 + a2 +
2

+ a2 k

a2k , 2k

2k a1a2

a1 , a2 , , a2k .
a1 + a2 +

, n = k + 1 , :

k +1

+ a2k +1

a1 + a2 +
2

+ a2k

a2k +1 + a2k + 2 +
2

+ a2k +1

, Cauchy 2k ,
a1 + a2 +
2

k +1

+ a2k +1

2k

a1a2

a2k + 2k a2k +1a2k + 2

a2k +1

, Cauchy (
2k

a1a2

a2k

a1 + a2 +
2

k +1

= 2k +1 a1a2

+ a2k +1

2k

a2k +1a2k + 2

a2k a2k +1

2k

a1a2

a2k +1 ). :
a2k + 2k a2k +1a2k + 2

a2k +1

2k

a1a2

a2k

2k

a2k +1a2k + 2

a2k +1 =

a2k +1 , , 2k +1 .

a1 + a2 +
n

+ an

n a1a2

an , n 2.

, (
) .
Cauchy.
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

: Cauchy
n > 2 , n 1 . ,
.. n = 16 n = 15 , n = 14 ...,
.

48

, n > 2 . n 1
a1 , a2 , , an 1 . A =

a1 + a2 + + an 1
. A n 1 a1a2
n 1

an 1 .

a1 , a2 , , an 1 , A n . n,
a1 + a2 +

(n 1)

+ an 1 + A

n a1a2 an 1 A
n
(n 1) A + A n

a1a2 an 1 A A n a1a2
n
An 1 a1a2

an 1 A n 1 a1a2
a1 + a2 +
n

:
n

a1a2

an

a1 + a2 + + an 1
+A
n 1
n a1a2
n
an 1 A An a1a2

an 1 A

an 1 A

an 1 !!
+ an

a1 , a2 ,, an

. Cauchy

6. : (i) 12 + 22 + 32 +

+ n2 =

1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) ,
6

n(n + 1)
2
2
2
2
+ n3 =
, (iii) 1 2 + 3 4 +
2

1
1
1
1
n
(iii)
,
+
+
+ +
=
1 4 4 7 7 11
(3n 2)(3n + 1) 3n + 1
(ii) 13 + 23 + 33 +

(iv)

1
1
1
+
+
+
a(a + 1) (a + 1)(a + 2) (a + 2)(a + 3)

+ (1) n 1 n 2 = (1) n 1

1
n
, a (0, + )
=
(a + n 1)(a + n) a (a + n)

n = 1, 2, ,
(v) 1 1!+ 2 2!+ 3 3!+

+ n n ! = (n + 1)! 1 ,

1
1 1
(vi) 1 1 1
4 9 16

1 n +1

, n 2
1 2 =
n 2n
n

7. (i) a, b > 0 ,

a n + bn a + b

, n = 1, 2,
2
2

(ii) 3n 1 > n 2 3 3 > n n , n 4 .

1
1
1
+
+ +
> n , n 2 .
(iii) 1 +
2
3
n
(iii) a1 , a2 , , an > 0 , :

() (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )
() (a1 + a2 +

(1 + an ) 1 + a1 + a2 +

1 1
+ an ) + +
a1 a2

+ an

1
2
n , n = 1, 2,
an

49

n(n + 1)
,
2

(iv) a1 , a2 , , an 1 , : (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )

(1 + an )

2n
(1 + a1 + a2 +
n +1

+ an ) .

2n

n +1
(v) (n !)3 < n n
, n 2 .
2

8. (i) n 0 11n + 2 + 122 n +1 133.

(ii) a1 = 2 , a2 = 3 an = 3an 1 2an 2 , n 3 . an = 2n 1 + 1 ,

n = 1, 2,
(iii) a1 = 1 an +1 = an + 8n , n = 1, 2, an = (2n 1) 2 ,

n = 1, 2,

1.9
12 + 22 + 32 +

+ n 2 .

k 2 , k 1 n. ,

k =1

2
3
4
1000
+
+
+ +
.
3 4 4 5 5 6
1001 1002
k
, k 2

(k + 1) ( k + 2)
1000
2
3
4
1000
k
+
+
+ +
=
.
1000.
3 4 4 5 5 6
1001 1002 k = 2 (k + 1)(k + 2)
:

k , . ,

5
5
5
3k
3r
3i 30 31 32 33 34 35
9 27 81 243
.
=
=
= + + + + + =1+ 3 + +
+
+

0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2 6 24 120
k =0 k !
r =0 r !
i =0 i !

.
)

= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 +

+ xn ,

k =0

xk
1
1 1 x x2
=
+
+ + +

x2 2 x 3 4 5
k =2 k + 3
r
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
)
4 1 5 2 6 3
i = 4 i (i 3)
)

xm
m+3
1
+
r ( r 3)
+

1 = ?
k =1

50

 k.
..
n

1 = 1 + 1 +
k =1

k =1

k =1

1 = 1

k =1

k =1

1 = k

+ 1 = n , .

,
.
2

+ an ) = ak
k =1

, (a1 + a2 +

n
n

2
=
a
k ak + 2 ai a j .
k =1
1 i < j n
k =1

, Lagrange
2
ai
n 2 n 2 n

ak bk ak bk = a
k =1 k =1 k =1
1i < j n j

k =1

k =1

k =1

(ak + bk ) = ak + bk

(a1 + b1 ) + (a2 + b2 ) +

a1 + a2 +

k =1

k =1

bj

( ak ) = ak

+ (an + bn ) = (a1 + a2 +

+ bn ) = (a1 + a2 +

bi

+ an ) + (b1 + b2 +

+ bn )

+ an ) .

.
n

a1a2

an = ak .
k =1

1.9.1
1. van der Monde

D( x1 , x2 , , xn ) = ( x j xi )
i< j

x1
D( x1 , x2 , , xn ) := x12

x2
x22

x3
x32

xn
xn2 .

x2n 1

x3n 1

xnn 1

x1n 1
,

x1

x2

= x2 x1 , x1
x12

x2
x22

x3 = ( x2 x1 )( x3 x2 )( x3 x1 ) .
x32

: . n=2 .

51

 n.

: D( x1 , x2 ,, xn , xn +1 ) =

1
x1

1
x2

1
x3

1
xn

1
xn +1

x12

x22

x32

xn2

xn2+1

x1n 1
x1n

x2n 1
x2n

x3n 1
x3n

xnn 1
xnn

xnn+11
xnn+1

x1 . ,
1
x1
x12

D( x1 , x2 ,, xn , xn +1 ) =

x1n 1
0

1
x2
x22

n 1
2

1
x3
x32

1
xn
xn2

x2n 1
x3n 1
n
( x2 x1 ) x3 ( x3 x1 )

1
xn +1
xn2+1

xnn 1
xnn+11
n
x ( xn x1 ) xn +1 ( xn +1 x1 )
n
n

, x1 .
,
1
x1

D( x1 , x2 ,, xn , xn +1 ) =

1
x2

x1n 2
0
0

1
x3

1
xn

x2n 2
x3n 2
n2
n2
x2 ( x2 x1 ) x3 ( x3 x1 )
x2n 1 ( x2 x1 ) x3n 1 ( x3 x1 )

1
xn +1

xnn 2
xnn+12
n2
n2
xn ( xn x1 ) xn +1 ( xn +1 x1 )
xnn 1 ( xn x1 ) xnn+11 ( xn +1 x1 )

,
1

x2 x1

x3 x1

xn +1 x1

D( x1 , x2 ,, xn , xn +1 ) =

=
0 x2n 2 ( x2 x1 ) x3n 2 ( x2 x1 )
0

x2n 1 ( x2 x1 )

x3n 1 ( x3 x1 )

x2 x1

x3 x1

xn +1 x1

x2 ( x2 x1 )

x3 ( x3 x1 )

xn +1 ( xn +1 x1 )

x2n 1 ( x2 x1 ) x2n 1 ( x2 x1 )
1
x3

xn +1 x1
xn +1 ( xn +1 x1 )

x2n 1

x2n 1

xnn+11 ( xn +1 x1 )

x2

x3

xn +1

x2n 1

x2n 1

x2n 1

2 i < j n +1

( x j xi ) =

xnn+11 ( xn +1 x1 )

1
x2

= ( x2 x1 )( x3 x1 )

= ( x2 x1 )( x3 x1 )

1 i < j n +1

= ( x2 x1 )

xnn+12 ( xn +1 x1 )
xnn+11 ( xn +1 x1 )
1
x2

x3 x1
x3 ( x3 x1 )

xn +1 x1
xn +1 ( xn +1 x1 )

x2n 1

x2n 1 ( x2 x1 )

xnn+11 ( xn +1 x1 )

= ( x2 x1 )( x3 x1 )

( xn +1 x1 )

( xn +1 x1 ) D ( x2 , x3 , , xn +1 ) = ( x2 x1 )( x3 x1 )

( x j xi ) .

52

( xn +1 x1 )

n
*2. a1 , a2 ,, an , b R , n 2 . b + a < 1 ak .
n 1 k =1
k =1
n

2
k

b < 2ai a j , 1 i < j n .

: b < 2a1a2 .

n = 2 b + a12 + a22 < ( a1 + a2 ) b + a12 + a22 < a12 + a22 + 2a1a2

2

b < 2a1a2 .
2

n
n
1 n

2
n > 2 . b + a <
(
1)
(
1)
a

b
+
n

a
<
ak2 +

k
k

1
n
k =1
k =1
k =1
k =1
n

2
k

+2 a a (n 1)b + ( n 2) ak2 < 2 a a . a1 = a1 + a2 , a2 = a3 , a3 = a4 ,, ,

<

<

k =1

an 1 = an .
n

=3

=3

, 2 a a = 2a1a2 + 2 a1a + 2 a2 a + 2
<

+2

3 < n

a a = 2a1a2 + 2 a1a 1 + 2

= 2a1a2 + 2

=3

1 < n 1
n

3 < n

3 < n

a a = 2a1a2 + 2 (a1 + a2 )a +
=3

n 1

a 1a 1 = 2a1a2 + 2 a1a + 2
=2

2 < n 1

a a =

a a
n

, (n 2) ak2 = (n 2)(a12 + a22 ) + (n 2) ak2 = (n 2)(a1 + a2 ) 2 2(n 2)a1a2 +

k =1

k =3

n 1

n 1

k =3

k =2
n

k =1

+ (n 2) ak2 = (n 2)a12 + (n 2) ak2 2( n 2)a1a2 = (n 2) ak2 2(n 2)a1a2 .

(n 1)b + (n 2) ak2 < 2 a a :

<

k =1

n 1

(n 1)b + (n 2) ak2 2(n 2)a1a2 < 2a1a2 + 2

n 1

(n 1)b + (n 2) ak2 2

1 < n 1

1 < n 1

k =1

1 < n 1

k =1

a a

a a < 2(n 1)a1a2 .

(a 2 + a 2 ) n 2 . ( a 2

n 1 a 2 , > 1 a 2 , < ). ,

1 < n 1

n 1

n 1

k =1

k =1

(a 2 + a 2 ) = (n 2) ak 2 . (n 2) ak 2 2

1 < n 1

a a =

1 < n 1

n 1

1 < n 1

a a =

1 < n 1

( a 2 + a 2 )

(a a ) 2 .

(n 1)b + (n 2) ak2 2
(n 1)b +

1 < n 1

k =1

1 < n 1

a a < 2(n 1)a1a2

(a a ) 2 < 2(n 1)a1a2 . (n 1)b (n 1)b +

(n 1)b < 2(n 1)a1a2 b < 2a1a2 .

53

1 < n 1

(a a ) 2 .


n
n
n
1. a1 a2 an b1 b2 bn , ak bk n ak bk .
k =1
k =1 k =1

1.10 Newton
( + ) 2 = 2 + 2 + 2

( + )3 = 3 + 3 2 + 3 2 + 3 .
n
n!
.
n, k , k n . =
k k!( n k )!
3 3! 6
4
n
4! 24
= = 3, =
=
= 6 .
n k. , =
1 1!2! 2
2 2!2! 4
k

1 k n ,
n
n!
n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1) (n k )! n( n 1) (n k + 1)
.
=
=
=
k !(n k )!
k!
k k !(n k )!
n n( n 1) (n k + 1)
=

k!
k
7 7 65 4 7 65 4
=
= 7 5 = 35 ,
. , =
4!
1 2 3 4
4
7 7! 5040 5040
=
=
= 35 .
=
4 4!3! 24 6 144
n
.
k
n n
n n
i) =
, ii) = = 1 , n = 1, 2, 0 k n .
k n k
0 n

1.10.1 (Pascal)
n, k , k n 1 .
n n 1 n 1
=
+
.
k k k 1

:
n 1 n 1
(n 1)!
(n 1)!
(n 1)!
(n 1)!
+
=
+
=

+
=
k k 1 k !(n 1 k )! (k 1)!((n 1) (k 1))! k !(n 1 k )! (k 1)!(n k )!

54

(n 1)!
(n 1)!
(n 1)!
1
1
+
=
+
=
k ( k 1)!(n 1 k )! ( k 1)!(n k )(n k 1)! (k 1)!(n k 1)! k n k

n
nk +k
n!
(n 1)!
=
= .
(k 1)!(n k 1)! k (n k ) k !( n k )! k

n
Pascal,
k

:
0
=1
0
1
=1
0
2
=1
0
3
=1
0

4
=1
0

1
=1
1
2
=2
1

3
=3
1

4
=4
1

2
=1
2
3
=3
2

4
=6
2
.

3
=1
3

4
=4
3

4
=1
4

Pascal.
n
Pascal
k

1.10.2
n
n k , k n .
k
.

: m = k + n . m = 0 , n = k = 0
n 0
n n
= = 1 Z . m = 1 , n = 1 k = 0 = = 1 Z .
k 0
k 0

m 2 . k + n = m 2 k + n = m 1 .
n n
n n 1 n 1
, k = n , = = 1 , k < n , =
+
.
k n
k k k 1
(n 1) + k = m 1 (n 1) + (k 1) = m 2 .
n 1
n 1

Z
Z .
k
k 1

n n 1 n 1
=
+
Z .
k k k 1

55

1.10.3 (Bernoulli2)
n .
n
n
n
n
( + ) n = n k k = n + n 1 + n 2 2 +
k =0 k
1
2

n 2 n 2 n n 1
n
+
+
+
n 2
n 1

, ( + ) 4 = 4 + 3 + 2 2 + 3 + 4 = 4 + 4 3 + 6 2 2 + 4 3 + 4 ,
1
2
3
5
5
5
5
( + )5 = 5 + 4 + 3 2 + 2 3 + 4 + 5 =
1
2
3
4

= 5 + 5 4 + 10 3 2 + 10 2 3 + 5 4 + 5 .

: n = 0 : ( + )0 = 1 = 0 0 0 , .
0
n
n
( + ) n = n k k . ( + ) n +1 = ( + )( + ) n =
k =0 k
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
= ( + ) n k k = n +1 k k + n k k +1 = n +1 + n +1 k k +
k =0 k
k =0 k
k =0 k
k =1 k
n
n

n +1 ( k +1) k +1

k = 0 ( k + 1) 1
n
n

n +1 ( k +1) k +1
k+1.

k = 0 ( k + 1) 1

k 0 n, k+1 1 n+1. , k
n
n +1
n

n +1 ( k +1) k +1
n n +1 k k

k+1,

k = 0 ( k + 1) 1
k =1 k 1
,
n
n +1
n
n
n n +1 k k
n
( + ) n +1 = n +1 + n +1 k k +
= n +1 + n +1 k k +

k =1 k
k =1 k 1
k =1 k
n
n n
n n +1 k k
n n +1 k k
+ n +1 = n +1 + +
+ n +1
+
=

1.10.1
k =1 k 1
k =1 k
k 1
n
n + 1 n +1 n n + 1 n +1 k k n + 1 n +1
n + 1 n +1 k k
+ n +1 =
+
= n +1 +
+

k =1 k
k =1 k
0
n + 1
n +1 n + 1

n +1 k k
=
.

k =0 k

Newton .

56

n
n nk k
n n
n
n
: =
, ( + ) = = +
k =0 k
k n k
n
n
n 2 n 2 n n 1
n
+ n 1 + n 2 2 + +
+ +

n
1
2
2
1

n
n
n
n
n

nk k

nk n( nk )
n
= k nk .
( + ) n =
=

k n k
k =0 n k
k =0 n k
k =0 k

Newton
n
.
k

1.10.4

:
n n n
n
(i) + + + + = 2n
0 1 2
n
n n n
(ii) + + +
0 2 4
2

n n n
= + + +
1 3 5
2

= 2n 1

n n n
n 2n
(iii) + + + + =
0 1 2
n n
n
n
n
n
(iv) 1 + 2 + 3 + + n = n 2n 1
1
2
3
n

(v)

1 n 1 n 1 n
+ + + +
1 0 2 1 3 2

1 n 2n +1 1
.
=
n +1
n +1 n

n
n
: i) ( + ) n = n k k = = 1 .
k =0 k
n
n
2 n = .
k =0 k
n
n
ii) ( + ) n = n k k = 1 = 1 .
k =0 k
n
n n n
n
0 = 0n = ( 1) k = , = + + +
=
k =0
k
0 2 4

n n n
+ = 2 n .
+ + +
1 3 5
= 0

.
n
+ = 2
2

iii)

n n n
+ + +
0 1 2

n
+
n

n n n n n n
+
+
+
n n 0
n 1 n 1 2 n 2
=

k
nk
=

, x n

2n

k x
k =0

57

2n
(1 + x) 2 n .
n

n n
+ .
n 0

, (1 + x) 2 n = (1 + x) n (1 + x) n x n
n
n
x k x n k
.
n k
k
2n n n n n n n
n n
= +
+
+ + .
n 0 n 1 n 1 2 n 2
n 0
n
n
n
n
iv) 1 + 2 + 3 + + n
1
2
3
n
n
n 1
k n!
n!
n( n 1)!
=
=
= n
k =
, k > 0 .
k k !(n k )! (k 1)!( n k )! (k 1)!((n 1) ( k 1))!
k 1

n
n
n
1 + 2 + 3 +
1
2
3

n 1 n 1 n 1
n
n 1
n 1
+ n = n
+
+
+ +
= n 2 .
n
0
1
2
1

n
n
n
n
1 1 1
1
v)
+ + + +

1 0 2 1 3 2
n +1 n
n!
1 n
1
(n + 1)!
1 n + 1
=
=
=

.
k + 1 k (k + 1)k !(n k )! n + 1 (k + 1)!((n + 1) (k + 1))! n + 1 k + 1
n + 1
1 n 1 n 1 n
1 n
1 n + 1 n + 1
+ + + +
=

+
+ +
=
n + 1 n n + 1 1 2
1 0 2 1 3 2
n + 1
n + 1 2n +1 1
1 n + 1 n + 1 n + 1
=

+
+
+ +
1 =
n + 1 0 1 2
n +1
n + 1

1. x15 ( x x 2 )9 .
n n n

n
+ (1) n = 0

n
1 n
1 1
1
+ (1) n +1 = 1 + + + + .
2 3
n n
n

2. : (i) 1 + +
1
2
3
n 1 n 1 n
(ii) +
1 2 2 3 3

1.11
x 2 0 , x R . x 2 = 1 R .
,
i, i 2 = 1 .

xi, x R

i .

58

 .
x + yi , x, y R .
. C .

, C = {x + yi | x, y R} .
z = x + yi , x, y R . x
z Re( z ) . y z

Im( z ) .
z1 = x1 + y1i z2 = x2 + y2 i
, x1 + y1i = x2 + y2 i x1 = x2 y1 = y2 .
0 i = 0 R . , x
x = x + 0i .
C
:

( x1 + y1i ) + ( x2 + y2 i ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + ( y1 + y2 )i
( x1 + y1i ) ( x2 + y2 i ) = x1 x2 + y1 y2 i 2 + x1 y2 i + x1 y2 i = ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + ( x1 y2 + x1 y2 )i ,
i 2 = 1 .

1.2.1.
1.11.1
:

i) ( z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + ( z2 + z3 ), z1 , z2 , z3 C .
ii) z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 , z1 , z2 C .
iii) z + 0 = z , z C .
iv) z, z z,
z + ( z ) = 0 .

v) ( z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 ( z2 z3 ), z1 , z2 , z3 C .
vi) z1 z2 = z2 z1 , z1 , z2 C .
vii) z 1 = z , z C .
viii) z, z 1
z, zz 1 = 1 .
ix) ( z1 + z2 ) z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3 , z1 , z2 , z3 C .( ).

59

: (viii). ( ).

z = x + yi C {0} .
z 1 =

x2 + y 2 0 .

1
x yi
x yi
=
= 2
=
x + yi ( x + yi )( x yi ) x y 2 i 2

i =1

x yi
x
y
i . ,
= 2
2
2
2
2
x +y
x +y
x + y2

x
y
2
( x + yi ) 2
2
x + y2
x +y

i = 1.

: ,

( 1.2.1),
1.2 .

1.11.2
1. (i) i n , n Z .
1 1
1
(ii) : 1 + + 2 + + 2005 .
i i
i
(iii) C : () x 2 = 25 () x 2 = 3 .
: (i) i 4 = (i 2 ) 2 = (1) 2 = 1 . , n = 4r , r Z i n = (i 4 ) r = 1 .

n = 4r + 1, r Z i n = (i 4 ) r i = i . n = 4r + 2, r Z i n = (i 4 ) r i 2 = i 2 = 1 .
, n = 4r + 3, r Z i n = (i 4 ) r i 3 = i 3 = i 2 i = i .
(ii) 1 + b + b 2 +

1 1
1+ + 2 +
i i

1
i

2005

i 2006 =
1 1 = i
1
i
i

+ b n -1 =

1
(i ) i
1+ i

4 501 2
i

1 bn
, b 0 . :
1 b

2
2(1 i ) 2(1 i )
=
=1 i .
=
=1 1 + i
1 i2
2

(iii) () x 2 = 25 = (5i ) 2 x = 5i () x 2 = 3 = (i 3) 2 x = i 3 .

2. a, b, c R a 0 = b 2 4ac < 0 , C

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 : 1,2 =

b i | |
.
2a
2

2
2
b
b ||
||

: ax + bx + c = 0 x +
=0x+
=0
+
+
2a 4 a 2
2a 2a

| |
||
b ||
b
b

x+
+i
i
x+
= 0 x +

=0
i
2a 2a
2a
2a
2a
2a

x=

||
||
b
b
.
i
+i
x=
2a
2a
2a
2a

60

 , x 2 + x + 1 = 0

1 i 3
.
2

3. C z 2 = 7 24i .
: z = x + yi , x, y R . z 2 = x 2 y 2 + 2 xyi .
4
4
2 2
x 2 y 2 = 7 (1) ( x 2 y 2 ) 2 = 49
x + y 2 x y = 49
2 2
2 2
:
2 xy = 24 (2)
4 x y = 576
4 x y = 576

x 4 + y 4 + 2 x 2 y 2 = 625 ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 = 252 2 2 x 2 + y 2 = 25 . (3)
x + y 0

2
2
2
x y = 7
x = 16
(1) (3) : 2
2
.
2
x + y = 25 y = 9

2 xy = 24 < 0 , x = 4 y = 3 , x = 4 y = 3 . ,
( ( 4 3i ) ) = 7 24i .
2

4. C z 2 (2 + i ) z 1 + 7i = 0 .
: (2 + i ) 2 4( 1 + 7i ) = 4 1 + 4i + 4 28i = 7 24i .
,
( 4 3i ) .

3 i
2 + i (4 3i )
, z =
=
2
1 + 2i

1.12
xOy . z = a + bi ,
y

(a, b) z
.

(a, b)=a+bi

. ,

(a, b) ,

61

 , z = a + bi .
.
xx . xx

.
y y , .
xOy
y

(a, b)

b1 +b2

OM

b1

a1+b1 i
b2

a2 +b2i

z = a + bi .

(a1+a2)+(b1+b2)i

a2

a1+a 2

a1

.
1.13

1.13.1
z = a + bi , a, b R , z = a bi .
z z. Re( z ) = Re( z ) Im( z ) = Im( z ) .

1.13.2

z = a + bi . z R z = z .

Ma+bi

: , z R
Im( z ) = 0 .
O

:
z = a + bi ,

z = a bi

62

-b

M a-bi

 xx .

1.13.3
:

(i) ( z ) = z , z C , (ii) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , z1 , z2 C ,

z z
(iii) z1 z2 = z1 z2 , z1 , z2 C (iv) 1 = 1 , z1 , z2 C z2 0 .
z2 z 2
: (i) .
z1 = a1 + b1i z2 = a2 + b2 i , a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 R . :

(ii) z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i = ( a1 + a2 ) (b1 + b2 )i = (a1 b1i ) + (a2 b2 i ) = z1 + z2 .

(iii) z1 z2 = (a1a2 b1b2 ) + (a1b2 + a2b1 )i = (a1a2 b1b2 ) (a1b2 + a2b1 )i = (a1 b1i )( a2 b2 i ) = z1 z2 .
(iv) z2 0 z2 0 .
z1 a1 + b1i (a1 + b1i )(a2 b2 i ) a1a2 + b1b2 a1b2 + a2b1
i =
+
=
=
= 2
2
a22 + b22
a22 + b22
z2 a2 + b2 i
a2 + b2

a1a2 + b1b2 a1b2 a2b1

= 2
+ 2
i
a2 + b22
a2 + b22

z z
z1 a1 b1i (a1 b1i )(a2 + b2 i ) a1a2 + b1b2 a1b2 a2 b1
i . , 1 = 1 .
=
=
=
+ 2
2
2
2
2
2
z2 a2 b2 i
a2 + b2
a2 + b2
a2 + b2
z2 z 2

: (ii) (iii)
. , z1 + z2 +

= z1 + z2 +

+ zn z1 z2

zn = z1 z2

zn , n .

1.13.4

1 + i 1 + i 2
1. : i 3 ,
,
.
3
1 i
1 i 3

2
1 + i 1 + i 1 i (1 i ) 1 1 2i
: (i 3 ) = i 3 = (i )3 = i ,
=
=
=
=
= i ,

2
2
1 i 1 i 1+ i

63

+ zn =

) (
2

2
1 + i 2 2 1 + i 2
1 i 2
1 + 2i 2 1 i 2

=
=
=
=
i.
3
3
3

8
8
4

+
1
3
1
3
i
i
1 i 3

1
i
2. Re( z ) = ( z + z ) Im( z ) = ( z z ) , z.
2
2
: z = Re( z ) + i Im( z ) z = Re( z ) i Im( z ) .

.
3. z1 , z2 C R z1 + z2 R z1 z2 R , z1 = z2 .
: z1 = a1 + b1i z2 = a2 + b2 i , a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 R . z2 R ,

b2 0 . :

Im( z1 z2 ) = a1b2 + a2b1 = 0 a1b2 + a2b1 = 0 a1b2 a2 b2 = 0 a1 = a2

b2 0 b = b
2
Im( z1 + z2 ) = b1 + b2 = 0
b1 = b2
b1 = b2
1
, z1 = a1 + b1i = a2 b2 i = z2 .

1.14
1.14.1
z = a + bi , a, b R , | z |= a 2 + b 2 .
| z |=| z |=| z | .
| z | z.
y

: 1. z R z
.

2. z

M
|z|

OM ,
z .
O

64

1.14.2
:

(i) | z |2 = zz , z C , (ii) | z1 z2 |=| z1 || z2 | , z1 , z2 C ,

(iii)

z1 | z1 |
=
, z1 , z2 C z2 0 ,
z 2 | z2 |

(iv) | z1 | | z2 | | z1 + z2 || z1 | + | z2 | , z1 , z2 C ( ).

: (i) z = a + bi , a, b R .
| z |2 = a 2 + b 2 = ( a + bi )(a bi ) = zz .

(ii) z1 = a1 + b1i z2 = a2 + b2 i , a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 R .
| z1 z2 |2 = ( z1 z2 )( z1 z2 ) = z1 z2 z1 z2 = ( z1 z1 )( z2 z2 ) =| z1 |2 | z2 |2 , (i). ,

| z1 z2 |=| z1 || z2 | .
(iii)

z1
z2

z1 z1 z1 z1 z1 z1 | z1 |2
z
|z |
. , 1 = 1 .
= =
=
2
z2 z 2 z2 z 2 z2 z2 | z2 |
z 2 | z2 |

(iv) 1.6.3.1.

: C | z |2 = z 2 . , z = i ,
z 2 = 1 | z |2 = 1 .

1.14.3

(
(

)
)

2 +i
3 4i
1.
,
1 + 2i i 1 i 3
2i

)(

3 + i 5 1 i 3
.

4i 3

(
(

)
)

2 +i
32 + ( 4) 2
3 4i | 3 4 i |
25
5
:
=
=
=
=
= 5,
1 + 2i |1 + 2i |
5
5
1 + 22
i 1 i 3

( 5)
=
1 ( 4 )
3

2i
5 5

| 2i | | 3 + i 5 | |1 i 3 |
4

| 4 i 3 |4

)(

| 2 + i |3
=
| i ||1 i 3 |2

4
4
4
3 + i 5 1 i 3
= | 2i | | 3 + i 5 | |1 i 3 | =

4i 3
| 4 i 3 |4

16

3+5

)(
4

1+ 3

16 + 3

16 82 42 214
= 2 .
192
19

2. z1 , z2 C : | z1 z2 |2 =| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 ) .

65

: | z1 z2 |2 = ( z1 z2 )( z1 z2 ) = ( z1 z2 )( z1 z2 ) = z1 z1 + z2 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 =
=| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 ( z1 z2 + ( z1 z2 )) =| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 ) .

3. z1 , z2 C : | z1 + z2 |2 (1+ | z1 |2 )(1+ | z2 |2 ) .
: | z1 + z2 |2 (1+ | z1 |2 )(1+ | z2 |2 ) | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 +2 Re( z1 z2 ) 1+ | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 +
+ | z1 |2 | z2 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 ) 1+ | z1 |2 | z2 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 ) 1+ | z1 z2 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 )
1 + ( Re( z1 z2 ) ) + ( Im( z1 z2 ) ) 1 + ( Re( z1 z2 ) ) 2 Re( z1 z2 ) + ( Im( z1 z2 ) ) 0
2

(1 Re( z1 z2 ) ) + ( Im( z1 z2 ) ) 0 , .
2

4. z1 , z2 C > 0 : | z1 + z2 |2 (1 + ) | z1 |2 + 1 + | z2 |2 .

: | z1 + z2 |2 (1 + ) | z1 |2 + 1 + | z2 |2 | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 +2 Re( z1 z2 )

| z1 |2 + | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 +

0 | z1 | +
2

z2

| z2 |2 0 | z1 |2 +

| z2 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 )

z
2 Re z1 2 0

z1

z2

, .

5. (i) | z |= 1 , z 1 = z .
(ii) z1 , z2 ,, zn C | z1 |=| z2 |=
| z1 + z2 +

+ zn |=

=| zn |= 1 ,
1 1
+ +
z1 z2

1
.
zn

: (i) zz =| z |2 = 1 . z 1 = z .
(ii) (i) :
=| z1 + z2 +

6.

1 1
+ +
z1 z2

1
=| z1 + z2 +
zn

+ zn |=| ( z1 + z2 +

+ zn ) |=

+ zn | .

z1 i
z i
+ 2
+
z1 + i
z2 + i

zn i
z +z +
< 1 , 1 2
zn + i
z1 + z2 +

+ zn i
<1.
+ zn + i

: z = a + bi ( a, b R ) ,

z i
< 1 Im( z ) > 0 .
z+i

66

zi
< 1 | z i |2 <| z + i |2 | z |2 +1 2 Re( z i ) <| z |2 +1 + 2 Re( z i )
z+i

0 < Re( zi ) 0 < Re(b ai ) 0 < b 0 < Im( z ) .

z1 i
z i
+ 2
+
z1 + i
z2 + i

zk i
< 1 ,
zk + i

zn i
< 1
zn + i

k = 1, 2, , n . , Im( zk ) > 0 , k = 1, 2, , n .

Im( z1 + z2 +

z1 + z2 +
z1 + z2 +

+ zn ) = Im( z1 ) + Im( z2 ) +

+ Im( zn ) > 0

+ zn i
<1.
+ zn + i

7. z i .

z i

z+i

| z |= 1 .
:

z i
= ai , a R {0}. z i = zai a z (1 ai ) = (i a )
z+i

a + i
| a + i |
a2 + 1
. , | z |=
=
=1.
1 ai
|1 ai |
1 + a2
z i ( z i )( z i ) zz 1 2 Re( z )
2 Re( z )
=
=
, | z |= 1 .
i =
i .
2
zz
=
1
z + i ( z + i )( z i )
|z+i|
| z + i |2
z=

Re( z ) = 0 , z = xi , x R | z |=| x |= 1 , z = i , .
z i

{0} .
z+i

8. z1 , z2 C {0} . : (i) | z1 + z2 |=| z1 | + | z2 | z1 z2 > 0

(ii) | z1 + z2 |= | z1 | | z2 | z1 z2 < 0

z1
>0
z2

z1
<0.
z2

: (i)

z = x + yi 0

x, y R ,

Re( z ) =| z | z > 0 . , Re( z ) =| z | x = x 2 + y 2 x 2 = x 2 + y 2 y = 0 .

x = x 2 =| x |> 0 ( x = 0 , z = x + yi = 0 , ). z = x > 0 .
, z R + , Re( z ) = z =| z | .
z1 , z2 C {0} , z1 z2 .
, : | z1 + z2 |=| z1 | + | z2 || z1 + z2 |2 =| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 +2 | z1 z2 || z1 |2 + | z2 |2 +
+2 Re( z1 z2 ) =| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 +2 | z1 z2 | Re( z1 z2 ) =| z1 z2 | z1 z2 > 0

67

z1 z2
zz
>0 1 2 >0
2
z2 z 2
| z2 |

z1
> 0. (ii) .
z2

y
z1

|z1-z2|

. ,

z2

. z1 z2
, | z1 z2 |

.
z0 . z
| z z0 |= r , r ,

z0 r.
z0 r.

z0

| z z0 |< r

|z-z0|<r

|z-z0|>r

|z-z0|=r

z | z z0 |> r

1.14.4
1. z
| z 2i |2 + | z 1|2 = 4 .

| z1 z2 |2 =| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 )

1.14.3.2.
| z 2i |2 + | z 1|2 = 4 ( z 2i )( z + 2i ) + ( z 1)( z 1) = 4

68

 zz + 4 + 2 zi 2iz 2 zi + zz z z + 1 = 4
y

2 | z |2 + z (2i 1) z (2i + 1) = 1
2 | z |2 + z (2i 1) + z (2i 1) = 1
2 | z |2 + z (2i 1) + ( z (2i 1) ) = 1

1 1
| z |2 + z i + z i = 1
2 2
1
| z |2 +2 Re z i = 1
2
O

1/2

1
| z | +2 Re z i = 1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
| z |2 +2 Re z i + i = 1 + i z i = 1 + + 1
2
2
2
2
4

1
1
1
1
z + i = 2 . + i .
2
2
2
2

2. ( ) z1 z2 0 < < 1 .
z | z z1 |= | z z2 | .

: | z z1 |= | z z2 || z z1 |2 = 2 | z z2 |2 | z |2 + | z1 |2 2 Re( zz1 ) =
= 2 | z |2 + 2 | z2 |2 2 2 Re( zz2 ) (1 2 ) | z |2 2 Re( zz1 ) + 2 2 Re( zz2 ) =
= 2 | z2 |2 | z1 |2 (1 2 ) | z |2 2 Re( z ( z1 2 z2 )) = 2 | z2 |2 | z1 |2

z 2z
2
| z |2 2 Re z 1
2
1

z 2z
2 | z2 |2 | z1 |2
2
2

z 1
|
z
|
2
Re
=

2
2
1
1

2

z1 2 z2
+
1 2

z1 2 z2
2 | z2 |2 | z1 |2 z1 2 z2
2 | z2 |2 | z1 |2 | z1 2 z2 |2
z
=
+

=
+

1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
(1 2 ) 2
z 2 z2
z 1
1 2

z1 2 z2
1 2

z 2 z2
z 1
1 2

2 | z2 |2 | z1 |2 4 | z2 |2 + 2 | z1 |2 + | z1 |2 + 4 | z2 |2 2 2 Re( z1 z2 )

(1 2 ) 2

2 (| z1 |2 + | z1 |2 2 Re( z1 z2 ))

(1 2 ) 2

2 | z1 z1 |2
(1 2 ) 2

z 2 z2
z 1
1 2

| z1 z1 |
.
1 2

2 | z1 z1 |2
=
(1 2 ) 2

z1-2z2
1- 2

z1 2 z2

1 2

69

z1
z2

z1 2 z2
z1 z2
1 2
z 2 z2
z2 = k ( z1 z2 ) , k > 1 .
z1 . 1
1 2
z 2 z2
z1 2 z2 z2 + 2 z2
1
1
, 1

=
=
z
( z1 z2 )
>1.
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2

3.
: | z 8 |> 2 | z 2 | | z 2 |<| z | .

: : | z 8 |2 > 4 | z 2 |2 | z |2 +64 16 Re( z ) > 4 | z |2 +

+16 16 Re( z ) 48 > 3 | z |2 | z |< 4 .

Re(z)=1

| z 8 |> 2 | z 2 |

(0, 0) 0 + 0i 4.

| z 2 |2 <| z |2 | z |2 +4 4 Re( z ) >| z |2 Re( z ) < 1 .

| z 2 |<| z |
( ) Re( z ) = 1 x = 1 .
.

1.15

z = a + bi .
y

|z|

OM
, :

70

cos = | z |
a =| z | cos

z = a + bi =| z | (cos + i sin ) .

b =| z | sin
sin = b

|z|

[0, 2 ) .
z Arg ( z ) . z =| z | (cos + i sin )
z. z =| z | (cos + i sin )
.
2. z.

1.15.1
1. : 1 , i, 1 + i , 1 i 1 + i 3 .
y

: 1 = cos + i sin ,

i = cos
-1

+ i sin

y
1+i

2
1
2

+i
+i
1+ i = 2
= 2 cos + i sin ,
= 2
2
4
4
2

2
2

/4

2
1
2

1 i = 2
i
i
= 2 cos i sin =
= 2
2
4
4
2

2
2

2 cos + i sin = 2 cos 2 + i sin 2 =

4
4
4
4

7
7
= 2 cos
+ i sin
,
4
4

y
1
7/4

-/4

1-i

-i

-1+i

1
3
2
2

1 + i 3 = 2 + i
+ i sin
= 2 cos
2
2
3
3

i 3

2/3
-1

1.15.2
z1 =| z1 | (cos1 + i sin 1 ) z2 =| z2 | (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) (
).

71

z1 z2 =| z1 z2 | (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 )) .
, zk =| zk | (cos k + i sin k ) , k = 1, 2, , n ,

zn =| z1 z2

z1 z2

zn | (cos(1 + 2 +

+ n ) + i sin(1 + 2 +

+ n )) . (1)

: : z1 z2 =| z1 z2 | (cos1 + i sin 1 )(cos 2 + i sin 2 ) =

=| z1 z2 | ((cos1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i (sin 1 cos 2 + cos1 sin 2 )) .

cos1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 = cos(1 + 2 )

sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 = sin(1 + 2 ) .

, z1 z2 =| z1 z2 | (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 )) .

z1 z2

zn =| z1 z2

zn | (cos(1 + 2 +

n ) + i sin(1 + 2 +

n )) ,

zk =| zk | (cos k + i sin k ) , k = 1, 2,, n . zn +1 =| zn +1 | (cos n +1 + i sin n +1 ) ,

z1 z2 zn zn +1 =| z1 z2 zn zn +1 | (cos(1 + 2 + + n ) + i sin(1 + 2 + + n ))(cos( n +1 ) + i sin( n +1 )) =
=| z1 z2 zn zn +1 | (cos((1 + 2 + + n ) + n +1 ) + i sin((1 + 2 + + n ) + n +1 )) =
=| z1 z2 zn zn +1 | (cos(1 + 2 + + n + n +1 ) + i sin(1 + 2 + + n + n +1 ))
(1) n.

1.15.3 ( de Moivre)
z =| z | (cos + i sin ) n .
z n =| z |n (cos(n ) + i sin(n )) .

1.15.4
z1 =| z1 | (cos1 + i sin 1 ) z2 =| z2 | (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) . z2 0 ,
z1 | z1 |
(cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 )) .
=
z2 | z 2 |
z1 = 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 ,
1
1
=
(cos( 2 ) + i sin( 2 )) =| z2 |1 (cos 2 i sin 2 ) .
z2 | z2 |
|z |
|z |
: 1 (cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 )) z2 = 1 (cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 )) | z2 |
| z2 |
| z2 |
(cos 2 + i sin 2 ) =| z1 | (cos((1 2 ) + 2 ) + i sin((1 2 ) + 2 )) =| z1 | (cos1 + i sin 1 ) = z1 .
z
|z |
, 1 (cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 )) = 1 .
| z2 |
z2

72

1.15.5
1. de Moivre n 0 .
: n = 0 . n < 0 . n > 0 .
1
1
| z |n
, z n = n =
=
=
z n > 0 | z | n (cos( n ) + i sin( n )) cos(n ) i sin(n )
=

2.

| z |n (cos(n ) + i sin(n ))
=| z |n (cos( n ) + i sin(n )) .
cos 2 (n ) + sin 2 (n )

(i)

( 3 + i )150 = 2150 ,

n
(1 + i ) n (1 i ) n = i 2( n + 2) / 2 sin
4

(ii)

n
(1 + i ) n + (1 i ) n = 2( n + 2) / 2 cos

, n = 0,1, ,

(iii) (cos + i sin ) n + (cos + i sin ) n = 2cos(n ) (cos + i sin ) n (cos + i sin ) n =
= 2i sin(n ) , n = 0,1,
3
1

3 + i = 2
+ i = 2 cos + i sin . ,
2
2
6
6

150
150 150

( 3 + i )150 = 2150 cos

+ i sin
= 2 ( cos(24 + ) + i sin(24 + ) ) =
6
6

= 2150 ( cos + i sin ) = 2150 (1) = 2150

: (i)

(ii) 1.15.1.1 1 + i = 2 cos + i sin

4
4

n
n

1 i = 2 cos + i sin .

+ i sin
(1 + i ) n = 2n / 2 cos
4
4
4
4

n
(1 i ) n = 2n / 2 cos
4

n
n

n
n/2
+ i sin 4 = 2 cos 4 i sin 4 .

n
n
n
(1 + i ) n + (1 i ) n = 2 2n / 2 cos
= 2( n + 2) / 2 cos
(1 + i ) n (1 i ) n = 2 2n / 2 i sin
=
4
4
4
n
= 2( n + 2) / 2 i sin
.
4

(iii) (cos + i sin ) n + (cos + i sin ) n = cos(n ) + i sin(n ) + cos( n ) + i sin( n ) =

= cos(n ) + i sin(n ) + cos(n ) i sin(n ) = 2cos(n ) .
.

3. cos5 sin 5 cos sin .

: z = cos + i sin . de Moivre z 5 = cos5 + i sin 5 .
Newton z 5 = (cos + i sin )5 =
= cos5 + 5cos 4 i sin + 10cos3 i 2 sin 2 + 10cos 2 i 3 sin 3 + 5cos i 4 sin 4 + i 5 sin 5 =

73

= cos5 10cos3 sin 2 + 5cos sin 4 + i (5cos 4 sin 10cos 2 sin 3 + sin 5 ) .

, cos5 = cos5 10cos3 sin 2 + 5cos sin 4 = cos5 10cos3 (1 cos 2 ) +

+5cos sin 4 = cos5 10cos3 (1 cos 2 ) + 5cos (1 cos 2 ) 2 =
= 16cos5 20cos3 + 5cos
sin 5 = 5cos 4 sin 10cos 2 sin 3 + sin 5 = 5(1 sin 2 ) 2 sin 10(1 sin 2 )sin 3 +
+ sin 5 = 16sin 5 20sin 3 + 5sin .

4. | z |= 1 ,

zn
R .
1 + z 2n

: | z |= 1 , z = cos + i sin , . ,
(cos + i sin )n
cos(n ) + i sin(n )
cos( n ) + i sin(n )
=
=
=
2n
2
1 + (cos + i sin )
1 + cos(2n ) + i sin(2n ) 1 + 2cos (n ) 1 + 2i sin(n )cos(n )
cos(n ) + i sin(n )
1
=
=
R.
2cos(n )(cos(n ) + i sin(n )) 2cos(n )

5.

cos 1 + cos 2 + cos 3 = 0

sin 1 + sin 2 + sin 3 = 0 ,

cos31 + cos3 2 + cos33 = 3cos(1 + 2 + 3 ) sin 31 + sin 3 2 + sin 33 =

= 3sin(1 + 2 + 3 ) .
:

z1 = cos 1 + i sin 1 ,

z2 = cos 2 + i sin 2

z3 = cos 3 + i sin 3 .

z1 + z2 + z3 = cos 1 + cos 2 + cos3 + i (sin 1 + sin 2 + sin 3 ) = 0 .

Euler z13 + z23 + z33 = 3z1 z2 z3 .
z13 + z23 + z33 = (cos1 + i sin 1 )3 + (cos 2 + i sin 2 )3 + (cos 3 + i sin 3 )3

de Moivre

= (cos31 + i sin 31 ) + (cos3 2 + i sin 3 2 ) + (cos3 3 + i sin 33 ) = (cos31 + cos3 2 + cos3 3 ) +

+i (sin 31 + sin 3 2 + sin 33 )
3z1 z2 z3 = 3(cos1 + i sin 1 )(cos 2 + i sin 2 )(cos 3 + i sin 3 ) = 3cos(1 + 2 + 3 ) +

+3i sin(1 + 2 + 3 ) .
.

6. :
n
n
n
n
(i) cos(kx) sin(kx) , (ii) cos(k )
k =1
k =1
k =0 k
: (i) x = 2r , r Z ,

k =1

k sin(k ) .

cos(kx) = 1 k = 0,1,, n . ,

cos(kx) = n + 1 . , sin(kx) = 0 k = 0,1,, n

k =1

74

sin(kx) = 0 .
k =1

1 z n +1
=
1 z
(n + 1)
(n + 1)
(n + 1)
1 1 + 2sin 2
2i sin
cos
1 cos((n + 1) ) i sin((n + 1) )
2
2
2
=
=
=

1 cos i sin
2
1 1 + 2sin
2i sin cos
2
2
2
(n + 1)
(n + 1)
(n + 1)
(n + 1)
(n + 1)
( n + 1)
sin
sin
sin
sin
i cos
i cos

2
2
2
2
2
2
=
=

sin
sin sin i cos
2
2
2
2

x 2r , r Z . z = cos x + i sin x . 1 + z + z 2 +

+ zn =

(n + 1)

(n + 1)

sin
sin + cos
cos

2
2
2
2

+
sin 2 + i cos 2 =

sin
2
(n + 1)
(n + 1)

(n + 1)

sin
sin
cos cos
sin sin (n + 1) cos n

2
2
2
2
2
2
2 +
+i
=

sin
sin
2
2
(n + 1)
n
sin
sin
2
2
+i
sin

sin

(n + 1)
2

2
1 + z + z2 +

sin0=0). ,

cos(kx) =
k =0

k =0

k =0

k =1

+ z n = (cos(kx) + i sin(kx)) = cos(kx) + i sin(kx) .

sin

(n + 1)
n
cos
2
2

sin
2

sin(kx) =
k =1

sin

(n + 1)
n
sin
2
2 .

sin
2

(ii) z = cos + i sin . Newton

de Moivre.
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n k
n
+
=
+
=
k
k
k
k
cos(

)
i
sin(

)
(cos(

)
i
sin(

))

z = (1 + z ) =
k
k
k
k
k =0
k =0
k =0
k =0
n

= (1 + cos + i sin ) = 2cos 2 + 2i sin cos = 2n cos n cos + i sin =

2
2
2
2
2
2

n
n
n
n

= 2n cos n cos
+ i sin = 2n cos n cos
+ 2n i cos n sin
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
n
n
n
n

n
sin(k ) = 2n cos n sin
.
, cos(k ) = 2n cos n cos
k
k
2
2
2
2
k =0
k =0
n

75

1.16

1.16.1
w =| w | (cos + i sin ) 0 n . z n = w n
z0 , , zn 1

+ 2 k
+ 2 k

zk = n | w | cos
+ i sin
n
n

, k = 0,1,, n 1 .

: de Moivre :

+ 2 k
+ 2 k
zkn =| w | cos n
+ i sin n

=| w | ( cos( + 2k ) + i sin( + 2k ) ) =
n
n

=| w | ( cos + i sin ) = w , k = 0,1,, n 1 .

, u =| u | (cos + i sin ) z n = w ,
w = u n =| u |n (cos(n ) + i sin(n )) .

| w |=| u |n | cos(n ) + i sin(n ) |=| u |n | u |=

= n | w| .
,

cos(n ) + i sin(n ) = cos + i sin

cos(n ) = cos
+ 2 k
n = + 2k =
, k Z .

n
sin(n ) = sin
k = nr + k , 0 k < n k n, =

+ 2k
n

+ 2r

+ 2k

+ 2k

+ 2k
, u = n | w | cos
+ 2r + i sin
+ 2r = n | w | cos
n
n
n

+ 2k
+i sin
= zk .
n

zk , k = 0,1,, n 1 , . , 0 k k n 1
+ 2 k
+ 2k
= cos

cos
n
n
+ 2k + 2k

=
+ 2r ,
zk = zk ,
n
n

k
k
2
2
+
+

sin
= sin

n
n

| k k |
r. , k k = rn 0 | r |=
< 1 . r
n 0 k k < n
r = 0 k = k .

76

1.16.2
1. : (i) z 3 = 64i , (ii) z 3 = 1 + i 3 (iii) z 4 = 1 .
3
3

: (i) 64i = 64 cos

.
+ i sin
2
2

3 / 2
3 / 2

z 3 = 64i z0 = 3 64 cos
+ i sin
= 4 cos + i sin = 4i ,

3
3
2
2

3 / 2 + 2
3 / 2 + 2
7
7
3 1

z1 = 3 64 cos
+ i sin
+ i sin
i =
= 4 cos
= 4

3
3
6
6

2 2
3 / 2 + 4
3 / 2 + 4
11
11

= 2 3 + i z2 = 3 64 cos
+ i sin
= 4 cos
+ i sin
=

3
3
6
6

3 1
= 4
i =2
2 2

3 i .

1
3
2
2

= 2 cos
+ i sin
(ii) 1 + i 3 = 2 + i

2
2
3
3

z 3 = 1 + i 3
2 / 3
2 / 3 3
2
2

z0 = 3 2 cos
+ i sin
= 2 cos
+ i sin

3
3
9
9

2 / 3 + 2
2 / 3 + 2

z1 = 3 2 cos
+ i sin
=
3
3

8
8

2 cos
+ i sin
9
9

2 / 3 + 4
2 / 3 + 2

z2 = 3 2 cos
+ i sin
=
3
3

14
14

.
= 3 2 cos
+ i sin
9
9

z0
z1
2/9=40

z2

z0 , z1 z2

2.

(iii) 1 = cos + i sin . z 4 = 1

y

2
2
+i
,
z0 = cos + i sin =
4
4
2
2
z1
z0
3
3
2
2
z1 = cos
+ i sin
=
+i
,
4
4
2
2
/4

5
5
2
2
x
+ i sin
=
i

z2 = cos
4
4
2
2
7
7
2
2
z2
z3
+ i sin
=
i
.
z3 = cos
4
4
2
2

z0 , z1 , z2 z3
.

77

2. (1 + z ) n + (1 z ) n = 0 :
(2k + 1)
z = i tan
, k = 0,1,, 2n 1 .
2n
n
1+ z
: z 1 . , (1 + z ) n + (1 z ) n = 0
= 1 =
1 z
1+ z
+ 2k
+ 2k
= cos + i sin
= cos
+ i sin
, k = 0,1,, 2n 1 .
1 z
n
n
1+ z
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
= cos
+ i sin


1 z
n
n
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
cos
+ i sin
1 1 2sin 2
+ 2i sin
cos
1
n
n
2n
2n
2n
=
=
z=
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
i sin
1 2i sin
1 + cos
1 + 2cos 2
cos
n
n
2n
2n
2n
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
+ i cos
sin

2n
2n
2n
=
=
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
i sin
cos
cos

2n
2n
2n

sin

(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)

sin
+ i cos
i sin
cos

(2k + 1)
2n
2n
2n
2n

=
= tan
+
+
k
k
(2
1)
(2
1)

2n
+ sin 2
cos 2
2n
2n
(2k + 1)
= tan
i.
2n

z5

z n = 1 , n-
.
2k
2 k
zk = cos
+ i sin
= z1k ,
n
n

k = 0,1,, n 1 .

y
z3
z2

z6

z1
z7
O

z8

z4

zn

z9

n-

z0

2/n

z10

zn-1

1.16.3

n z , w n- .
: (i) z 1 = z n- (ii) zw n- .

78

 . ( | z |= 1 z 1 = z ).

1.16.4
1. z1 , z2 . : (i) z12 = z2

z22 = z1 ,
(ii) 1 + z1 + z12 = 0 1 + z2 + z22 = 0 , (iii) (1 + 2 z1 + 3 z2 )(1 + 2 z2 + 3 z1 ) = 3 ,
(iv) (1 + z1 z2 )3 = (1 z1 + z2 )3 .
: (i) z12 z12 z1 ,

z1 0 z1 1 . , z12 = z2 . , z22 = z1 .
(ii) 1 + z1 + z12 =

z13 1
= 0 . , 1 + z2 + z22 = 0 .
z1 1 z13 =1

1 + i 3
1 i 3
z2 =
.
2
2

1 + i 3
1 + i 3
1+ i 3
1 + i 3
3
1 2
+3
1 + 2

= 3 .
2
2
2
2

(iii) z1 =

(1 + z1 z2 )3 = ( z23 + z22 z2 )3 = z23 ( z22 + z2 1)3 = ( z22 + z2 1)3 = ( z1 + z2 1)3

(iv)

, (1 + z2 z1 )3 = ( z1 + z2 1)3 . , (1 + z1 z2 )3 = (1 z1 + z2 )3 .

2. z . k ,

: (1 z + z 2 )(1 z 2 + z 4 )(1 z 4 + z 8 )

k 1

(1 z 2 + z 2 ) = 2k .

: k / 2

(1 z 2

+1

+ z 2 )(1 z 2 + z 2 ) , = 0, 2, 4,, k .

w = z 2 . w .

(1 z 2

+1

+ z 2 )(1 z 2 + z 2 ) = (1 w + w2 )(1 w2 + w4 )

= (1 w + w2 )(1 w2 + w ) = (1 w + w )(1 w + w ) =|1 w + w |2 =|1 2i Im( w ) |2 =

1
3
=|1 i 3 |2 = 4 , w = i
.
2
2
, (1 z + z 2 )(1 z 2 + z 4 )(1 z 4 + z 8 )

k 1

(1 z 2 + z 2 ) = 4k / 2 = 2k .

79

1.17 C

1.17.1

( z)
:
f ( z ) = an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

+ a1 z + a0 , ak C , k = 0,1, , n an 0 .

n f ( z ) deg f ( z ) .
ak = 0 , k = 0,1,, n , .
.

C .

f ( z ) g ( z ) g ( z ) 0 ,
( z ) ( z ) ( z ) = 0 deg ( z ) < deg g ( z ) ,
f ( z ) = g ( z ) ( z ) + ( z ) .
( z ) ( z ) f ( z ) : g ( z ) .
( z ) ( z ) :
+ a1 z + a0 g ( z ) = bm z m + bm 1 z m 1 + + b1 z + b0 ,
a
( z ) n z n m . g ( z )
bm
an n m
z
f ( z ) .
bm
a
f ( z ) n z n m g ( z ) f ( z ) .
bm

f ( z ) = an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

. f ( z )
a
f ( z ) n z n m g ( z ) .
bm
, ( z ) g ( z ) .

1.17.2

(3z 4 2 z 3 + 4 z + 1) : ( z 2 + 2) .
: :

80

3z 4-2z3+0z2+4z+1
-3z4

z2+2
(z)

3z 2-2z-6

-6z 2

-2z3 -6z2+4z+1
+4z
2z3
-6z 2 +8z+1
12
6z 2+
(z)
8z+13

deg g ( z ) = 1 , . g ( z ) = z , C ,
z = f ( z ) = ( z ) ( z ) + = f ( ) . ,
f ( z ) = ( z ) ( z ) + f ( ) .

1.17.3

C f ( z ) f ( z )
z .

( z )

f ( )

f ( z) : ( z )

Horner.
f ( z ) = 2 z 3 (1 + i ) z 2 iz + 1 = i .
2, (1 + i ), i,1 3 4 ( 3 ( n + 1) )
.

-2
i

-2

-(1+i)
-2i

-i
i

-(1+3i)

3-i 2+3i
i

3-2i 3+3i

2 3 . i 2i
2 , (1 + i ) .
. (1 + 3i ) 3 , .
. f (i ) .
( z ) .

81

1.17.4 ( )

f ( z )
C.

1.17.5

f ( z )

.
: , f ( z ) z1 C .

f ( z ) = ( z z1 ) f1 ( z ) f1 ( z ) . f1 ( z )
f ( z ) .
f1 ( z ) f1 ( z ) = a( z z2 )

( z zn ) , a

( f ( z ) ) z2 ,, zn C . ,
f ( z ) = a ( z z1 )( z z2 )

( z zn ) .

z1 ,, zn . 1 ,, k
, s1 ,, sk ,
f ( z ) = a ( z 1 ) s1 ( z 2 ) s2

( z k ) sk .

st t , ( t = 1, 2,, k ).

1.17.6
1. C z 3 + (1 + i ) z 2 + az + 2 = 0

z1 = i .
: i 3 + (1 + i )i 2 + ai + 2 = 0 i 1 i + ai + 2 = 0 ai = 1 + 2i

a = i (1 + 2i ) = 2 + i .
Horner

1+ i
2+i
2
i
2 + i 2
1 1 + 2i
2i
0
1

z 3 + (1 + i ) z 2 + (1 + 2i ) z + 2 = ( z i )( z 2 + (1 + 2i ) z + 2i ) .

z 2 + (1 + 2i ) z + 2i . = (1 + 2i ) 2 8i = 3 + 4i 8i = 3 4i =

82

= 1 4 4i = (1 2i ) 2 . z2 =
= 2i z3 =

1 2i + (1 2i )
=
2

1 2i (1 2i )
= 1 .
2

2. sin

sin

2
3
sin
n
n

sin

(n 1)
n
= n 1 .
n
2

: z n 1 n-
2k
2k
+ i sin
, k = 0,1,, n 1 . 1.17.5 z n 1 = ( z 1)
zk = cos
n
n
zn 1
( z z1 )( z z2 ) ( z zn 1 ) ( z z1 )( z z2 ) ( z zn 1 ) =
= 1 + z + z 2 + + z n 1 .
z 1

z = 1 ( z z1 )( z z2 )

( z zn 1 ) = 1 + z + z 2 +

+ z n 1

(1 z1 )(1 z2 )

(1 zn 1 ) = n |1 z1 ||1 z2 | |1 zn 1 |= n .
2 k
2 k
k
k
k
cos
, 1 zk = 1 cos
i sin
= 1 1 + 2sin 2
2i sin
=
n
n
n
n
n
k
k
k
k
k
sin
sin
i cos
= 1 , k = 1, 2, , n 1 .
= 2sin
i cos

n
n
n
n
n

2
3
(n 1)
sin
sin
= n , .
2n 1 sin sin
n
n
n
n

1.17.7

f ( z ) = an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

+ a1 z + a0 .

f ( z ) , f ( z ) .
:
f ( ) = an ( ) n + an 1 ( ) n 1 +

+ a1 + a0 = an ( n ) + an 1 ( n 1 ) +

+ a1 + a0 =

= an n + an 1 n 1 +

+ a1 + a0 = ( )

= an n + an 1 n 1 +

+ a1 + a0 = f ( ) = 0 = 0 .

1.17.8

f ( z )
.
: ,

f ( z )

C f ( z ) = ( z ) f1 ( z ) , f1 ( z ) .

83

 f1 ( z )

deg f1 ( z ) = deg f ( z ) 1 . .

= a + bi b 0 , = a bi f ( z ) . ,
0 = f ( ) = ( ) f1 ( ) f1 ( z ) . ,

f1 ( z ) = ( z ) f 2 ( z ) , f 2 ( z ) . , f ( z ) = ( z )( z ) f 2 ( z ) =
= ( z a bi )( z a + bi ) f 2 ( z ) = ( z 2 2az + a 2 + b 2 ) f 2 ( z ) f 2 ( z )
deg f 2 ( z ) = deg f ( z ) 2 . .
z 2 2az + a 2 + b 2 .

1.17.9

f ( z) = z 4 + 4 z3 + 8z 2 + 4 z + 7

i .
: i , i .

f ( z ) f ( z ) = ( z i )( z + i ) = z 2 + 1 . f ( z ) : ( z 2 + 1) .
z 4 + 4 z3 + 8z 2 + 4 z + 7

z2 + 1

z4

z2 + 4z + 7

z2
4z3 + 7 z 2 + 4z + 7

4 z 3

4z
7z2
7 z

+7
7
0

, z 4 + 4 z 3 + 8 z 2 + 4 z + 7 = ( z 2 + 1)( z 2 + 4 z + 7) z 2 + 4 z + 7
12 < 0 .

.

1.17.10

f ( z ) = an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

+ a1 z + a0 an 0 a0 , a1 , , an 1 , an Z . =

s
t

( s, t Z s t
), f ( z ) , s a0 t
an . = s Z , a0 .

84

sn
s n 1
s
f = an n + an 1 n 1 +
t
t
t

s
+ a1 + a0 = 0 an s n + an 1s n 1t +
t

+ a1st n 1 + a0t n = 0 . , s (an s n 1 + an 1s n 2t +

an s n 1 + an 1 s n 2 t +

+ a1t n 1 ) = a0t n .

+ a1t n 1 , s a0t n . s t n

. s a0 .
, an s n + an 1s n 1t +
t (an 1s n 1 +

+ a1st n 1 + a0 t n = 0

+ a1st n 2 + a0t n 1 ) = an s n , , t

an .

1.17.11
1. 2 z 3 5 z 2 + 5 z 3 = 0

.
: . .
s
, s -3 t 2.
t

:
1 1 3 3
1, 1, 3, 3, , , , .
2 2 2 2
3
2
3
3
3
3
z1 = . , 2 5 + 5 3 =
2
2
2
2
27
9 15
27 45 + 30 12
= 2 5 + 3 =
=0.
8
4 2
4
3
2 z 3 5 z 2 + 5 z 3 z
2

2 z 3 ( ).
2 z3 5z 2 + 5z 3 2 z 3
2 z 3 +3z 2

z2 z + 1

2 z 2 + 5 z 3
2 z 2 3z
2z 3
2 z + 3
0
, 2 z 3 5 z 2 + 5 z 3 = (2 z 3)( z 2 z + 1) . , z 2 z + 1 =

= 0 z2 =

1+ i 3
1 i 3
z3 =
.
2
2

2. x 3 x 2 11x + 3 = 0 .

85

: 3.

1, 1, 3, 3 . Horner ( ) x1 = 3
.

1 1 11 3 3
3 12 3
1 4 1
0

x 3 x 2 11x + 3 = ( x + 3)( x 2 4 x + 1) . x 2 4 x + 1 = 0
x2 = 2 + 3 x3 = 2 3 .

1.17.12

f ( z ) = an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

+ a1 z + a0 an 0 . z1 , z2 ,, zn

f ( z ) ( ),
Vieta:
n
a
z1 + z2 + + zn = zk = n 1
an
k =1
z1 z2 + z1 z3 +
z1 z2 z3 +

z1 z2

+ z1 zn + z2 z3 +

+ z1 z2 zn +

zn 1 zn = (1) n

+ z2 zn +

+ zn 2 zn 1 zn =

+ zn 1 zn =

1 k1 < k2 < k3 n

1 k1 < k2 n

zk1 zk2 zk3 =

zk1 zk2 =

an 2
an

an 3
an

a0
.
an

, z1 , z2 ,, zn n , ,
Er =

1 k1 < < kr n

zk1

zkr r = 1, 2, , n ,

z n E1 z n 1 + E2 z n 2 +

+ (1) n 1 En 1 z + (1) n En = ( z z1 )( z z2 )

f ( z ) = an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

( z zn ) .

+ a1 z + a0 = an ( z z1 )( z z2 )

( z zn ) .

z r r z n r
. zk1 , zk2 , , zknr , 1 k1 <
(1) r zk1 zk2

< kn r n ,

zknr z r .

(1) r
zk1 zk2
1 k1 < k2 < < knr n

zknr z r .

z r an . :

ar = an (1) r
zk1 zk2
1 k1 < k2 < < knr n

zknr
zk1 zk2
1 k1 < k2 < < knr n

86

zknr = (1) r

ar
.
an

, z1 , z2 , , zn n , ,
Er =

1 k1 < < kr n

zk1

zkr r = 1, 2, , n .

( z z1 )( z z2 )

( z zn ) (1)

nr

zr

En r .

1.17.13
1. z1 + z2 + z3 , z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1 z1 z2 z3 , z1 , z2 , z3

2 z 3 + 3 z 2 + iz + 1 .
: Vieta : z1 + z2 + z3 =

z1 z2 z3 =

3 3
i
1
= , z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1 =
= i
2
2 2
2

1 1
= .
2 2

2.

.
: Euler : z13 + z23 + z33 = 3z1 z2 z3 + ( z1 + z2 + z3 )
( z12 + z22 + z32 z1 z2 z2 z3 z3 z1 ) = 3E3 + E1 ( z12 + z22 + z32 E2 ) .

( z1 + z2 + z3 ) 2 = z12 + z22 + z32 + 2( z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1 ) z12 + z22 + z32 =

= ( z1 + z2 + z3 ) 2 2( z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1 ) = E12 2 E2 .
,
=

z13 + z23 + z33 = 3E3 + E1 ( E12 3E2 ) = E13 3E1 E2 + 3E3 =

33
3 i
1
3 + 3 =
3
2
2 2
2

39 9i
+ .
8 4

3. an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

+ a1 z + a0

an a0 0
1 1
1
z1 , z2 , , zn . , , , .
z1 z2
zn
a
: z1 z2 zn 1 zn = (1) n 0 0 , .
an
1
Er =
, r = 1, 2, , n .
z kr
1 k1 < < kr n zk1
Er En =

z1 z2 zn
=
zl
zkr 1l1 < <lnr n 1
< kr n zk1

1 k1 <

( l1 <

zlnr , zl1 , , zlnr

< ln r {1, 2, , n}

k1 , k2 , , kr ).

87

, Er En = En r Er =

zn +

a1 n 1 a2 n 2
z + z +
a0
a0

En r
En

ar
an
a
=
= (1) r r .
a
a0
( 1) n 0
an

(1) n r

an 1
a
z + n a0 z n + a1 z n 1 + a2 z n 2 +
a0
a0

88

+ an 1 z + an .