2009

iii

1
H .1
1.1 .2
1.2 3
1.3 7
1.4 To .....9
H ...12
16
H .17
1.5 .19
1.5.1 ......19
1.5.2 ......23
1.5.3 .........25
1.6 29
........................30
1.7 32
1.8 O E .35

2
K...41

iv

2.1 41
2.2 A .45
2.3 ...48
2.4 ..58
2.5 2 3 .....64

3
Newton........71
3.1 N 71
3.2 .........75

4
-.......91
4.1 ...91
4.2 ...............96
4.3 ...................100
4.4 ...................................102
4.5 M ............................................................105

5
...........................................107
5.1 To ...........107
5.2 K .........................109
...................................115

5.3 H ........................................117
5.4 H \3 .........................................................120
...............................................120
..................................................122
5.5 .....................................................................124
.....................................................128
5.6 , .............................................131
5.7 ......................................135
5.8 Michelson-Morley........................................................................137

6
Einstein..............................................141
6.1 M Lorentz................................141
6.2 Lorentz..............................147
6.3 .................................150
6.4 .......................................................157
6.5 - ......................................................159
6.6 Doppler................................................................164
6.7 .......................................................169

7
X- Minkowski................................................173
7.1 Minkowski...................................173
7.2 Lorentz Poincare..................................177
7.3 ...............................................182

vi

7.4 T -..........................................184
7.5 Ko .........................................................................................189
7.6 ........................................................................................197
7.7 .................................................................201
........................................................213

8
E .......................................216
8.1 ...................................216
8.2 \3 ..................................225
8.3 To ...............................................................227
8.4 To .....................................233
8.5 Lorentz Maxwell.........................................238

...239

vii


, ,
17 . , ,
,

, Galileo Galilei.
, 1564 - , 1642.

. , Isaac Newton (>N).

, 1642 - , 1726.
(). , James Clerk Maxwell.
, 1831 - , 1879.
.

, Hendrick A. Lorentz.
() 1853, - , 1928

, Albert Einstein.
(), 1879 - (), 1955.

. , Hermann Minkowski.
- - (), 1864, - () 1909.
.

, 1632 : ,

(Dialogo sopra i dui massimi sistemi del mondo, totemaico e copernicano).

, 1687 :
(Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica).

(), 1873 :
(Tteatise on electricity and magnetism).

, 1895 :

(Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in
bewegter Krper),
1904 :
.
, 1905 :
(Zur Electrodynamik bewegter Krper)

, 1908 :

( Lorentz, Einstein Minkowski

Dover, 1952).

. ( )

, ,
i. ,
ii ,
,
iii.
.

(ii), ,
, ,

,
, : F=ma.
, ,
, . ,
, F
. , , ,
.

1864,
Maxwell
, ,
.
, . ,
, ,
Maxwell .
(Maxwell) (Newton)

) .
) ( ) -
.
)
. ,
.
19
Annalen der Physik.
. -
1905
.
. , Hermann M
, -
. - ,
.

1.
, .
,
, .
,
, ..
.
,
, , ,
.
. ,

. ,

.
,
, .
. ,
() . , ...
.

. ,
,
.
.

1.1
H ()
() . , , ,
, () .
,
.
.
: .
. , .
.
, ,
. ,

.

, . ,
(Shakespeare),
... , .
,
, .
:
.
. ..
3, 6 9 .
{3,6,9}. , {, , }
, .
. ,
{, , } { , , } .
, '
, , . ,
.
. {, , }
. ={, , }
.
x ,
. x
,
. , x x
. t x . .. ={,
, }, x x =, x =, x =,
!
={, } ={, , }.
.
, . ={, , }
={,} ,
.
,
. .. ={, , }, ={, , },
={, }. ={, } ={, },
. , .
{ } . ,
= . , .
,
. H , . ,
={, } ={, }, = 8, , , <. ={, 2} ={#, },
= 8, 2, , <.

1.2
,
.
. ,

. .

. , .
,
.
, , ,


. . Y, ,
83, 6, 9<, 8, , < { #, , } .
-- (1-1) -
- :
3,

6,

9 .

Y 1-1
,
9,

6,

3 .

, 1-1
{, } { #, , }. ,
- . , , 8 , , <
8, <. , { #, , , * },
,
{ #, , }.
,
.
.
.
.
{, , , ,
..., , ..., , ..., , ..., , ....}.
,
, .
:
1-1 .

,
. . . ,
,
- ,
. ,
, .

, . ,
, , .
, , .
.
,
, ... ,
.
. , 1, 2,
3, .. , , ... .
( )
o . ,
.
.. V
. , 5
. , 5 V
. ,
5 , V.
.
,
, 1-1 o
.
.
x, y
x + y. x y
, x = y + . x - y y x.
H x .
, x x. x, y, z
z = x y, z x, x,
x = z y. z y,
y = z x.

, x, , y,
. A x = y + , y - x
-. x = y,
0.
.

, .
,
. , 2 3.
2/3. , x
x = z n, z n .
. .
x x x x2 . M
x, x , y y2 = x.

:

1 = 1,

4 = 2,

9 = 3,

1 4 = 1 2,

4 9 = 2 3. ,

y y = 2 . ,
, .

.
, ,
. , , :
(i) H-, aL :=8x : x < a<.

(ii) H-, aD :=8x : x a<.

(iii) Ha, bL :=8x : a < x < b< a b.

(iv) [a, b):=8x : a x < b<.

(v) Ha, bD :=8x : a < x b<.

(vi) @a, bD :=8x : a x b< a b > a.

(vii) Hb, L := 8x : x > b<.

(viii) @b, L := 8x : x b<.

Y .
, , ,
,
.
H, L, .
, . =,
2 .

(i) ={Hm, nL : m , n }
(ii) ={Hm, xL : m , x }
(iii) [a, b]={H x, yL : x , y , a x b}
(iv) [a, b] (c, d)={H x, yL : x , y , a x b, c < y < d}

(v) 2 ={Hm, nL : m , n }
(vi) 2 ={Hx, yL : x , y }
M .

(i) =8Hm, n, xL : m , n , x <

(ii) 2 = 8Hm, n, , xL : m , n , x <

(iii) 2 = 8Hm, x, yL : m , x , y <

(iv) 3 = 8Hx, y, zL : x , y , z <.

1.3
f
X Y . f x X
f HxL Y ,
X Y . f : X Y .

f HxL Y x X . Y
X f HX L. M
f HX L = 8y Y : y = f HxL, x X <.
f : X Y . ,
X , f HxL x
x f HX L Y .
, X , Y f : X Y
, n , n
. f : X Y "".
.. x .
x2 x
. .. x = 3, x2 = 9, x = 4, x2 = 16 ...
" f : f HxL = x2 ",
f HxL x .
,

f HxL = 5

f : I

1 - x2 I = @-1, 1D. ,

, 5
I.

1 - x2 x

. g : I , I
f : I ,
gHxL =

-x
x

1 - x2 , -1 x 0
1 - x2 ,

0x1

M
.
(i) T f : , f Hn, xL = Hn + 1L x2 ,

(ii) T f : 2 , f Hx, yL = x2 y3 ,
(iii) T f : D , f Hx, yL =

D = 9Hx, yL 2 : x2 + y2 1=,

1 - x2 - y2 ,

(iv) T f : B , f Hx, y, zL = 1 Ix2 + y2 + z2 M,

B = 9Hx, y, zL 3 : x 0, y 0, z 0=.

. ,
x x, x := - x, x 0 x := x, x 0.
x, y , x - y x, y.
f : ( )

f HnL n fn .
2
, , fn = H2 - nL n . " ( ) fn
L, n " limn fn = L,
: > 0, , N ,
n > N, f HnL - L < . L fn .

, , f : Ha, bL
x0 @a, bD. ( ) f L x x0
limxx0 f HxL = L, : > 0,

, , x Ha, bL x - x0 < ,
f HxL - L < . L f x x0 .

1.4

: , ,
, ... ,
, .
, ..
, . ,
.
. ,
, .
, , ,
.

. P.

. , , .

, P
, .
P
. , (, ) P
P .
, :
, , ,
,
, .

10

, , =, ={}.

, .
() .
.
() .
.

() .
, .

, , 8 P P .

11

P P
.
" ", .
. , P
P ,
, .

()
. ,
. ,
,
.
, P (
) :
P+ , P- P .

P+

, P- P+ = P = P- P+ .
A,
: + - ,
, (. ). , + - =
= - 8< + . , - 8< 8< +
.

12

, , ,
.
(i) , , . ,
.
(ii) , , , ,
.
, . ,
, .

P1

P2

P3

P4

(iii) , .
, , .
,

.
H
, .

.
.
.
, ,
, .
(. )

13

,
.
. , ,
.

.
"" ,
. , , .

.
,
. ,
,
.
.. ,


.
,
. , ,
, .
, . ,
1/3 .

14

m. To , cm,
.

r
. , .
, r .

r.
r o
r. r
. r .
() .

O
A

P P.
,
.
r
2 r 2 r . ,
P ,
.
,
.

, .

15

, .
.
.
A, B,
: , , ,
.
, , .
, , .
.

.
, ,
' .

b
a < b. H
.
HL.
. ,
a = , , 2 1 .
, (), 2
HL = 2 HL2 . , '

16

a = b = , , , 1.
HL = HL2 .

,
.
,
,
"" ()
.
.. ,
, . (
).

, , , .
.
' . a
b, a b
H1 2L a b.

c
a b, , c
a b, : c2 = a2 + b2 .

.
, :
a b, ,
c =

a2 + b2 .

.. a = 3 b = 4 , c = 5 . , , a = H3 5L b = H4 5L ,
c = 1 . , a = b = 1 , c = 2 .
A 2 ,
,
,

17

.
,
. .
(;)

x
. ,
, .. 1 , 2 , 3 ... , , .
, , , ... , .
, , , , ..
1, 2, 3 ... , , ... -1, -2, -3 ...
4
-3

3
-2

2
-1

1
0

0
1

-1
2

-2
3

1-1 , ,
{, , , , , , , ...} x.
(1/n), n , ,
H0, 1D
.
@-1, 0L
. ,
... 1-1
x , .
, 1-1 x
, , : p
P x . P p
p ,
p .
, , x , .

, .

. , ,

.
.

18

4
-3

3
-2

2
-1

1
0

0
1

-1
2

-2
3

,
" ".

,
. , ,

,
.

19

1.5

1.5.1
x, y O. p
y. x , p1 .
A p x. y
, p2 (. ).
y

p2

p1

p
( p1 , p2 ) , x y,
. p H p1 , p2 L . ,
H p1 , p2 L p .

, H p1 , p2 L p,
. p1 x y. ,
p2 y x.
p. , p
p1 , p2 .
x, y
.
, , ,
. p1
xH p1 L, p2
yH p2 L. H p1 , p2 L
H xH p1 L, yH p2 L L . , ,
H p1 , p2 L p. ,

20

p H xH p1 L, yH p2 L L .
, H xH p1 L, yH p2 L L H xH pL, yH pL L.
,

, A : P 2 ,
P ,
2.
.

p P, H xH pL, yH pL L = AH pL,
A : P 2 , p ( ) x-y.

(0, 0).

, ,
( Descartes
(N), ).
y
5
4
3

p2

2
1
-1 O

p1
4
5

-1

p
. ,
. ,
. ,
O, p p1 , :
O p

xH pL2 + yH pL2 .

To , p1 p2 ,
Hx1 , y1 L := H xH p1 L, yH p1 L L Hx2 , y2 L := H xH p2 L, yH p2 L L, . dH p1 , p2 L,
(5.1)

dH p1 , p2 L =

Hx1 - x2 L2 + Hy1 - y2 L2 .

A ,

(5.2)

21

x := x2 - x1 ,

y := y2 - y1 ,

p1 p2 , (5.1)
(5.3)

dH p1 , p2 L =

H xL2 + H yL2 .

, P,
,
. , ,
.
y
y

p2

p
p2

x
p1
p1

, x y x y .
y
y

p2

p
p2

x
p1
O

p1

x y x y
.
. , -

22

, x y
(5.4)

A : p AH pL = H xH pL, yH pL L H xH p1 L, yH p2 L L.

, x y
(5.5)

A : p A H pL = H x H pL, y H p L L H x H p1 L, y H p2 L L.

, . ,
Hx, yL := H xH pL, yH pL L
p
Hx , y L := H x H pL, y H p L L. Hx , y L -
p Hx, yL.
Hx, yL Hx , y L

(5.6)

x = a x + b y + m,

y = c x + d y + n,

Ha, b, c, d, m , nL .
, Hx, yL Hx , y L.

(5.6),
. .
, x , y x y, . - ,
Hx , y L Hx, yL
O, .
(.. O q)
( O q), , ,
O s O p1 x O p1 cos . O p1

s p1 = q p1 sin + p q sin = p p1 sin = y sin .
,
x = x cos + y sin .

23

y
y

p2

p2

x
p1

p1

O p2 = O r cos = HO p2 - p2 rL cos

= Hy - p2 rL cos = Hy - x tan L cos

y = - x sin + y cos .
, , ,
p
x = cos x + sin y ,

(5.7)

y = -sin x + cos y.

, (5.6), Ha, b, c, d, m , nL = Hcos , sin , -sin , cos , 0 , 0L.

1.5.2
(5.6)
. m n .

.

, Hx1 , y1 L x, y, (5.6)

(5.8)

x1 = a x1 + b y1 + m,

y1 = c x1 + d y1 + n.

(5.9)

x2 = a x2 + b y2 + m,

y2 = c x2 + d y2 + n.

, Hx2 , y2 L, (5.6)

,
(5.10)

x := x2 - x1 = a x + b y,

y := y2 - y1 = c x + d y.

(5.6) :

24

a d - b c 0,

(5.11)

x = x+ y+ ,

(5.12)

y = x + y +

d
,
a d-b c

(5.13)

(5.13)

=-

=-

c
,
a d-b c

b
,
a d-b c

a
,
a d-b c

b n-d m
,
a d-b c

v=

c m-a n
.
a d-b c

.
, .
, (5.6)
. , p1 , p2 ,
Hx1 , y1 L, Hx2 , y2 L, , x y Hx1 , y1 L, Hx2 , y2 L x y .
, ,
dH p1 , p2 L =

(5.14)

d H p1 , p2 L =

(5.15)

H xL2 + H yL2

H x L2 + H y L2 .

, (5.10),
(5.16)

H x L2 + H y L2

= Ia2 + c2 M H xL2 + Ib2 + d 2 M H yL2 + 2 Ha b + c dL H xL H yL.

K , dH p1 , p2 L = d H p1 , p2 L,

H x L2 + H y L2 = H xL2 + H yL2

(5.17)

(5.18)

a2 + c2 = 1 = b2 + d 2 ,

a b + c d = 0.

,
(5.19)

cos2 + sin2 = 1,

, :
(5.18)
(5.20)

a = cos ,

c = sin

b = sin ,

d = cos ,

(5.21)

, .
a b + c d = 0

25

.
cos sin + sin cos sinH + L = 0.

(5.22)
,

+ = ,

(5.23)

, (5.23)
(5.24)

cos = cos H - L = cos ,

sin = sin H - L = -sin .

, (5.9)
(5.25)

x = cos x - sin y + m,

y = sin x + cos y + n.

, (5.23)
cos = -cos ,

(5.26)

sin = sin .

, (5.9)
(5.27)

x = cos x + sin y + m,

y = sin x - cos y + n.

, = 0, (5.25) (5.27)
(5.28)

x = x + m,

y = y + n,

x = x + m,

y = - y + n,

(5.29)

. , (5.25) = 0,
x y
x y. x , y O ,
Hx, yL = H-m, -nL.
(5.27), y x.
, (5.25) (5.27) x , y
x , y . x , y
, - .
, O , .
(5.27),
y.
1.5.3
2 ,
. , Hx, yL, Hz, wL 2 ,
(5.30)

Hx, yL + Hz, wL := Hx + z, y + wL.

M 2
. , a Hx, yL 2 ,
(5.31)

aHx, yL := Ha x, a yL

26

2 . , 2
.

Hx, yL = Hx, 0L + H0, yL Hx, 0L = xH1, 0L,

H0, yL = yH0, 1L. ,
(5.31)

Hx, yL = xH1, 0L + yH0, 1L.

, , . , ,
(5.32)

= Hx, yL, e 1 = H1, 0L, e 2 = H0, 1L,

(5.31)
= x e 1 + y e 2.

(5.33)

, x y, 2
P, = Hx, yL 2
p Hx, yL,
p.
.
2

2 . , Hx1 + x2 , y1 + y2 L
Hx1 , y1 L Hx2 , y2 L 2

w O r

O p
u O q , .
y

w
O

u
p

27

1.5.4
,
.
. -
,
, . . ,

.
, ,
2 . T
.

2 I = H0, LH-, L.
,
x, y , O.
r .
: " O
r". ,
.
,
H-, L: " O
x".
,
p.
, p, L O,
O ,
O p. H L r
O p Hr, L.
L x
x y, .

28

p
L

L = 9Hx, yL 2 : x 0, y = 0=.

(5.34)

:
(5.35)

:= 2 \ L = 9Hx, yL 2 : Hx, yL L=.

, , p ,
Hx, yL Hr, L.
( 2 )
I = H0, LH-, L.

(5.36)

x = r cos ,

(5.37)

y = r sin .

, Hr, L I Hx, yL .
, (5.37)
r 2 = x2 + y2 ,

(5.38)

tan = .

, Hx, yL Hr, L I

(5.39)

r=

x2 + y2 ,

= arctan Hy xL.

1.6

29

O
,
.
, f : I J , I , J
, .
.. f :
f HxL = x2 .
I = @-2, 3D, I
x, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 3. ,
, ,
x.
4
-2

1
-1

0
0

1
1

4
2

9
3

, , :
x f HxL I,
I, 9x j =, j = 1, 2 , m.
, x y

Ix j , y j M = Ix j , f Ix j MM, j = 1, 2 , m.

f HxL = x2 ,
x6 = 3.

I = @-2, 3D x1 = -3, x2 = -1, x3 = 0, x4 = 1, x5 = 2

30

y
10

-2 -1

.
.
y
10

y
10

-2 -1

-2 -1

x y o ,
x f HxL ,
.. cm. ,
, () .
f HxL = x2 ,
5.
I = @-10 cm, 10 cmD,
.

31

To
.
.. f : f HxL = 1 H1 + xL2 .

"" x y. ,
cm x x .
A, cm y
f HxL . O ,
. H, L = H1, 10L.
yHcmL
100
80
60
40
20
-10

-5

10

xHcmL

T, x = 1 cm,
y = 1 cm
, x
sec f HxL
.
yHL
30
25
20
15
10
5
20

40

60

80

100

xHminL
120

. , r
9Hx, yL 2 : x2 + y2 = r2 =.
y 0, y = f HxL

r2 - x2 . To

32

1.7

f : 2 2
f Hx, yL = 2 x y. ,
f : 2 2 .
,
, 2 .
h : hHx, yL = 1 + x + y
= 9Hx, yL 2 : 0 x 2, 0 y 1=. , , .. , .
, , 2

. , gHx, yL = 1 Ix2 + y2 M
Hx, yL = H0, 0L. , gHx, yL = 1 Ix2 + y2 M

g : = 2 \ 8H0, 0L<
, 2 . ,
Hx, yL = 1 Hx - yL = 9Hx, yL 2 : x = y =.
Hx, yL = 1 Hx - yL -
= 2 \ 2 .
Y
2 .
f : ,
f Hx, yL = 2 x y
= 9Hx, yL 2 : -2 x 2, -2 y 2=

33

y
-8

-4

-4

-2

0
-2

0
-1

2
1

1
-1
-2

-2

-4

-4

-8

f : . , f Hx, yL = 2 x y
2 Hx, yL = H1, 1L,
x y = 1.
() .
y
2

-2

xy=1

-1

xy=1

-1

-2

f Hx, yL = 2 x y -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 3. ( x y = 0
x, y = 0, y, x = 0).
y
2
1

-2

-1

1
-1
-2

34

, .
f : f ,

f = 2 \ 8H0, 0L<, f Hx, yL =

x2 + y2 ,

x, y . T 2
f Hx, yL = r,
r.

A , g : g , g = 9Hx, yL 2 : x > 0=,

gHx, yL = tan-1 H y xL, gHx, yL =

x.

A Hx, yL 2 ,
: 2 , = f g ,
Hx, yL = H f Hx, yL, gHx, yLL .
2 \ 8Hx, yL : x 0, y = 0<
:= 9Hr, L 2 : r > 0, - < < = 2 ,
.
:
(7.1)
(7.1)

r = f Hx, yL =

x2 + y2 ,

x = r cos ,

= gHx, yL = tan-1 H y xL

y = r sin

Hr, L
.
.
y
4
=38
=28

r=3
2
r=2
r=1
-3 -2 -1

=
1

-2

=0
x
4
=

=2
=38

-4

35

1.8
.
(), () .
.

- , 4 .

T
.
,
. , .
, S, .
p ,
, .. .
p, q S p q, q p
p q. r p, q
- p q r. A
s, ,
p q r, p q s, q r s, p r s.

36

To .
, a b c d,
o, . o o p
a b c d .

, x, y z a b, c d, o p
(. ) ,

.
z

y
O

37

,
. x, y z
, , p .

p
p3
p2

r
q
p1

T p z o . p
z. x
y , q. , p y o
. p
y. x z, r.
, q y
x. H x
p1 , y p2 . T, r
x. z
p3 . M p
H p1 , p2 , p3 L x, y z, .
p H p1 , p2 , p3 L . ,

H p1 , p2 , p3 L , , x, y z p
.
E x, y z,
. p1 xH p1 L, p2
xH p2 L , , p3 xH p3 L.
,
H p1 , p2 , p3 L H xH p1 L, yH p2 L, zH p3 L L 3 ,

(8.1)

(8.2)

p HxH pL, yH pL, zH pLL HxH p1 L, yH p2 L, zH p3 LL 3 .

38

, ,
. ,
3 ,
.
2 , 3
,
. , Hx, y, zL, Hr, s, tL 3 ,
(8.3)

Hx, y, zL + Hr, s, tL := Hx + r, y + s, z + tL.

(8.4)

aHx, y, zL := Ha x, a y, a zL

a Hx, y, zL 3 ,

3 . , 3
() .

Hx, y, zL = Hx, 0, 0L + H0, y, 0L + H0, 0, zL

(8.5)

(8.6)

Hx, 0, 0L = xH1, 0, 0L,

,
(8.7)

H0, y, 0L = yH0, 1, 0L, H0, 0, zL = zH0, 0, 1L.

Hx, y, zL = xH1, 0, 0L + yH0, 1, 0L + zH0, 0, 1L.

(8.8)

(8.9)

= x e1+ ye2+ze3
= Hx, y, zL, e 1 = H1, 0, 0L, e 2 = H0, 1, 0L, e 3 = H0, 0, 1L.

, x y z, 3
E, = Hx, y, zL 3
p Hx, y, zL,
p.
.
= Hx, y, zL w = Hr, s, tL 3
(8.10)

w := x r + y s + z t.

. ' , w = 0, , w
. e 1 , e 2 e 3
.

39

A , ,
p Hx, y, zL. , ,
p

x2 + y2 + z2 . , p1 p2
Hx1 , y1 , z1 L Hx2 , y2 , z2 L , ,
(8.11)

dH p1 , p2 L =

H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2

Hx2 - x1 L2 + Hy2 - y1 L2 + Hz2 - z1 L2 .

, = Hx, y, zL

:=
z

(8.12)

x2 + y2 + z 2 .

1 = Hx1 , y1 , z1 L 2 = Hx2 , y2 , z2 L
(8.13)

(8.14)

:= 2 - 1 = Hx2 , y2 , z2 L - Hx1 , y1 , z1 L

= Hx2 - x1 L + Hy2 - y1 L + Hz2 - z1 L x + y + z.

=

H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 dH p1 , p2 L.

,
,
3 ' v E. , 3
.

40

2.
2.1
,
,
"" . , ,
.
, -
, .
.
,
. 1-1
, 3 .
.
.

.
,
.
, .
,
.
,
x y z.
T,
. , p.

, p HxH pL, yH pL, zH pLL 3 .

, , ... !
, ,
.
, . ,
.

42

, :
,
. . ,
, . ,
, .
- " " .
, , -
.
,
.
, ,
: ,
,
.
, ,
,
. , ..,
,
, , ,
, ,
, . -
. , ,

.

. , ,
.
, 24
, , 1/24 .
h ( hour=).
, -
min ( minute) sec ( second):
1min=(1/60)h 1sec=(1/60)min.
, ,

. ,

43

, .. (1 = 365 , 1 =
100).

. , "" .
.. 10,
7 ..
7h. , 9
12. , ,
9h
12h. ,
3h.
, t,
0 h t 12 h. ,
. .. -
6 h
9 h ,
0 h,
. 12 h ""
.
, , t 0 h .

, 12 h. ,
, 12 h = 0 h ,
.
,
- "
" :
,
.
,
. .. ,
, ,
, .
.

44

,
.

(0,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,1,0) (0,0,1) 3 , .

y
2
0

,
, , ,
, ,
,
.. , ,

.
, .
, ,
, , . ,
, , .

45

2.2
, , .
,
, ,
,
1917, .
, , , , .
, .
.
.
4 37 . ,
. ,
, . , ,
.

.
!
. ,
. , ,
, . ,
,
,
.
, ,
.
,

.
, " ", "" , .

46

.. ,
x y z. , -
( ) ()
1sec.
Hx, y, zL = H80 cm, 140 cm, 185 cmL.
,

. H t. 1 , 2 , 3 ...
,
t1 tH 1 L=0sec, t2 tH 2 L=1sec, t3 tH 3 L=3sec,
..

1 , 2 , 3 ...

.
Hx1 , y1 , z1 L HxH 1 L, yH 1 L, zH 1 LL, Hx2 , y2 , z2 L HxH 2 L, yH 2 L, zH 2 LL
Hx1 , y1 , z1 L = Hx2 , y2 , z2 L =Hx3 , y3 , z3 L =H80 cm, 140 cm, 185 cmL.

, 1 , 2 , 3 ... .
..,

,
y z, .
tHsecL
6

1
20

40

60

1
80
100

xHcmL
120

,
1 , 2 , ..., 6 , o x = 80, 0 t 5,
.

47

tHsecL
6

1
20

40

60

1
80
100

xHcmL
120

,
. , x = 80 cm t = 0, 1 sec
(x, t)=(80, 0,1) . ,
x = 80 cm t = 0, 2 sec
(x, t)=(80, 0,2) .
x = 80, 0 t 5, 1 ,
2 , ..., 6 . , x = 80 cm
t = sec, [0, 5] (x, t)=(80, )
x = 80, 0 t 5. ,
x = 80, 0 t 5.

. x = a,
x = a, - t
x t. To
0 t 5 .
tHsecL
6

5
4

1
20

40

60

1
80
100

xHcmL
120

48

2.3 E o
( ) x.
x t
x . To
.

t=0sec
0

t=1sec
1

t=2sec
3

t=3sec
5

xHcmL

,
. t = 0, 1, 2 3 sec. ,
.
0 : x = 0cm t = 0sec,
1 : x = 2cm t = 1sec,
2 : x = 4cm t = 2sec,
3 : x = 6cm t = 3sec.

x t

0 cm

0 sec

2 cm

1 sec

4 cm

2 sec

6 cm

3 sec

x j xI j M, j = 0, 1, 2, 3,
j . , t j tI j M j .
9 j = It j , x j M
t x,
.

49

tHsecL
4
3

1
0 1

-1

xHcmL

-1

, 9 j =
Ix j , t j M
x t, .
xHcmL
7
6

5
4

3
2

1
0

tHsecL

.
: ,
x j j , t j :
x t, x j = 2 t j . ,

x j = t j , = 2 cm sec.

, , x = 0 cm,
, x = 6 cm, x. H
- .
.
, , Hx, tLHxHL, tHLL
, . -
, x, , t, ;

, , . ,
j , j = 0, 1, 2, 3.

, x = t, = 2 cm sec, t
0 sec t 3 sec. , :

50

x = 0 HcmL x = 6 HcmL . , 0 3
x - t, .
tHsecL
4

1
0

-1

xHcmL

-1

= 2 cm sec

.
, ,
t , , x, , t,
x = x0 + t. , x0 ,
cm cm/sec, .
, , t ,
. , " "
x t, x = x0
.
x t = . ,
x = a + . , a = x - x = a + t

(3.1)

x = x + Ht - L,

t .

3.1
(i) 0 sec t 5 sec, 1 =5cm/sec
x. N 1
, x.
(ii) , 2 =3cm/sec
x. N 2
, o x = 0cm x.
(iii) N 1 2 .

51

(i) H 1
x = x + Ht - L. [0, 5],
= 0(sec) x = 0 HcmL. 1
x = 0 + 5 Ht - 0L = 5 t.

, 1
Hx , L = H0, 0L Hx , L = H25, 5L.
tHsecL

5
4
3

2
1

10

15

20

25

xHcmL

(ii) 2
x = 0 + 3 Ht - 0L = 3 t,

.
tHsecL

5

2

4
3
2
1

2.5

7.5

10

12.5

15

xHcmL

-1

(iii) H .
,
t.

52

tHsecL
5

H2L

H1L

4
3
2

1
= H2L
-5
-1

10

15

20

25

30

xHcmL

3.2

(i) 0 sec t 5 sec 1 = 5 cm sec

x. N 1
, x = 2 cm.

(ii) , 2 = -3 cm sec
x. N 2
, o x = 9 cm.
(iii) N 1 2 .

(i) H 1 x = x + Ht - L.
= 0 HsecL x = 2 HcmL. 1
x = 2 + 5 Ht - 0L = 2 + 5 t.

1 Hx , L = H2, 0L
Hx , L = H27, 5L:
tHsecL

H1L

5
4
3
2

1
H1L 5

10

15

20

25

30

(ii) 2
x = 9 + H-3L Ht - 0L = 9 - 3 t,

xHcmL

53

.
tHsecL

H2L

5
4
3

2
1

-15

-10

-5

H2L
10

xHcmL

-1

(iii) H :
H2L

tHsecL
6

H1L

5
4
3

2
2

H1L
1

-20

-10

H2L
10
20

30

40

xHcmL

-1

1 2 xm x
x = 2 cm, 1 , x = 9 cm,
2 .
,
x = 2 + 5 t x = 9 - 3 t.
1 2 x = xm = 6, 375 cm,
t = tm = H7 8L sec. To .
3.3

, 1 , 4 cm sec.
, , 2 , 6 cm sec. 2
1 .
15cm,
(i) N
, .
(ii) , 1 2

54

, ,
.

(i) H
x = x + Ht - L. ,
x , 1 2 . ,
,
.
, , x = 0 x
1 t = 0. ,
1
x1 = 1 t,

1 = 4 cm sec,

1 ( ) 1 . ,
4 cm sec,
1 .
, x .
, x = 15 cm. , 2
sec 1 , 2 x = x t = 3 sec. , 2
x2 = x + 2 Ht - 3L, x = 15 cm, 2 = 6 cm sec.

tm > 3 sec
t, x1 = x2 .
1 tm = x + 2 Htm - 3L tm = Hx - 3 2 L H1 - 2 L.

tm > 3 x - 3 2 > 3 H1 - 2 L x > 3 1 , 1 > 2 ,

tm > 3 x - 3 2 < 3 H1 - 2 L x < 3 1 ,

, tm > 3 2 < 1 < x 3,

1 < 2 .

Hx 3L 1 < 2 .

1 = H4L, 2 = H6L x 3 = H5L,

:
() x = 15, 1 = -4, 2 = -6. tm = 16, 5 sec, xm = -66 cm.
() x = -15, 1 = 4, 2 = 6. tm = 16, 5 sec, xm = 66 cm.
(ii) () :

55

tHsecL
H1L= H2L

20
15
10

-80

-60

-40

-20

H1L

H2L
20

xHcmL

()
.

, 1 , 4 cm sec. ,
, 2 , 6 cm sec. 2
1 .
12cm,
(i) N
, .
(ii) , 1 2 ,
, ,
.
3.4
(i) 0 sec t 10 sec, 1
x. t = 4 sec, 5cm/sec.
8cm/sec. N 1
, t = 0 sec x = 0 cm.
(ii) , 2 3 cm sec
x. x = 15 cm , . N -
2 ,
o x = 0 cm.
(iii) N 1 2 .

(i) 1 0 sec t 10 sec,

x = x + Ht - L.
, ,
x = x + Ht - L .

56

, 0 sec t 4 sec
1 x = x + Ht - L = 0, x = 0 = 5. ,
x = 5 t,

0 t 4.

, 4 sec t 10 sec 1
x = x + Ht - L = 4, x = 20 = 8. 0 t 4
1 x = 5 4 = 20 HcmL. ,
x = 20 + 8 Ht - 4L = -4 + 8 t,

4 t 10.

x 0 sec t 4 sec
4 sec t 10 sec, , 1
[0, 10]
x=:

5 t,
0t4
-4 + 8 t, 4 t 10

H 1 .
tHsecL

H1L

10
8
6
c H1L

4
2
H1,2L

20

40

60

80

xHcmL

(ii) M , 2 . ,
0 sec t tc sec, tc 2 ,
x = x + Ht - L = 0, = 3. ,
x = 3 t,

0 t tc .

T t = tc 2 x = xc = 15 HcmL. xc = 3 tc
tc = 5 HsecL. , 5 sec t 10 sec, 2
= -3 Hcm secL.
x = x + Ht - L = 5, x = 15 = -3. ,
x = 15 - 3 Ht - 5L = 30 - 15 t,

5 t 10.

x 0 sec t 5 sec
5 sec t 10 sec, , 2
[0, 10]
x=:

3 t,
0t5
30 - 15 t, 5 t 10

57

H 2 .
tHsecL
10

H2L

8
c H2L

6
4
2
H2L

10

15

20

xHcmL

(iii)
.
tHsecL
12
10

H2L

H1L

8
6
4

c H2L

c H1L

2
H1L= H2L

20

40

60

80

xHcmL

, 1 2
. ,
= @, D ,

()

() n , 1 = @t0 , t1 D,
2 = @t1 , t2 D, ..., j = At j-1 , t j E, ..., n = @tn-1 , tn D,
(3.2)

= t0 < t1 < t2 < ... < t j-1 < t j < ... < tn-1 < tn = ,

(3.3)

x = x j-1 + v j It - t j-1 M,

t j-1 t t j ,

j = 1, 2, ..., n.

58

2.4
( ) ,
x.

0 1

0 2

18

4HsecL

32HcmL

0 x0 = 0 t0 = 0,
1 x1 = 2 t1 = 1,
2 x2 = 8 t2 = 2,
3 x3 = 18 t3 = 3,
4 x4 = 32 t4 = 4,
:
tHsecL
4

4
3

3
2

2
1

1
0

xHcmL
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

A ,
. , , x j ( j = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4),
, t j . M x j = x0 + t j ,
.

59

, , .
. = @0, 4D (0 sec t 4 sec) 4
1 = @t0 , t1 D = @0, 1D, 2 = @t1 , t2 D=@1, 2D, 3 = @t2 , t3 D=@2, 3D 4 = @t3 , t4 D=@3, 4D,
(4.1)

x = x j-1 + j It - t j-1 M,

t j-1 t t j ,

j = 1, 2, 3, 4.

,
x = x0 + 1 Ht - t0 L,

(4.2)

t0 t t1 .

t0 = 0, x0 = 0 t1 = 1 HsecL.
0 t 1.

x = 1 t,

(4.3)

x = 2 HcmL t = 1 HsecL. , x = 1 t t = 1,
1 2=1 1. 1 =2(cm/sec).
,

(4.4)

x = x1 + 2 Ht - t1 L = 2 + 2 Ht - 1L, t1 = 1 t 2 = t2 .

, x = 8 cm, t = 2 HsecL. 8=2 + 2 H2 - 1L,

2 = 6 Hcm secL. 3 = 10 Hcm secL
4 = 14 Hcm secL.
,
4 , .
tHsecL
4

4
3

3
2

2
1

1
0

xHcmL
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

, . ,
, x j , , t j ,
:
(4. 5)

x j = t j2,

= 2 cm sec2 ,

j = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.

, , t0 ,..., t4 ,
[0, 4],
(4. 6)

x = t2 ,

= 2 cmsec2 ,

0 t 4.

,
.

60

tHsecL
4

4
3

3
2

2
1

1
0

xHcmL
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

.
, . ,

t t0 ,..., t4 .
"" ,
@, D
x = t2 , cm sec2 . ,
x = f Ht , , ...L, f Ht , , ...L , t,
, ... ,
, , f HtL.

f HtL = + t + t2 , v 0. ( ,
x cm t sec, x = + t + t2 , ,
cm, cm/sec cm sec2 , ).

x = f HtL t2 , t @, D, t1 t2 = t1 + h
t [, ].
x1 = f Ht1 L t1 2 x2 = f Ht2 L t2 2 = Ht1 + hL2 .
,
(4.7)

x2 - x1 = f Ht2 L - f Ht1 L

= f Ht1 + hL - f Ht1 L Ht1 + hL2 - t1 2 = H2 t1 + hL h

(4.8)

x2 -x1
h

f Ht1 +hL- f Ht1 L

= H2 t1 + hL.

A h sec, Hx2 - x1 L h cm/sec, . (

@t1 , t1 + hD ).
h

, 1 Hx2 - x1 L h h
:
(4.9)

1 := lim
h0

x2 -x1
h

= lim
h0

f Ht1 +hL- f Ht1 L

h

= 2 t1 .

t1 .
t1
t @, D.

61

(4.10)

:= lim

f Ht+hL- f HtL
h

h0

t @, D,

= 2 t,

.
,
f HtL := lim

(4.11)

h0

f Ht+hL- f HtL
h

t @, D,

, f : @, D t
Hd f d tL HtL. , (" t") f HtL
@, D. ,
= f HtL.
T,

x = x1 + 1 Ht - t1 L

(4.12)

1 x = x1 t = t1 .
1 :
1 t1 ,
(4.12) x = f HtL, ,
x = f HtL = t2 .
4.1

= 2 Icmsec2 M, x = 2 t2 , @, D=[0, 4]. = 4 t.

t1 = 2 sec x = 8 cm
1 = 8 cm sec. x = x1 + 1 Ht - t1 L x = 8 + 8 Ht - 2L = -8 + 8 t.

x = 2 t2 , t @0, 4D x = -8 + 8 t,
.

t @2, 4D,

tHsecL
4
x=8+8t
x=2t2

3
2
1

xHcmL
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

@, D
x = f HtL, gHtL f
= gHtL. , g
t1 @, D. ,
(4.13)

a1 := lim
h0

gHt1 +hL-gHt1 L
h

62

A t1 .

, - f : @, D
t1 , Id 2 f d x2 M Ht1 L f Ht1 L. ,
f : @, D H, L, .
4.2

@, D

x = f HtL := + t + t2

(4.14)

,
:= f HtL = + 2 t

(4.15)

(4.16)

a := f

HtL = 2 .

, , @, D.
, , , .
= a 2. = + a t. T
t = , = + a . , = - a

= + aHt - L.

(4.17)

, x = + t + t2

x = + H - a L t + H1 2L a t2 .

(4.18)

t = ,
(4.19)

x = + H - a L + H1 2L a 2 = + - H1 2L a 2 .

= x - + H1 2L a 2

(4.20)

x = + t + t2

(4. 21)

x = x + Ht - L +

1
2

aHt - L2 .

4.3

@, D
(4.22)

x = f HtL := + t + t 2 + t3 ,

(4.23)

:= f HtL = + 2 t + 3 t 2

(4.24)

a := f

HtL = 2 + 6 t.

, , ,

63

@, D.

4.4

x = f HtL := sinH tL

(4.25)

.
tHsecL
7
6
5

x=5sinH2tL

4
3
2
1
-8

-6

-4

-2

xHcmL

,
(4.26)

:= f HtL = cosH tL,

(4.27)

a := f

HtL = - 2 sinH tL.

tHsecL
7
5sinH2tL

6
5
4

x=8+8

3
2
1

xHcmL
-5

-2.5

2.5

7.5

10

64

2.5 2 3


. ,

x y
tHL .
, ( 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ),
Hx, yL=H3 m, 2 mL=(300cm, 200cm) ,
. , t0 = 0, t1 = 1, t2 = 2, t3 = 3
t4 = 4 sec, , t j tI j M.

tHsecL 2

0
0
0

2
3
xHmL

4
3
2 yHmL
1
0
5

M
Hx, yL=(3m, 2m) .
, ,
.

 2 3

65

tHsecL 2

1
1
0
0
0

2
3
xHmL

0
5

4
3
2 yHmL
1

,
t.
A
. , ,

(5.1)

x = f Ht , , ...L, y = gHt , , ...L,

f : @, D , g : @, D t , .. . (
, ). ()
Ix , y M,
z

(5.2)

x := f HtL, y := g HtL,

()
a := Iax , a y M,

(5.3)

(5.4)

ax := f

HtL, a y := g HtL.

(5.5)

(5.6)

:=

x 2 + y 2

a a :=

ax 2 + a y 2 ,

66

.
.. x = + t, y = + t, x = , y = , ax = 0, a y = 0.
, x y
x y,
=

2 + 2 .

, , =
t.

2 + 2

=0,2m/sec, =0,3m/sec
0 sec t 4 sec.

3
tHsecL 2
1

0
0

2
3
xHmL

4
3
2 yHmL
1
0
5

,
x y t,
.

, , .
[, ] 2
r : @, D 2 , f : @, D , g : @, D ,
@, D. , @, D 2
x = f HtL, y = gHtL. x y.
5.1
A, t , x y
Iax , a y M,

 2 3

67

x = + t + H1 2L ax t2 ,

(5.7)

y = + t + H1 2L a y t2 ,

(5.8)

x = x + x Ht - L + H1 2L ax Ht - L2 ,

(5.9)

y = y + y Ht - L + H1 2L a y Ht - L2 ,

(5.10)

.

x y Iax , a y M = H2, 2L cm sec2 ,
0 t 4 sec, Ix 0 , y 0 M = H3, 4L cm sec .

4
3
tHsecL 2
1
0
0

10

20
xHmL

50
40
Hx ,y L 30
20 yHmL
10
0
30
40

5.2

(5.11)

x = f HtL := a cosH tL,

(5.12)

y = gHtL := a sinH tL,

a .

(5.13)

x = -a sinH tL,

y = a cosH tL,

(5.14)

ax = -a 2 cosH tL, a y = -a 2 sinH tL,

68

= a ,

(5.15)

a = a 2 .

@, D=[0, 5sec], a = 3 cm , = 2 sec-1 .

5
4
3
tHsecL
2
1
0

Hx ,y L
-4

-2

0
2
xHcmL

4
2
0 yHcmL
-2
-4

,

(5.16)

x = f Ht , , ...L, y = gHt , , ...L,

z = hHt , , ...L,

f : @, D , g : @, D , h : @, D t , .. . ,
, x = f HtL, y = gHtL,
z = hHtL,
).
()
:= Ix , y , z M,

(5.17)

(5.18)

x := f HtL, y := g HtL,

z := h HtL

()
(5.19)

a :=(ax , a y , az ),

(5.20)

ax := f

HtL, a y := g HtL, az := h HtL.

 2 3

69

(5.21)

(5.22)

:=

x 2 + y 2 + z 2

a a :=

ax 2 + a y 2 + az 2 ,

.
,
,
,
. x - y - t,
x - z - t, y - z - t x - y - z. H .
5.3

(5.23)

x = f HtL := a cosH tL, y = gHtL := a sinH tL, z = hHtL := H1 2L b t2 ,

a
> 0.

x = -a sinH tL,

(5.24)

y = a cosH tL, z = b t

ax = -a 2 cosH tL, a y = -a 2 sinH tL,

(5.25)
,
(5.26)

(5.27)

az = b.

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 =

a2 2 + b2 t2

a =

ax 2 + a y 2 + az 2 =

a2 4 + b2 .

@, D=[0, (3/4)sec], a = 4 cm , b = 1 cm sec, = 8 sec-1 .

70

2
zHcmL
1

0
-5

r
-2.5
2 5

0
2.5
xHcmL

5
2.5
0 yHcmL
-2.5
-5

3. Newton
3.1

Isaac Newton ( , ).
, ,
.
1. .
2. .
.
.
3. () , , x y z,
o 3 .
4. .
5. (2 ) , ,
.
F
z

, a, , :
a=

(1.1)

1
m

F.

, m
.

, , @, D,

(1.2)

x = f HtL, y = gHtL, z = hHtL.

,
(1.3)

a Iax , a y , az M := H f HtL, g HtL, h HtL L.

, (1.1)
(1.4)

ax =

1
m

Fx

(1.4)

ay =

1
m

Fy

f HtL =

g HtL =

1
m

Fx ,

1
m

F y,

72

Newton

az =

(1.4)

1
m

Fz

h HtL =

1
m

Fz ,

, Fx , F y Fz , ,
, .
(1.1), ,
. , 1 ,
2 ,
1 2 .
, gr. A cm sec2 ,
dyne = gr cm sec2 .

6. (3 ) 8i <, i = 1, 2, ..., n, n , ,

(1.5)

jk

= - F k j,

j, k = 1, 2, ..., n,

F j k j k . , "
".
j
aj=

(1.6)
F

1
m

JF

n
j + k=1

j k N,

j .

, (1. 5) F
(1.7)

jj

= 0,

jj

= -F

jj

j = 1, 2, ..., n.

, .
7. ewton
.
, , F = 0 ,
(1.8)

a = H f HtL, g HtL, h HtLL = H0, 0, 0L.

F

jj

= 0,

j = 1, 2, ..., n.

,
(1.6)

f HtL = x0 + x 0 t,

gHtL = y0 + y 0 t,

hHtL = z0 + z 0 t,

Hx0 , y0 , z0 L Ix 0 , y 0 , z 0 M .

73

, F = 0 ,
= Ix 0 , y 0 , z 0 M. ,
Hx, y, zL = Hx0 , y0 , z0 L. ,
.
(
) ,
.
Newton ,
. .
E
.
, , a , m
z

F , F := m a, F
m a .

, .

. ,
(operationalism) . ,
,
() .

. ,
,
(=
, )
.
,

. Newton,
,
.
. :
(i) .
(ii) H
.
: 8i <, i = 1, 2, ..., n, n

r j j

. k j F j k

74

Newton

F j k = -G m j mk

(1.9)

r j -rk
3
r j -rk

m j , mk G .

(1.10)

G = 6, 673 10-8 dynes cm2 gr-2

F j k = -G m j mk

(1.11)

1
2
r j -rk

j

(1.12)

Fj =

r j -r
n
-m j k=1, k j G mk k 3 .
r j -rk

.
j
, 2 (1.12)
(1.13)

aj =

1
mj

Fj =

r j -r
n
-k=1, k j G mk k 3 .
r j -rk

F a = F m .

75

3.2
a = F m 2
z

( m F ). -

, a = F m ,
, , :
(2.1)

m x = F x ,

m y = F y,

m z = Fz .

, x = f HtL, y = gHtL, z = hHtL

x y z. , x
f HtL .
, ,
, (2.1).
(2.1), Hx, y, z, x , y , z , tL ,
,
Newton .
.
2.1 ( )

,
. ,
, x,
Fx = -k x,

(2.2)

k > 0.

, ..
,
- , . T k
o
() ,
. dynes/cm.

m x = -k x

(2.3)

(2.4)

x = - 2 x,

:=

km .

.
= 1, (2. 4) :

76

Newton

f HtL , .
A
f HtL = sin t f HtL = cos t. , .. f HtL = sin t, f HtL = cos t
f HtL = Hcos tL = -sin t = - f HtL.
f HtL

f HtL

tn
sin t
cos t

n tn1
cos t
sin t

tan t

1 cos2 t

ln t

t1

et

et

sinh t :=

1
2

Iet et M cosh t :=

Iet + et M

1 cosh 2 t

cosh t
tanh t :=

1
2

sinh t

sinh t
cosh t

f HtL = cos t, f HtL = -sin t f HtL = H-sin tL = -cos t = - f HtL.

.
, f HtL = sin H t L , f HtL = cos H tL f HtL = H cos H tLL
= - 2 sin H t L = - 2 f HtL. f HtL = cos H tL.
, (2. 4)
(2.5)

x = f Ht , C1 , C2 L = C1 sin H t L + C2 cos H tL,

C1 , C2 .
(2.5)
(2.6)
(2.7)

x0 := f H0 , C1 , C2 L = C2 ,

0 x 0 := f H0 , C1 , C2 L = C1 .

(2.5)
(2.8)

x = FHt , x0 , v0 L =

sin H t L + x0 cos H tL,

, := k m , , x0 ,
, 0 , .
2,
T := 2 .

77

()
, := 1 T, .
. 2.1 ( FHt , x0 , 0 L ) 0 t 3 T,
= 3 sec-1 , x0 = 2 cm 0 = 0 cm sec.
tHsecL
7
6
5

x=2cosH3tL

4
3
2
1
xHcmL
-3

-2

-1

. 2.1

2.2

, "
" -k x, " "
,
Fx = -k x - l x ,

(2.9)

k, l > 0.

, l dynessec/cm.

m x = -k x - l x

(2.10)

(2.11)

x = - 2 x - 2 x ,

:=

km ,

2 :=

k l .

, ,
x = f HtL, f HtL :
.
f HtL
f HtL.

.
.

(2.12)

ei z := cos z + i sin z,

78

Newton

i i2 = -1. ,
i
. ,
cos z + i sin z Hcos z , sin zL.

(2.13)

, ei z
,
ei +i = ei ei .

(2.14)

(2.12), (2.14)

cos H + L + i sin H + L = Hcos + i sin L Hcos + i sin L

(2.15)

= Hcos cos - sin sin L + i Hcos sin + sin cos L

cos H + L = cos cos - sin sin ,

(2.16)

sin H + L = cos sin + sin cos .

(2.16)

, sinH- zL = -sin z
e-i z := cos z - i sin z.

(2.17)
,
1
2

(2.18)

Iei z + e-i z M = cos z ,

1
2i

Iei z - e-i z M = sin z.

M
.
(2.11),
x = f HtL = e t . f HtL = e t , f HtL = 2 e t

2 = - 2 - 2

(2.19)

2 + 2 + 2 = 0.

= -

(2.20)

2 - 2 .

,
:
(i) > .

2 - 2 <0

= - i
(2.21)

2 - 2 =

H-1L I 2 - 2 M = i

2 - 2
e t = e

-i

2 -2

= e- t ei

2 -2 t

2 - 2 .

79

= e- t cos

2 - 2 t + i sin

2 - 2 t .

(2.22)

x = f Ht , , C1 , C2 L = e- t C1 cos

2 - 2 t + C2 sin

2 - 2 t .

(ii) < .
2 - 2 >0,
(2.23)

x = f Ht , , C1 , C2 L = e- t C1 e

2 -2 t +

C2 e-

2 -2 t

(iii) = .
, , e- t . ,
gHtL e- t . H
g HtL = 0,
gHtL = C1 t + C2 .

(2.24)

x = f Ht , C1 , C2 L = e- t HC1 t + C2 L.

2.3
,
,
.
.
. , 1 2 ,
L.
, ,
. .
t, 1 , 2 x1 x2 , ,
x1 HtL - x2 HtL .
t. A x2 > x1 , t
L L = x2 - x1 - L. L L
, -k L
, k .
M , 1 k@x2 - x1 - LD. ,
1 -k@x2 - x1 - LD.

(2.25)
m1 x 1 = k @x2 - x1 - LD,

(2.26)
m2 x 2 = -k @x2 - x1 - LD,

80

Newton

.
,

(2.27)
m1 x 1 + m2 x 2 = 0.
,

m1 x 1 + m2 x 2 = P0 =.

(2.28)

, o o , p := m
z

( m ). ,

(2.29)
P := m1 x 1 + m2 x 2

81 , 2 <.
P0 .
. (2.29)
m1 x 1 + m2 x 2 = P0 t + C.

(2.30)
T,
(2.31)

X :=

m1 x 1 +m2 x 2
m1 +m2

81 , 2 <.
, , t = 0 . (2.30)
m1 x 10 + m2 x 20 = C

(2.32)

(2.33)

X = Ht m , X0 , P0 L =

P0

m :=m1 + m2 ,

m1 x 10 +m2 x 20
.
m

t + m X0 ,

(2.34)

X0 :=

81 , 2 <
V = P0 m. , P0 = 0, X0 = 0
, . (2.30)
x 1 = -Hm2 m1 L x 2 .

(2.35)

x 1 2
:
(2.36)

m2 x 2 = -k B 1 +

m2
m1

x2 - LF.

81

x 2 = - 2 x2 +

(2.37)

kL
,
m2

:=

(2.38)

x2 = f Ht , m1 , m2 , L, C1 , C2 L =

m1
m

km
m1 m2

L + C1 sin H t L + C2 cos H tL,

C1 , C2 . (2.37).
Hm2 m1 L 0, (2.38)

(2.39) x2 = Ht 0 , m2 , L, C1 , C2 L = L + C1 sin H 0 t L + C2 cos H 0 tL, 0 =

k m2 ,

(2.35) x1 = 0.
(2.38)
(2.40)

x20 := f H0 , m1 , m2 , L, C1 , C2 L =

m1
m

L + C2

20 := f H0 , m1 , m2 , L, C1 , C2 L = C1 .

(2.41)

, 1 2

.
m1
m

(2.42)

x2 =

(2.43)

x1 = -

(2.44)

m2
m

L@1 - cos H tLD +

L@1 - cos H tLD +

10 = -Hm2 m1 L 20 ,

20

10

sin H t L + x20 cos H tL,

sin H t L + x10 cos H tL,

x10 = -Hm2 m1 L x20 .

(. 2.2-2.4)
1 , 2 , L = 20 cm, k = 4 dynes cm, 20 = 0, x20 = 12 cm
(i) m1 = m2 = 2 gr, x20 = 12 cm,
(ii) m1 = 4 gr, m2 = 2 gr, x20 = 16 cm,
(iii) m1 = 16 gr, m2 = 2 gr, x20 = 20 cm,

. , m1 m2 ,
1 . m1 m2 , 1
2 .
(2.39) , . ,
... 1 .

82

Newton

tHsecL
8
1

6
4
2

-15

-10

-5

10

15

xHcmL

. 2.2
tHsecL
10
8

6
4
2
xHcmL
-20 -15 -10 -5

10

15

20

. 2.3
tHsecL
12
10
1 8
6
4
2
-20 -15 -10 -5

10

15

20

xHcmL

. 2.4

2.4

-
.
, .

, , r1 = Hx1 , y1 , z1 L r2 = Hx2 , y2 , z2 L
1 2 , , , ,
81 , 2 <

83

(2.45)

m1 r1 = F 12 = -G m1 m2

(2.46)

m2 r2 = F 2 1 = -G m1 m2

(2.47)

(2.48)

(2. 49)

r2 -r1
3
r1 -r2

m1 r1 + m2 r2 = 0.

r1 -r2
3
r1 -r2

m1 r1 + m2 r2 = P0 ,

m1 r1 + m2 r2 = P0 t + C,

P0 , C () .
,

(2.50)
P := m1 r1 + m2 r2

(2.51)

R :=

m1 r1 +m2 r2
m1 +m2

81 , 2 <. A (2.49)

P0
(2.52)

V0 =

P0
M

M := m1 + m2 ,

(2.53)

R=

P0
M

t + R0 .

,
P0 = 0, R0 = 0
, . (2.49)

(2.54)
r1 = -Hm2 m1 L r2 .

r1 1
2 :
(2.55)

m2 r2 = -G m1 m2

A1+Im2 m1 ME r2

A1+Im2 m1 ME r2 3

84

Newton

(2.56)

m2 r2 = -G m2

(2.57)

r = -k

r2
3,
r2

:=

m1 3
M2

, r2 r, m2 m,
G m k, 2

r
3
r

,
(2.58)

x = -k

x
,
r3

y = -k

y
,
r3

z = -k

z
,
r3

r :=

x2 + y2 + z 2 .

A
y x - x y = Hy x - x y L = 0.

(2.59)

, y x - x y =.
Lz := mHy x - x y L = L3 ,

(2.60)
L3 .

,
(2.58)
Lx := mHy z - z y L = L1 ,

(2.61)

L y := mHz x - x z L = L2 ,

(2.62)

, L1 , L2 .

L ILx , L y , Lz M := r p,

r p r p := m ,
( m ) x y z.
,
( ).
(2.63)

, , L ,

r p. , L := r p, L
z

r L = 0 p L = 0. 2 . ,
x y. ,
x y (z = 0)
.

85

z = 0
x = -k

(2.64)

x
,
r3

y
,
r3

y = -k

1
r3

x x + y y = -k

(2.65)
,
(2.66)

1
AHx L2 + Hy L2 E
2

= -k

1 1
r3 2

1
AHx L2 + Hy L2 E =
2

(2.67)

r :=

x2 + y2

Hx x + y y L.

Ix2 + y 2 M -k

1
r

r
.
r2

+.

m
(2.68)

1
2

m 2 - k m

O
(2.69)

T :=

1
2

1
r

:= Hx , y L.

= E =.,

m 2 ,

1
r

V := -k m ,

, .
, (2.68)
T +V = E

(2.70)

2 .
H
Hr, L,
x = r cos ,

(2.71)

y = r sin .

(2 72)

(2.73)

x = r cos - r sin ,

y = r sin + r cos ,

2 := Hx L2 + Hy L2 = Hr L2 + r 2 H L2 .
x y-yx = r

(2.74)

(2.60) (2.68)
(2.75)

Lz := m r

(2.76)

1
2

= L L3

mAHr L2 + r 2 H L2 E - k m

1
r

=E

86

Newton

.
H
1
2

(2.77)

mHr L2 +

L2

-k m

1
r

= E.

2 m E + 2 k m2

1
r

2mr 2

r
r =

(2.78)

L2
r2

M ,
2 x - y
r = f Ht m, L, E, r0 L. H (2.75)
, = gHt m, L, E, r0 , 0 L,

, r = Hx, yL, x.
, 2 ,
. A L 0, 0.
= gHtL t, t = hHL.
r = f HtL r = HL = f HhHLL. ,

(2.79)
r := HL = f HhHLL h HL = f HhHLL @1 f Hh HLLD r

u := r-1 1 HL.

(2.80)

(2.81)
u := -r-2 r = -r-2 r = -r-2 r IL m r2 M = -m r L.
H (2.77)
(2.82)

L2
2m

HuL2 +

L2
2m

u2 - k m u = E.

,
(2.83)

u+u- k

m2
L2

= 0.

A
U := u - k

(2.84)

m2
,
L2

(2.85)
U + U = 0.

U = A cos H - 0 L ,
(2.86)

r=

1
.
2
k HmLL +A cos I-0 M

87

.
U = - A sin H - 0 L U = 0
= 0

= 0 + . U = u = -m r L 0 0 +
, r ,
.
(2.86), = 0 , 2 r0
,
(2.87)

r0 =

k HmLL2 +A

A=

1
r0

(2.88)

-k

m2
L2

(2.86)
(2.89)

r=

1
.
2
m
1
m2
+
-k
cos I-0 M
k
L2 r0
L2

,
r=

(2.90)

1+ cos I-0 M

(2.91)

:=

L2
k m2

:=

r0

- 1.

, 0, ,
, 0 0 + .
, 0 = 0,
, (2.90)
(2.92)

r = H , L =

1+ cos

A x y
. , ,
:
(i) = 0. r = ,
x y.

88

Newton

y
6

x
-6

-4

-2

-2

-4

-6

. 2.5
(ii) 0 < < 1. .
,
.
= 0. r = rmin = H1 + L.
= , r = rmax = H1 - L.
y
6
4
2
x
-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

-2
-4
-6

. 2.6
(iii) = 1.
. , rmin = 2.

89

y
10
7.5
5
2.5

-10 -8

-6

-4

-2

-2.5
-5
-7.5
-10

. 2.7

(iv) > 1. , rmin = H1 + L

.
y
10
7.5
5
2.5

-6

-4

-2

-2.5
-5
-7.5
-10

. 2.8

90

Newton

4.


. ,
. ,
,
.

4. 1
, , 1 2 , x = 0 x = L,
, x () . T 1 2
L 0 x L
x.
, , , 1 2 ,
V > 0 t = 0 1 2 ,
.
0 t T.
t HsecL

xHcmL

. 1.1
, t, 1 x = V t,
2 x = L + V t. , L,
t = 0. t, , , 1 , 2
L.
x .
, , ,

92

x () .
,
1 x = 0 x t = 0,
1 1 . ( 1
1 ) 0 . , , ,
Hx0 , t0 L=(0, 0) Hx0 , t0 L=(0, 0).
, , :
1 = 2 2 t = 0,
2 = 1 2 .

, Hx1 , t1 L = HL, 0L
Hx2 , t2 L=HL, L V L, .
1 2
Hx1 , t1 L = HL, 0L Hx2 , t2 L=H0, L V L, ,
. , 2 x1 = L,
t1 = 0, x2 = 0, t2 = L V .
2
x2 -x1
t2 -t1

0-L
LV

= -V .

A . 1 , 2
V , , . , 2
, V ,
, .
M ,
1 , ,
{1 , 2 }. , t = 0, t = - L V ,
2 1 . t = 0, 1 1 .
, , 1 2
1 . L,
1 -V .
t

1
0

2
2

93

. 1.2
A ,
:
V ,
() , , .
, , t HL = t HL.

() , x HL, , , ,
, x HL, ,
V t, x . , ,
x HL = xHL - V t.
,

(1.1)

x = x - V t,

t =t

V , .
, , u > V
t = 0 x = 0. , t = 0, ,
1 1 . T 2 t4
,
x, x = x4 . , x4 = u t4 .
, 2 x4 = L + V t4 . , L + V t4 = u t4 ,
t4 = L Hu - V L.
4 2
Hx4 , t4 L=H u L Hu - V L, L Hu - V L L, . ,
, Hx4 , t4 L= HL, t4 L=HL, L Hu - V L L, 2
x4 = L.
, 2 L
L Hu - V L. , 2
u = L @L Hu - V LD = u - V .
:
V , 100km/h,
u, 120km/h,
u = u - V , 20km/h
.
, .
1
80km/h. O
.

94

, .
5km/h, , .
, ,
.

.
x x ,
V = 80km/h.
H u = 0. ,
u = u + V =80km/h. , u = 5km/h,
u = u + V =85km/h, u = -5km/h, u = u + V =75km/h.
, , , ,
. , , , , .

V =80km/h, V =85km/h V =75km/h.
.
u = 0. , ,
u = u - V = -80km/h. H

u = u - V = -85km/h u = u - V = -75km/h.
u = u - V u

V u .
(1.1)
Hx, tL Hx , t L , .
, , ,
x = f HtL, f :
. u

u = f HtL, f f . x = f HtL
x = x - V t
x = gHtL f HtL - V t

(1.2)

, t = t .
x = gHt L f Ht L - V t

(1.3)

(1.4)

u = g Ht L = f Ht L - V = f HtL - V .

I,
(1.5)

u Ht L = uHt L - V

95

,
a a , .
, ,

a = f HtL. , x = gHt L,

a = g Ht L.

(1.6)

, . (1. 4)

g Ht L = f Ht L = f Ht L

(1.7)

a Ht L = a Ht L

96

4. 2 X
(1. 1)
.

. ,
. , ,
..
, ,
.

, 2 cm sec
x .

(1.1)
x = x - 2 t,

(2.1)

t =t.

, , 1 t1 = 3 sec
x1 = 10 cm, . (2. 1)
t1 = 3 sec x1 = 4 cm, .
,
0 t 6 sec, x = 6 + 4 t, .
, , x = 6 + 2 t .
1
.
tHsecL
6
5

4
1

3
2
1
5

10

15

20

. 2.1

25

30

xHcmL

97

t HsecL
6
5

4
1

3
2
1

10

15

20

25

30

x HcmL

. 2.2
, ,
.
. ,
. .
, , x
= 0. t = t t = 0
, x.
t

, t x = 0.
x = x - V t, x = V t
x - t. t x - t
x = V t x - t.

x = x - V t, t = t Hx , t L
Hx , tL ( V ). M ,
x = x + V t , t = t , Hx , t L
Hx , t L. ,
. x x - t, t = 0,
x x - t . , t x - t,
x = 0, x = -V t x - t .

V > 0.
t
t

1
x, x

98

. 2.3
t
t

12
10
8
6
4
2

1
x, x

-20

-15

-10

-5

5
-2

. 2.4
t

t
t

1
x, x

1
x, x

. 2.5
x t
x t , ,
,
, .
.

V = 2 cm sec . ,
1 t1 = 3 sec x1 = 10 cm.
1 x t, : x1 x
t. t1 t x. H
1 .
Hx1 , t1 L x t ,
Hx1 , t1 L . Hx1 , t1 L
t . x ,
x, x1 .
Hx1 t1 L x . t
t1 .

99

t
7
t

6
5
4
t1

1 Hx1 ,t1 L

2
1
x1

x, x
5

10

15

20

. 2.6

x1 , t1 .
x x . , t
x t t. ,
.
, t1 t
Hx, tL = H6, 3L, t1 t Hx, tL = H0, 3L.
Hx, tL = H0, 0L ,
t (0, 0) (6, 3). ,
t1 t

32 + 62 = 3

5.

, t1 t t1 = 3 HsecL.
t k = 45 3 = 5 > 2, 236-
t.
, , t x t k, Hx , t L x t.

100

4. 3 M
, (1.7) .
, (1.1)
.
, ,
x y z
.
x y z
. Hx, y, z, tL
Hx , y , z , t L
,
(3. 1)

x = x - V t,

y = y,

z = z,

t =t

.
() V
x .
() t = t = 0
t .
.

() Hx , y , z L = Ha, b, cL
. x = a + V t, y = b, z = c.
, x
V .
() t = t = 0
x = x, y = y, z = z. , ,

x y z x y z .

"" Hx, y, z, tL Hx , y , z , t L
(3.1) -

, .

.
x y z,
x, V = IVx , V y , Vz M.

, x y z

101

x. A
x y z

, x y z

x y z , (3.1)


Ix , y , z , t M Ix, y, z, t M.
,
x x y z
x y z, /
.

(3. 2)

x = a + x - V t,

y = y + b,

z = z + c,

t = t +d

Ha, b, c, dL .

(3. 3)
x = x - a, y = y - b, z = z - c, t = t - d

(3. 2)
(3. 4)

x = x - V t, y = y,

z = z, t = t

, (1.5) (1.7)
,
.

(3.5)

x = f HtL, y = gHtL, z = hHtL,

f , g, h ,


(3.6)

u x = u x - V ,

u y = u y ,

u z = u z

(3.7)

a x = a x ,

u x = f HtL,

(3.8)

(3.9)

a y = a y ,

u y = gHtL,

a z = az

u z = hHtL

a x = f HtL, a y = gHtL, a z = hHtL.

102

4.4 N

, , ,
.

z

, 2 3 . , F
,
()
z

a=

(4.1)

1 z
F.
m

, ,
V ()
. ,
z

a ,
z

a = a.

(4.2)

, ,
z

F , F .
z

, a =

1 z
F
m

( a =

1
m

F ). ,

2 Newton ,
.

. , ,
()
, . ,
,

. ,
- .. ...
.
,
.

Hx, y, z, tL Hx , y , z , t L
.
z

, a = m-1 F

103

a = m-1 F , .
, ,
.
,
, .
,
.
z

, F
,
z

, a = m-1 F .

H Fx = -k x
.
Hx, tL Hx , t L = Hx - V t, tL

(4.3)

m x = -k x

(4.4)

m x = -k Hx - V t L,

m x = -k x .
(4.5)

m x = FHtL.

Ht, xL Ht , x L = Ht, x + V tL

m x = FHt, x, xL

m x = FHt, x + V t, x + V L.

FHt, x + V t, x + V L = FHt, x, xL, " V .

,

x FHt, x, xL = x FHt, x, xL = 0.

104

1 , 2
L,

(4. 6)
m1 x 1 = k @x2 - x1 - LD,
m2 x 2 = -k @x2 - x1 - LD.

x1 x1 = x1 - V t,

(4.7)

x2 x2 = x2 - V t

x1 - x2 x1 - x2 = Hx1 - V tL - Hx2 - V t L = x1 - x2 .

(4.9)

(4.10)
m1 x 1 = k @x2 - x1 - LD,
m2 x 2 = -k @x2 - x1 - LD,
.

, 1 , 2 ,
,
(4.11)

z
m1 r 1

(4.12)

z
m2 r 2

= F 12 =
z

= F 21 =

z z
r -r
-G m1 m2 z 1 z 2
r1 -r2 3
z z
r -r
-G m1 m2 z 2 z 1
r1 -r2 3

r 1 = Hx1 , y1 , z1 L, r 2 = Hx2 , y2 , z2 L
z

.
() ,

= Hx1 , y1 , z1 L = Hx1 - V t, y1 , z1 L,

(4.13)

z
r1

(4.14)

z
r2

(4.15)

z z
r1 - r2

= Hx2 , y2 , z2 L = Hx2 - V t, y2 , z2 L,

= Hx1 - x2 , y1 - y2 , z1 - z2 L = r 1 - r 2 .
z

,
(4.16)

F 12 = F 12 ,

F 21 = F 21 .

, t = t,
() .

105

4. 5
. 4.1, 1 2 ,
x = 0 x = L, , x
() . 1 2 L
0 x L x.
, , , 1 2 ,
A > 0 t = 0 1
2 , , . , 1
1
1
x = A t2 2 x = L + A t2 . ,
2

, 1 2 ,
, L. , , 1 , 2
() L.
x t = 0, 1 , 2
1 2 , . , 1
x = 0 2 x = L.
,
,
x = f HtL. , , t

1 x = f HtL -

1
2

A t2 .

. t = t,
1
x = f Ht L - A t 2 . ,
2

, ,
(5.1)
(5.2)

= f Ht L - A t ,

a = f Ht L - A .

.. f HtL = t,
,
= V - A t
a = - A .
,
81 , 2 , 1 , 2 , < 0 t T,
.

106

tHsecL
1

xHcmL

. 4.5.1
: ,
m, ( ) ,
F = m a = -m A .
, (
) , F
.


5. 1 To
.
, .
.
.
, ,
.
... .
, ,
.

, ..
.

. ,
, .

,
. ,

.
.
,
.

. 1

108

, -
.

,
.
.
, .
,
()
, ... ( =
).
19 ,
-
, .
(, ...)
, .
-
.
,
, -, .. , 19
. ,
. ,
. ,
, .
, , , , . ,

.
...
.
,
,
, . , ,
, ,
.
, ,
.

109

5. 2

, . ,
. ,
, x x y.
,
. .
y

. 2.1

a x b x.
,

f HxL = :

Hx - aL Hb - xL,
0,

axb
x @a, bD

,
C := 9Hx, yL 2 : y = f HxL=, x y
.
, ,

. f HxL = expI- x2 M
.
, ,
. ..
x f HxL,
f HxL = Hx - aL Hb - xL ,
(L2 . f HxL = AHx - aL Hb - xL,
A (L-1 .
, f HxL = expI- x2 M
, cm
x cm. ,

110

f HxL = A expI- x2 a2 M, A, a

f HxL = A expI- x2 a2 M A

x = 0. A, , x
f Hx, sL = A expA-Hx - sL2 a2 E, s ,
A,
x s. H s , x. A
s = c t, c t
. f Hx, sL
f Hx, tL = A expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E
t1 t x1 = c t1 .
, t,
t0 = 0, t1 = 1 t2 = 2,
x,
f0 HxL = f Hx, t0 L = expI- x2 a2 M

f1 HxL = f Hx, t1 L = expA-Hx - c L2 a2 E,

f2 HxL = f Hx, t2 L = expA-Hx - 2 c L2 a2 E.

x y, A = a = 1.
y

t=0

t=1sec

t=2sec
x

-2

-1

. 2.2

f1 HxL f0 HxL ,
x1 = c t1 = 2 c.
f2 HxL, x2 = c t2 = 4 c. ,
ft HxL f Hx, tL = A expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E
f0 HxL f Hx, 0L = A expI- x2 a2 M, c t. ,

(2.1)

ft HxL := A expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E = f0 Hx - c tL.

, f Hx, tL = A expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E

y = A expI- x2 a2 M,
x c.

111

f Hx, tL = A expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E

, x, t,
: x t
x - c t = b =., f Hx, tL
A expI-b2 a2 M.
To
f Hx, tL = A expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E , A = c = a = 1.

3
y 2
1

6
4

0
-5

t
-2.5

2
0
x

2.5
5

. 2.3
O x - c t = b (
b) . x = b t = 0, b
x - c t = b x. ,
c x.
x - c t = b,
c = 1.
t
3
2
1
x
-3

-2

-1

1
-1
-2
-3

112

. 2.4
,
f Hx, tL = A expA-Hx + c tL2 a2 E, c > 0,
x - t x + c t = b.
x - c t = b,
x -c.
x + c t = b, c = 1.
t
3
2
1
x
-3

-2

-1

-1
-2
-3

. 2.5

To

f Hx, tL = A expA-Hx + c tL2 a2 E ,

A expI-b2 a2 M, x + c t = b

f HxL = A expI- x2 a2 M x c
.2.6.

3
y 2
1

6
4

0
-5

t
-2.5

2
0
x

2.5
5

113

. 2.6
,
f HxL = A expI- x2 a2 M, :
"", A x = 0, ,
, . . 2.7
5 .
y
t=0

t=5sec

t=5sec
x

-6

-4

-2

. 2.7

x, ,
(2.2)

f Hx, tL =

1
2

A expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E +

1
2

A expA-Hx + c tL2 a2 E

3
y 2

1
4

0
-5

t
-2.5

2
0
x

2.5
5

. 2.8
, ,
,
. ,
,
. , t
s = c t . A
. 2.9.

114

15
3

y 10
5
2

t
-2

1
0
x

2
0

. 2.9


.
,
.
,
x - c t x + c t
x, c -c, .
A sin@kHx c tLD A cos@kHx c tLD. , k
cm-1 .
sin cos 2.
1 2
() 2. , 2 = 1 + 2 n , n ,
sin 2 = sin 1 cos 2 = cos 1 .

(2.3)

sin@kHx - c tL + 2 n D = sin@kHx - c tLD,

n .

sin@kHx - c tLD t
x 2 n k. , t,
sin@kHx - c tLD x,
(2.4)

:= 2 k .

H , , .
: x,
sin@kHx - c tLD , t T,

115

T := 2 c k = c.

(2.5)

H T, , .

f := T -1 ,

(2.6)

:= 2 f .

.

f =c

(2.7)

,
.
, k,
= c k.

(2.8)

,
A sin@kHx c tLD ,

A sinB2 J NF , A sinHk x + tL
x

t
T

x. A .. k < 0,
A sinHk x + tL = A sinH-k x + tL = - A sinHk x - tL

= - A sin@k Hx - c tLD = A sin@kHx - c tLD = A sinB2 J - NF

x

t
T

c
x. x = 0 t = 0,
x = L t = L c.
, , , ,
c x. , ,
x = x1 0 t = 0. , t = L c
x2 = x1 + cHL cL = x1 + L L.
, t = L c x = L ,
x = 0. , t = L c x = L
u2 H0L = u1 H- x1 L.
(2.9)

u = u1 H0L + u2 H0L = u1 H0L + u1 H- x1 L

(2.10)

u = u1 H0L + u1 H- x1 L = A cosH0L + A cosH-k x1 L

.. u1 Hx, tL = A cos@kHx - c tLD,

= A @1 + cosHk x1 LD = 2 A cos2 Hk x1 2L

k x1 2 = n , ,

116

k x1 2 = H2 n + 1L H 2L .

H2 L x1 = H2 n + 1L

x1 = H2 n + 1L H 2L

To r ,

L,
H2 L L.
. ,
, .

. 2.10

117

5. 3
x, t
uHx, tL = FHx - c tL,

(3.1)

FHL . ,
FHL , , .
t, t = t1 , uHx, tL = FHx - c tL x,
HxL = uHx, t1 L = FHx - c t1 L. H HxL
HxL = F Hx - c t1 L, F HL FHL. HxL

uHx, tL x x uHx, t1 L

u
x

Hx, t1 L.

t1 ,
(3.2)

x uHx, tL

u
x

Hx, tL = F Hx - c tL.

HxL
HxL = F Hx - c t1 L, F HL FHL. HxL
uHx, tL x
x 2 uHx, t1 L
(3.3)

2 u
x2

Hx, t1 L. ,
2 u
x2

x 2 uHx, tL

Hx, tL = F Hx - c tL.

A, x, x = x1 ,
uHx, tL = FHx - c tL t, HtL = uHx1 , tL = FHx1 - c tL. H
HtL HtL = -c F Hx1 - c tL. HtL
uHx, tL t t uHx1 , tL

u
t

Hx1 , tL.

, x,
(3.4)

t uHx, tL

u
t

Hx, tL = -c F Hx - c tL.

HtL
HtL = c2 F Hx1 - c tL. HtL
uHx, tL t t 2 uHx1 , tL
(3. 5)

t 2 uHx, tL

2 u
t2

Hx, tL = c2 F Hx1 - c tL.

2 u
t2

Hx1 , tL. ,

, uHx, tL = FHx - c tL

118

(3.6)

c2 x 2 u Hx, tL = t 2 u Hx, tL c2

2 u
x2

Hx, tL =

2 u
t2

Hx, tL

A ( ).

. .
M ,
.
HL, HL ,
(3.7)

uHx, tL = Hx + c tL + Hx - c tL

.

, , .
A , ..
uHx, tL = expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E, .
,
y = FHxL, FHxL := uHx, 0L. , ,
(3.8)

FHxL = expI- x2 a2 M .

x = x1 x t uHx1 , tL.
GHxL := t uHx, 0L .
uHx, tL = expA-Hx - c tL2 a2 E,
-

(3.9)

GHxL =

2Ac
a2

x2
a2

,
t = 0,
FHxL := uHx, 0L GHxL := t uHx, 0L,
uHx, tL , t > 0.
, (3.7)

(3.10)
(3.11)

uHx, 0L = HxL + HxL,

t uHx, 0L = c HxL - c HxL.

, (3.10) (3.11) FHxL

GHxL, . , HxL, HxL
(3.12)
(3.13)

HxL + HxL = FHxL,

c HxL - c HxL = GHxL.

119

(3.12),
HxL + HxL = F HxL

(3.14)

(3.13) (3.14)
HxL =

(3.15)

HxL =

(3.16)
,
(3.17)

HxL =

1
2

(3.18)

HxL =

1
2

1
2
1
2

:F HxL +

:F HxL -

:F HxL +

:F HxL -

1
c

GHxL>,

1
c

GHxL>.

1 x
GHsL d
c

1 x
GHsL d
c

s>,
s>,

Hx + c tL + Hx - c tL =

1
2

:F Hx + c tL +
+

1
2

1
2

1 x+c t
GHsL d

: F Hx - c tL -

:F Hx + c tL + F Hx - c tL +

s>

1 x-c t
GHsL d

1 x+c t
GHsL d

c x-c t

s>

s>.

uHx, tL

uHx, 0L = FHxL,

(3.19)

(3.20)

uHx, tL =

1
2

t uHx, 0L = GHxL,

: FHx + c tL + FHx - c tL +

1 x+c t

c x-c t

GHsL d s >

120

5. 4 o 3
x, y, z
3 t .
()
2 u
x2

(4.1)

2 u
y2

2 u
z2

1 2 u
c2 t2

= 0,

u = uHx, y, z, tL.

2x u + 2y u + 2z u -

(4.2)

1
c2

2t u = 0.

. .. u
y z,
y u = z u = 0

(4.3)
(4.2)

2x u -

(4.4)

1
c2

2t u = 0.

(4.5)

uHx, tL = FHx + c tL + GHx - c tL

F, G .
(4.1)
(4.5) x.
K , u
x =. 3 .
,
(4.6)

u = A cosB

Hx - c tLF A cos@kHx - c tLD

x c.
,
(4.7)

u = A cosB

Hy + c tLF A cos@kHy + c tLD

H R^3

121

y.
, () c
k ( 3 ). ,
k := Ikx , k y , kz M,

(4.8)

r := Hx, y, zL,

k r := kx x + k y y + kz z = a

(4.9)
o

3 a k

k , . k .
, ,
k r - t = 0,

(4.10)

> 0.

, t = t1 (4.10)

k t1 k
. , t = t2 > t1 (5. 10)
k t2 k
.

H t2 - t1 L k .

A, ,
(4.11)

uIr , tM := A exp B- Jk r - tN F
2

k r - t = 0, ,

@t1 , t2 D, uIr , tM H t2 - t1 L k . ,

(4.12)

c := k .

,
(4.13)

uIr , tM := F Jk r - tN

. ,

.
.. FHL = A expH i L (4.13)
(4.14)

uIr , tM := A exp i Jk r - tN

122

.
k r - t .
k r - t =. .

3
. ,
,
rHx, y, zL r :=

(4.15)

x2 + y2 + z 2

x, y, z .
,
y

x
r

x r = ,

(4.16)

y r = ,

z r =

z
r

x 2 r =

(4.17)
,
(4.18)

r2 -x2
,
r3

y2 r =

r2 -y2
,
r3

z 2 r =

r2 -z2
.
r3

f Hx, y, zL = hHrHx, y, zLL HhrL Hx, y, zL,

x f =

(4.19)

x 2 f =

(4.20)
(4.21)

r2 -x2
r3

x
r

h +

x 2 f + y 2 f + z 2 f =

x2
r2
2
r

h ,
h + h .

,
uHx, y, z, tL = hHrHx, y, zL, tL

(4.22)
(4.2)
(4.23)

c2 B2r h +

(4.24)

2
r

r hF = 2t h .

hHr, tL = gHr, tL r,

(4. 25)

c2 2r g = 2t g.

H R^3

(4.26)

123

gHr, tL = FHr - c tL + GHr + c tL,

F, G .
(4.2)
(4.27)

uHx, y, z, tL = @FHr - c tL + GHr + c tLD, r :=

1
r

x2 + y2 + z 2 .

O . E,
(4. 28)

1
r

uHx, y, z, tL =

GHr + c tL

(4. 29)

uHx, y, z, tL =

1
r

FHr - c tL

.
r - c t = 0 c t
H0, 0, 0L x y z. ,
(4.29) , t1 ,
r = c t1 r = c t2
t2 > t1 .
.

. 5.1

124

5. 5
E
,
.
, , .
.
..

(5.1)

uHx, y, z, tL =

1
r

FHr - c tL =

1
r

A sin @kHr - c tLD,

r := x2 + y2 + z2 . ,
, , :
(i) , t = 0,

(5.2)

UHx, y, zL := uHx, y, z, 0L =

1
r

FHrL =

1
r

A sin Hk rL

, r
Hx, y, zL x y z. I, UHx, y, zL r = a. z = 0 3
x2 + y2 = a. A, , z = 0, UHx, y, zL
(5.3)

Hx, yL := UHx, y, 0L =

A sin Hk L,

:=

x2 + y2

, , .
To
Hx, yL Hx, yL 2
x, y , , UHx, y, zL r Hx, y, zL 3 x y z.

125

. 5.1
(ii) r, t

(5.4)

Hr, tL :=

1
r

A sin @kHr - c tLD, r 0, t ,

r t .

uHx, y, z, tL. , Hr, tL

t.
t

. 5.2

x2 + y2 + z2 = r 3

126

M
uHx, y, z, tL
(5.1). , 4 x, y, z t
r - c t = b =.,

(5.5)

x2 + y2 + z 2 ,

r :=

FHr - c tL = A sin @kHr - c tLD , FHbL,

. ,
r - c t = b 4 .
3
f Hx, y, zL =., .

x2 + y2 = a

z=0

x2 + y2 + z2 = a 3 . , (5.5)
(5.6)

- c t = b =.,

:=

x2 + y2 ,

z,
(5.7)

f Hx, y, tL - c t = b =.

t
, tan = c. A c t = w, w
45 . .5.3
b = 0. (0, 0, 0) x y w.
w=ct

y
H0,0,0L

. 5.3

127

w
- c t = 0 (0, 0, 0).

.
(5.8)

x = cos ,

y = cos ,

0,

- c t = 0
w c t = .

(5.9)

, x
x y.
A , x y
- c t = 0 .
d > 0, w c t = d
w,
. 5.4.

w=ct
p0 H0,0,0L
y
x

. 5.4
b = c t0 (5.5),
(5.10)

x2 + y2 + z2 = cH t - t0 L.

4 , , (5.7). ,
Hx, y, z, tL = H0, 0, 0, t0 L.
H x y z
Hx0 , y0 , z0 L. (5.10)
(5.11)

Hx - x0 L2 + Hy - y0 L2 + Hz - z0 L2 = cH t - t0 L .

B,

128

(5.11), . ..
z, . 5.5, , ,
t t0
(5.12)

Hx - x0 L2 + Hy - y0 L2 = cH t - t0 L.

w=ct

p0 Hx0 ,y0 ,ct0 L

y
ct0

y0

x0

. 5.5

O . ,
,
.
..
.
.
,
.
.
,
, . .

. , ,
.
. , ,
x y z
() t = 0 () T sec,
.
, t1 > 0 r = c t1

129

. 0 t t1
r = c t t,

Hx, y, z, tL = H0, 0, 0, 0L.
To t = T. ,
t1 > T, t = t1
r = c Ht1 - TL . , r = c Ht - TL, T t t1 ,
t. , r = c Ht - TL

Hx, y, z, tL = H0, 0, 0, TL.

.
. T ,
r = c t. ,

Hx, y, z, tL = H0, 0, 0, 0L Hx, y, z, tL = Hx0 , y0 , z0 , t0 L:
t = t0 .
, , ,
Hx0 , y0 , z0 , t0 L , ..
5.1
()
x y z .
Tsec .
,

8H0, 0, 0, t0 + n TL<, n=0, 1, 2, ...
, -
. ,
.5.6.
.5.6
. .
,
. , .
-
( ).

130

w=ct
w=ct
w=ct

y
y
x
y
x
x

. 5.6

, ...

131

5.6 , ...
,
,
. ,

. (phonons) ( ). ,
(photons) (
) (kcymatons),

.


. . ..

, T sec,
T = 1 . M
.
,
Doppler.
6.1
, , x y z
. ,
, , x
V , V < c.

,
t1 = 0 t2 = T = H1 L. ,
( )
x 0 t t4 , t4
. , ,
, V , , . . 6.1,
, .
x
, x = a + V t,
x > 0 t @0, t4 D. ,
x = c t x = cH t - TL, t T.
( c .)

132

tHsecL

tHsecL

4
3
2

2
1

2
xHcmL

4
3

xHcmL

. 6.1
, , t3
c t3 = a + V t3 ( 3 , . 6.1). , t3 = a Hc - V L. ,
( 4 ) t4
cH t4 - TL = a + V t4 . t4 = Ha + c TL Hc - V L. ,
T ,
(6.1)

T := t4 - t3 =

,
(6.2)

:=

1
T

a+c T
c-V

a
c-V

= @1 - HV cLD

1
T

cT
c-V

1
1-HV cL

T.

= @1 - HV cLD .

, x,
x = a + V t, x < 0
t @0, t4 D, x = -c t
x = -cH t - TL, .
, , t3
-c t3 = a + V t3 . , t3 = -a Hc + V L. ,
t4 -c Ht4 - TL = a + V t4 . A
t4 = H-a + c TL Hc + V L
(6.3)

T := t4 - t3 =

,
(6.4)

:=

1
T

-a+c T
c+V

a
c-V

= @1 + HV cLD

1
T

cT
c+V

1
1+HV cL

T.

= @1 + HV cLD .

, ,
, x
V > 0, x V < 0. ,
x V < 0,

, ...

133

x V > 0. (6. 2) (6. 4)

, . , > .
,

. ,
Doppler.
.

"-".

.


, c, , .
,
, m
()()=gr cm sec, H1 2L m 2
()() 2 =gr Hcm secL2 erg. ,
c
cm sec 1 sec, .
, o 1900, ax
Planck , h,
, ergs sec = gr cm2 sec. O Einstein,
, 1905,
h H cL h
. , ,
,
. Einstein

. ( 1921 Einstein
- , )
= 2 .
h
(6.5)

:= h 2 = 1, 05 457 10-27 ergs sec I= gr cm2 secM.

,

(6.6)

E := = h .

A k 3 ,

134

(6.7)

k = 2c = c ,

(6.8)

p := k .

(6. 6)-(6.8)
(6.9)

E = c p .

135

5. 7

, x, t
uHx, tL = FHx - c tL, FHL c > 0,
c x
().
, uHx, y, z, tL = FHx - c tL
c x
(), x, y, z
3 .
V
, x.
() ()
,
x = x - V t,

(7.1)

y = y,

z = z,

t =t

, ,
(7.2)

x = x + V t ,

y = y ,

z = z ,

t=t

uHx, y, z, tL = FHx - c tL
.
(7.3)

Hx , y , z , t L := uHx + V t , y , z , t L = FHx + V t - c t L

, ,
(7.4)

Hx , y , z , t L = F@x - Hc - V L t D

A
(7.5)

c = c - V.

,

x.
A, , ,
. ..
(7.6)

FHx - c tL = A sin@kHx - c tLD, k > 0,

136

Hx , y , z , t L = A sin@kHx - Hc - V L t LD

(7.7)
,
(7.8)

Hx , y , z , t L = A sin@kHx - c t LD,

c := c - V .

(7. 9)

(7.8)
:= 2 k = .

(7.10)

,

(7.10)

T :=

2
c k

c-V

(7.11)

:=

1
T

c-V

= J1 -

T
V
J1- N
c

V
c

N ,

.
Doppler o.

 Michelson-Morley

137

5.8 Michelson-Morley
1881 ichelson ,
1887 orley,
. 19

, .
(7. 5)
.

Michelson Michelson
. ,
() , 1 , 2
3 , . (
) 1 -
.
3

2
1

. 8.1
Michelson - orley
laser ().
( )
2 45
1 . ,
1 3 .
2 3
1 . , 2
3 .
3 1 .
2 3 ,
2 3

138

. ,
( ,
laser) .
1 2 L2 ,
1 3 L3 .
V
.
c. ,

z

c = c-V

(8. 1)

, 1 2
c = c - V . c = c + V .
,
(8. 2)

T2 =

L2
c-V

L2
c+V

2 c L2
c2 -V 2

, 1 3
z

c = c2 - V 2 . c, c V
.

. 8.2
To 1 ,
.

 Michelson-Morley

139

. 8.3
,
T3 =

(8.3)

L3

L3

c2 -V 2

2 L3

c2 -V 2

c2 -V 2

,
T2 - T3 =

(8.4)

2 c L2
c2 -V 2

2 L3

c2 -V 2

V c ,
2 c L2

(8.5)

c2 -V 2

>2

L2
c

K1 +

V2
O,
c2

2 L3
c2 -V 2

>2

L3
c

K1 +

1 V2
O
2 c2

(8. 6)

T2 - T3 > 2

L2 -L3
c

2 L2 -L3 V 2
.
c
c2

(8. 7)

L2 = L3 = L,

(8. 8)

T2 - T3 >

L V2
.
c c2

(8. 9)

=2

T2 -T3
T

=2

L V2
,
c T c2

T .
f = 1 T, , ,
(8. 10)

f =

= c,

. (8. 9)

140

(8. 11)

= 2

L V2
.
c2

.
, 90 .
,
= 2
(8. 12)

2 L V2
c2

.
A V Michelson - orley
,
V > 30 km sec V c > 10-4 . M L > 11 m > 5, 910-7 m,
Michelson - orley, (8. 12) > 0, 4.
A
. ,
. , Michelson
orley, ,
.
,
30 km sec .
, Michelson - orley
,
. ,
c . ,
.
:
,
, ,
z

, V , .
,
Michelson - orley
.
1905, 26 Albert Einstein
.

 6
Einstein
6. 1 M Lorentz

G : Hx, y, z, tL Hx , y , z , t L

(1.1)

x = x - V t,

(1.2)

y = y,

z = z,

t =t

:
V x .
Hx, y, z, tL,
Hx , y , z , t L
(1.2).

u u , ,

u x = u x - V,

(1.3)

u y = u y,

u z = uz

,
.
, .
, 20
(1.3).
Einstein 1905 ( ):
.

,
.
, ,
. , ,
,
Einstein.

Einstein.

142

Einstein

o x - t , (1.2)

( x).
, , x t

x = HV L Hx - V tL,

(1.4)

t = HV L t

HV L, HV L V .
, , (1.4) :
x u

u =

(1.5)

HV L
HV L

Hu - V L

.
,
u = 0, u = -V . ,
T V
, ,
T -V .

, u = 0, (1.5) u = -H L V . HV L HV L
.
, , (1.4)
(1.6)

x = HV L Hx - V tL,

t = HV L t

(1.5)
(1.7)

u = u - V.

! ,
Hx, tL Hx , t L , ,
(1.4) .
u = u, V = 0.
Einstein.
(1.6)
:
(1.8)

x = HV L Hx - V tL,

t = HV L@t - HV L xD

, x t x
t.
: ,
, x
t, x t , ,

 Lorentz

(1.9)

143

x = HV L H x - V tL,

t = HV L@ t - HV L xD.

, t u
x,
x = u t.

(1.10)

(1.10) (1.9)
(1.11)

x = HV L Hu - V L t,

t = HV L@1 - HV L uD t.

,
(1.12)

x =

x
t

t =

u-V
1-HV L u

t .

(1.13)

x = u t ,

(1.14)

u =

u-V
.
1-HV L u

, ,
t x = u t . , u
.

(1.14) . ,
.
u uHtL .
, , Einstein.
, u = c (1.14)
u c.
(1.15)

c=

c-V
1-HV L c

HV L

(1.16)

HV L =

V
c2

Einstein .
HV L (1.8) V c2 . , (1.14)

(1.17)

u =

u-V
uV
1c2

, (1.8)

144

Einstein

x = HV L Hx - V tL,

(1. 18)

t = HV L Kt -

V
c2

xO.

HV L
Hx , t L Hx, tL.
, . ,
U . T, (1.18),
Hx , t L Hx , t L

x = HUL Hx - U t L, t = HUL Kt -

(1.19)

U
c2

x O.

U = -V .

-V . ,
U = -V , (1.19)

x = H-V L Hx + V t L,

(1.20)

t = H-V L Kt +

V
c2

x O.

(1.18), (1.20) :
x = H-V L HV L K1 -

(1.21)
,
(1.22)

V2
Ox,
c2

H-V L HV L =

t = H-V L HV L K1 -

1
V2
1c2

V2
Ot.
c2

, HV L :
H0L = 1,

(1.23)

H-V L = HV L.

x = H0L x, t = H0L t.

(1. 24)
, H0L = 1.

(1.23) HV L .
, .
Hx, x , V L H- x, - x , -V L (1.18).
, x x
, , . ,
,
. ,
, , , 12 m sec (
-12 m sec ), ,
, -12 m sec ( 12 m sec
).
Hx, x , V L H- x, - x , -V L (1.18)

(1. 25)

- x = H-V L H- x + V tL,

t = H-V L Kt -

V
c2

xO

 Lorentz

145

(1.26)

x = H-V L Hx - V tL,

t = H-V L Kt -

V
c2

xO.

, (1.18)
H-V L = HV L.
(1.23)
(1.22)
HV L =

(1.27)

1- HV cL2

(1.14)
x =

(1.28)

1- HV cL2

Hx - V tL,

t =

Kt -

1- HV cL2

V
c2

xO.

. . (1.27)
. ,
. (1.27)
.
V > 0 V -V .
x.

x = H-V L Hx + V tL,

t = H-V L Kt +

xO .

c2

x y z 180 z.

x y x y,

x = - x, y = - y.
x y .
,

- x = H-V L I- x + V t M,

x = H-V L Ix - V t M,

t = H-V L Kt -

t = H-V L Kt -

V
c2

V
c2

xO.

xO.

. ,

x = HV L Ix - V t M,

t = HV L Kt -

H-V L = HV L.

V
c2

xO.

146

Einstein

(1.28)
. ,
. , ,
(1.28) y z,
:
(1.29)

x =

1- HV cL2

H
(1.30)

Hx - V tL,

y = y, z = z, t =

1- HV cL2

Kt -

V
c2

xO

L : Hx, y, z, tL Hx , y , z , t L

(1.29) Lorentz
Einstein
.
-
. (1.26)

(1.2).
, x y z t x y z t .
, Hx, y, z, tL = H0, 0, 0, 0L Hx , y , z , t L = H0, 0, 0, 0L - .
, t = 0, x y z
x y z .
A
Lorentz. , ,
,
.
, (1.29)
, Einstein 1915.

, , . , Einstein

,
.

 Lorentz

147

6. 2 Lorentz
Lorentz , ,
, : .
, ,
Lorentz
(i) " " , c.
(ii) V ,
: I1 - V 2 c2 M-12
(2.1)

-c < V < c

V <c

H-V L = HV L.

(2.1) :
Lorentz ,
, ,

!
.
u x,
. V = u
( ). , V
( )
c, .
Lorentz,

, .
, 1 2 ,
, x1 x2 x1 x.
tH 1 L = tH 2 L, , , t1 = t2 . ,
(2.2)

t := t2 - t1 = 0.

, (1.29)

148

Einstein

x =
(2.3)

H x - V tL,

K t -

1- HV cL2

y = y,
z = z,
t =

1- HV cL2

V
c2

xO

x := x2 - x1 , x := x2 - x1 ... , t = 0,
(2.4)

t = -

1- HV cL2

V
c2

x.

x 0, (2.4) t 0, 1
2 .
, Lorentz
. .
,
. ,
, ,

(2.5)

c = 300.000 km sec = 3108 m sec

()
V = 360 km h=0,1km/sec.
() s = 340 m sec = 0, 34 km sec ( ).

() ( Concorde)
(2 Mach).
() 3 km/sec.
100.000
! ,
(2.6)

:=

V
c

, , . ,
(2.7)

HL :=

1
1-2

(1.29) (2.3), .
, IV c2 M x (2.3), ,

 Lorentz

149

. 1 2
= 0, 1, IV c2 M x
1sec 1 2 x = Hc L 1 sec = 3.000 .000 km!
, Lorentz

,

.
, . GalileiNewton Einstein-Minkowski,
.
,
Einstein-Minkowski
, Galilei-Newton
.
,
Einstein-Minkowski,
- ,
Galilei-Newton.
Einstein-Minkowski .

150

Einstein

6. 3


. '
-
.

, .
t w = c t, o
x, w x , w .
, ,
(i) H w x. K , .. t = 1 sec,
w = 3 1010 Hcm secL 1 sec = 3 1010 cm. , x w
.
(ii) w,
x =

(3.1)

Hx - V tL,

1- HV cL2

t =

1- HV cL2

Kt -

V
c2

xO

x = Hx - wL,

(3.2)

w = Hw - xL

, ,
:=

(3.3)

V
c

HL :=

1
1-2

Lorentz
L : Hx, wL Hx , w L , (3.3), x
w.
x = Hx + w L,

(3.4)

w = Hw + x L

L-1 : Hx , w L Hx, wL.

3.1
V = 0, 6 c
.
3
5

= 0, 6= ,

1 - 2 =

1 - 0, 36 =

(3.2) (3.4)

4
5

0, 64 = 0, 8 = ,

5
4

= 1, 25

151

x =

(3.5)

x=

(3.6)

5
4

5
4

Jx -

Jx +

3
5

3
5

wN,

w =

w N,

w=

5
4

5
4

Jw -

Jw +

3
5

3
5

xN

x N

, , 1 Hx1 , w1 L = H3, 4L,

. T 1 ,

Hx1 , w1 L = J ,
3
4

11
N
4

= H0, 75, 2, 75L. ,

.
:
w
5

w
5

-1
-1

-1
-1

. 1.1
2

Hx2 , w2 L = H4, 1L. Hx2 , w2 L = J

17
,
4

- N = H4, 25, -1, 75L.

7
4

,
, 0 , Hx0 , w0 L = H0, 0L. ,
Hx0 , w0 L = H0, 0L.
w
5

w
5

4
3

1
-1
-1

-2 -10
-1

1 2 3 4 5
2

-2

. 1.2
, , 2 0 , w2 > w0
t2 > t0 . , 2 0 , w2 < w0

152

Einstein

t2 < t0 !

.
,
, , .. .
, 1 2 ,
1 2 . ,
. , - (=)
. , , 0
2 , 0 2
, - H 2 L
H 0 L.


. , ,
, ,
.
, 1

. .. Hx1 , w1 L = H3 cm, 4 cmL
1
t1 = w1 c = 4 cm I3 1010 cm secM = 1, 25 10-10 sec

t1 = w1 c = 2, 75 cm I3 1010 cm secM > 0, 92 10-10 sec.

,
x w x w.
, x
w c t = 0. (3.2),
w = 0 w - x = 0. , x
x w w = x. ,
x.
A, w x = 0, ,
(3.2), x - w = 0. H
x, w
w.
x w
x w . , x w = 0. A
(3.4) w = 0 w + x = 0.
, x w = - x x w .

153

- x . ,
w x = 0,
x + w = 0, (3.4). w
x = - w x w . , ,
- w .
x w x w,
x w x w ,
= 3 5, .
w
6

2
-6

-4

-2

w
6

2
2

-6

-4

-2

-2

-2

-4

-4

-6

-6

. 1.3
,
x w . .. 1
Hx1 , w1 L = H3, 4L.
x w x w ,
H3, 4L w
x . x
x1 1 . ,
w w1 1 (. ).

154

Einstein

w
w

4
w1

1
x1
x
1

. 1.4
, x1 , w1 1
. ,
. Lorentz,
x1 w1 0,75 2,75 , . , , x1
w1
2,75 .
,
Lorentz
.
x w x w. ,
x w
x
w .
,
x w x - w
. Lorentz
x w x w, ,
.

x = 1

155

x = Hx + w L = H1 + w L,

w = Hw + x L = Hw + L.

x = 1 x (
w = 0)
x = x =

w = x = .

x
Hx, wL = H1, L,

.
w
6

w
4

3
w1

2
3

2
1

1
x1

1
x

. 1.5
,

. ,

.
x w
x w , .

= 3 5 2
Hx2 , w2 L = H4, 1L. (4, 1) x w
w x, , .
x x2 , w
w2 .

156

Einstein

w
w
7.5
w2

5
2.5
2
x

-7.5

-5

-2.5

2.5

7.5

-2.5
x2

-5

-7.5

. 1.6
, , x w
,
. Hx2 , w2 L
2 (3.6),
x w x w . ,

.
.

157

6. 4
L x .

0 x L. x w,
w.
, , ,
, 1 , x = 0 , 2 ,
x = L. , 1 w
2 HL, 0L x w
w (. . 4.1).
w
w

x
1

. 4.1
,
x
1 2 , 1 2 . ,

, 1 2 ,
x . 1
3 . t = 0. , ,
1 3
.
, ( )
,
, .
, 1 Hx1 , w1 L = H0, 0L
Hx1 , w1 L = H0, 0L . 3 x3 = L,

158

Einstein

2 , w3 . ,
3 x ( 1 ,
) w3 = 0. ,
x3 .
, (3.4) w3 = 0 w3 = x3 .
w3
(3.4)
(4.1)

x3 = Ix3 - 2 x3 M = I1 - 2 M x3 =

1
1-2

I1 - 2 M x3 =

1 - 2 x3

, , x3 L
. (4.1)
(4.2)

L =

1 - 2 L

1 - 2 .
, , ,
L.

. ,
L0 ,
L0 . ,
,
, M ,
= 1 - 2 M . ,
(4.2) o .

x .
) 0 x M x ,
4.1. , -
-
. x =

1 - 2 M .

) 3
x = M . M =
I1 - 2 M L.

1 - 2 L , ,

159

6. 5 -
1 2 .
Hx1 , y1 , z1 L = Hx2 , y2 , z2 L, , , 1 2
. ,
2 1 , t := t2 - t1 > 0. , ,
y z, 1 2
.
w
5
2

4
3
2

1
-3

-2

-1

-1
-2
-3

. 5.1
A x w x w ,
"" 1 2 . ..
= 3 5, .

160

Einstein

w
w

4
w2

3
x1

2
1

1
x2
-2

-1
w1

-1
-2

. 5.2
x1 x2 . , 1 2
. ,
1 2 (3.6). ,
x = 0 x = - w .
x (3.6) .
(5.1)

w = I w - 2 w M = I1 - 2 M w =

1 - 2 w .

w c t. t =
(5.2)

t =

1
1-2

1 - 2 t ,

t t.

. ,
t > t. ,
1 2
.
T0 ,
T,
(5.3)

T =

1
1- 2

T0 T0

T0 .
, 1 2 ,
, 1 2

161

, , . ,
:

.
, , , t0 t t1
u1 . ,
x . ,
x = x0 + u1 Ht - t0 L. 0
x0 t0 1
x1 t1 .
V = u1 ,
. , 0 1
.

t = t1 - t0 ,

(5.4)

x = x1 - x0 = u1 Ht1 - t0 L = u1 t

x = H x - wL, :=

(5.5)

V
c

HL :=

1
1-2

, V = u1
x = H x - wL = Hu1 t - u1 tL = 0.

(5.6)

, t = t1 - t0
0 , 1 .
(5.7)

w = H w - xL = Hc t - u1 tL = c K1 -

u1
c2

u1 O t

(5.8)

t =

t,

(5.3).

@t0 , t1 D, @t1 , t2 D, @t2 , t3 D ...

,
.
.
' , ..
. ,
.

5.1 ( )
.
.

162

Einstein

, Rolex,
.
,
-Rolex , -
.
,
x = L = 1 lyear( )
x . , ,
u = H4 5L c ,
.
0 , 1 , 2 3 ,
, , .
t0 = 0, t1 , t2 t3 , ,
:
(5.9)
(5.9)
(5.9)

x = x0 + u1 Ht - t0 L = u t,

x = x1 + u2 Ht - t1 L = L,

t0 = 0 t t1 ,
t1 t t2 ,

x = x2 + u3 Ht - t2 L = L - uHt - t2 L,

t2 t t3 .

(5.9) L = 1 l year c 1 y
(5.10)

t1 =

L
u

c1 y

H45L c

5
4

y = 1, 25.

1 ,
t2 = t1 + 1= 2, 25 t.
, H4 5L c
t3 - t2 = t1 =1, 25 . , t3 = 3, 5 .
(5.10), x3 = 0,
0 = L - uHt3 - t2 L.

0 t t3 , , .
, , , .
t
Hx, tL = H1, 0L.

163

tHyearsL
4
3
3
2

1
K
0

M
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

xHlyearsL

. 5.3
, , 3,5
. , .
,
(5.11)

1 =

t1 -t0

1 - H4 5L2 t1 =

3
5

1, 25 y = 0, 75.

,
. , ,
2,5 ,
!

164

Einstein

6. 6 Doppler
,

. , ,
. ,
Doppler ,

Lorentz.

. , ,
x = 0 - o .
.. ,
( ). ,
,
, . ,
. , x t x w
x w = c t (. . 6.1).
ct

3
2
1

2
x

. 6.1
,
- . ,

.
, T = 1 . ..
Tsec

To Doppler

165

. ,
Tsec.

1 2 .
1 x
x = c t. 2
x = cHt - TL.
, V
x .
, , t1 = 0
, o x = a > 0. ,
x = a + V t.
V , V < 0. H
V > 0 . V < 0
. 6.2.

ct

4
3
2

2
x

. 6.2
, , 1
. 3
x = x3 t = t3 . 3
1 (. ). ,
1 , x3 = c t3 . , , x3 = a + V t3 .
,
(6.1)

t3 =

a
c-V

x3 =

ca
c-V

166

Einstein

, 2 - Tsec 1 -
t = t4 , x = x4 .
4 ,
3 . , 2
x = cHt - TL. 4 , x4 = cHt4 - TL.
, 4 . , x4 = a + V t4 .

t4 =

(6.2)

a+c T
,
c-V

x4 = c

a+V T
c-V

cT
c-V

t4 - t3 =

(6.3)

x4 - x3 = V

cT
c-V

A , , , V
. , . ,
Lorentz
(6.4)

x = HV L Hx - V tL,

t = HV L Kt -

V
c2

xO,

HV L :=

1-HV cL2

x = a + V t
. , (6.4)
x = HV L a,

(6.5)

t = HV LBt -

V
c2

a - J N tF.
V 2
c

H x ,
, , .
(6.5)
(6.6)

t = HV LB1 - J N F t - HV L
V 2
c

Va
c2

1
HV L

t - HV L

Va
c2

,
(6.7)

t =

1
HV L

t.

, (6.7) :
, t .
, t , ,
1 - HV cL2 t.

-HV L V a c2 , , .

.
. , ,
, x = a t = 0
: x = HV L a

To Doppler

167

t = -HV L V a c2 . ( ,

t = -HV L V a c2 ).

, , 1 , 2
t := t4 - t3 = c T Hc - V L. (6.7),

t =

(6.8)

1
cT
HV L c-V

1
T
HV L 1-HV cL

,
1
1
HV L 1-HV cL

(6.9)

1-HV cL2
1-HV cL

@1+HV cLD@1-HV cLD

1-HV cL

1+HV cL
1-HV cL

, (6.8)
t =

(6.10)

1+HV cL
1-HV cL

, T 1
2 ,
t 1 2
.
t T (6.10)
T=

(6.11)

1+
1-

,
. ( ).
,
, ,

(6.12)

1-
1+

, > 0,
. ,

,
.
:

,

168

Einstein

. ,
.
Doppler.
, :
,

. , ,
.
,
Doppler :
(6.13)

1-
1+

:= V c,
o x. , = 1,
x .

169

6. 7
, 1 2 , x
. x := x2 - x1
t := t2 - t1 .
..
, c t = c t2 - c t1 = w2 - w1 w . ,
, x , 1 2 ,
w . .
() x > w .
A
w = x,

(7.1)

0 < < 1.

, w = H w - xL
w = 0 w = x .

(7.2)

, V = c
, 1 2 .
, 1 2
.
1 2
x . ,
1 2 .7.1.
w
x

4
2

x2

w1,2
x1
x
1

170

Einstein

. 7.1
() x < w .
A
x = w,

(7.3)

0 < < 1.

, x = H x - wL
x = 0 x = w.

(7.4)

, V = c , 1 2
. , 1 2
w , .7.2.
w
w

3
w2

2
x1,2

1 w1

x
1

. 7.2
() x = w .
A
(7.5)

x = w,

= 1.

(7.6)

x = H x - wL,

w = H w - xL.

(7.7)

x = w .

, 1 2
x w .
,
x w . x w
45
x1 x2 t1 t2 , .

171

w
w

3
1

x2

2
x1

w2
1w
1

x
1

. 7.3

Lorentz
:= H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 - H wL2 .

(7.8)

. , 1 2 ,

(7.9)

H x L2 + H y L2 + H z L2 - H w L2 = H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 - H wL2 .

. y = y , z = z ,

H x L2 - H w L2 = H xL2 - H wL2 .

(7.10)

(3.2)
x = H x - wL,

(7.11)

w = H w - xL .

H x L2 - H w L2 = 2 H x - wL2 - 2 H w - xL2

= 2 9H xL2 I1 - 2 M - H wL2 I1 - 2 M=

2 I1 - 2 M = 1.

= 2 I1 - 2 M 9H xL2 - H wL2 = H xL2 - H wL2 ,

, ,
> 0.
(7.12)

H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 > H wL2

172

Einstein

dH 1 , 2 L > w

(7.13)

dH 1 , 2 L :=

(7.14)

H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 ,

1 2 .
w = 0.
,
. , ,

1 2 () x.
, y = z = 0,
.
, , > 0, 1 2
. , > 0,
1 2 .
, < 0,

H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 < H wL2

(7.15)

dH 1 , 2 L < w .

(7.16)

(7.17)

d H 1 , 2 L :=

H x L2 + H y L2 + H z L2 = 0.

, < 0, 1 2
(
). , < 0, 1 2
.
, = 0,
(7.18)

(7.19)

dH 1 , 2 L = w c t

d H 1 , 2 L = w c t .

, , 1 2
,
(,
). , = 0, 1 2 ,
, .

7. X- Minkowski

7. 1 Minkowski
,
(1.1)

:= H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 - H wL2

Lorentz. , ,
,
1 2 , .
,
(1.2)

H x L2 + H y L2 + H z L2 - H w L2 = H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 - H wL2 ,

x := x2 - x1 , x := x2 - x1 , ...
3 ,
, p1 p2 ,
d 2 H p1 , p2 L := H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 , p1 p2 .
, ,

3 .
1908 Hermann Minkowski (1864-1909)

o Minkowski.
,

:

(i) Hx1 , x2 , x3 , x4 L, Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M

,
... x.
(ii) T , a, b, s, ..., i, j, k, ... ,
1, 2, 3, 4.

(iii) Einstein:
, ,
.
:

174

- Minkowski

(1.3)
(1.3)
(1.3)
(1.3)
(1.3)

T a a 4a=1 T a a = T 1 1 + T 2 2 + T 3 3 + T 4 4 ,

4
yk xk k=1
yk xk = y1 x1 + y2 x2 + y3 x3 + y4 x4 ,

j e j 4j=1 j e j = 1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 + 4 e4 ,

T a b xb 4b=1 T a b xb = T a 1 x1 + T a 2 x2 + T a 3 x3 + T a 4 x4 ,

4 x j yk M
j k x j yk 4j=1 Ik=1
jk

4j=1 I j 1 x j y1 + j 2 x j y2 + j 3 x j y3 + j 4 x j y4 M

1 1 x1 y1 + 2 1 x2 y1 + 3 1 x3 y1 + 4 1 x4 y1
+1 1 x1 y2 + 2 1 x2 y2 + 3 1 x3 y2 + 4 1 x4 y2
+1 1 x1 y3 + 2 1 x2 y3 + 3 1 x3 y3 + 4 1 x4 y3
+ 1 4 x1 y4 + 24 x2 y4 + 34 x3 y4 + 44 x4 y4 .

Einstein.
,
,
. ,
81, 2, 3<,
(1.4)
(1.4)

3
x y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ,
x y =1

3
S a x =1
S a x = S a 1 x1 + S a 2 x2 + S a 3 x3 .

A x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M, y = Iy1 , y2 , y3 , y4 M

( 4 ).

(1.5)

x + y := Ix1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 , x4 + y4 M .

, x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M 4

(1.6)

x := I x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M.

4 . .

x y ,
, 4 . x y
(1.7)

x y := x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 + x4 y4 .

 Minkowski

175

, 4
.
4 .
, Einstein,
(1.7)
x y := j k x j yk ,

(1.8)

j k := :

(1.9)

1, j = k
0, j k

(1.9) Kronecker.

x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M
x :=

(1.10)

x x .

,
(1.11)

x =

j k x j xk =

Ix1 M2 + Ix2 M2 + Ix3 M2 + Ix4 M2 .

, 4
. ,
(1.12)

dIx , yM := x - y

x , y 4 . (1.11)
(1.13)

d 2 Ix , yM = j k Ix j - y j M Ixk - yk M

= Ix1 - y1 M2 + I x2 - y2 M2 + Ix3 - y3 M2 + Ix4 - y4 M2

I x1 M2 + I x2 M2 + I x3 M2 + I x4 M2 .

4
. ,
(1.14)

Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M := Hx, y, z, w c tL,

, (1.1) ,
(1.15)

:= I x1 M2 + I x2 M2 + I x3 M2 - I x4 M2 .

(1.13), .
,
d 2 Ix , yM.

176

- Minkowski

4 ,
.

(1.16)

jk =

1,
-1
0

j = k 81, 2, 3<
j=k=4
jk

Minkowski x , y 4

(1.17)

Ix , yM := j k x j yk = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 - x4 y4 .

M (1.15)
(1.18)

Ix , yM := Ix - y, x - yM j k Ix j - y j M Ixk - yk M.

, , Minkowski 4
(1.18). , Minkowski
:
(i) E 1-1 () C : 4 . .
(ii) g ,
( 1 , 2 ), . A g :
: , C : 4 ,

, 1 , 2 , x = C(1 M, y = C(2 M,
(1.19)

gH 1 , 2 L = Ix , yM

K Minkowski .
, Minkowski
.
, ( ).
Minkowski, C : 4 ,
. ,
x Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M = CHL Hx, y, z, w L,
:
() , Hx, y, zL, ,

() , w, c t, t
, () .

 Lorentz Poincare

177

7. 2 Lorentz Poincar
Lorentz

(2.1)

x = Hx - wL,

y = y, z = z,

w = Hw - xL

:=

(2.2)

V
c

HL :=

1
1-2

, ,
(2.3)
(2.4)

Hx, y, z, w L = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M ,

Hx , y , z , w L = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M

(2.1)
(2.5)

x1 = Ix1 - x4 M,

x2 = x2 ,

x3 = x3 ,

x4 = Ix4 - x1 M

,
(2.6)

x1 = L11 x1 + L14 x4 ,

L11 = ,

(2.6)

x2 = L22 x2 ,

L22 = 1,

(2.6)

x3 = L33 x3 ,

L33 = 1,

(2.6)

x4 = L41 x1 + L44 x4 ,

L41 = - , L44 = .

L14 = - ,

, , Einstein,

(2.7)

x j = L m xm
j

j, m 1, 2, 3, 4 44 = 16 L m
:

178

- Minkowski

L11 L12 L13 L14

0
=
0
-

L21 L22 L23 L24

(2.8)

L31 L32 L33 L34

L41 L42 L43 L44

0
1
0
0

0 -
0 0
1 0
0

, j = 1 .., (2.7)
x1 = L1m xm L11 x1 + L12 x2 + L13 x3 + L14 x4

(2.9)

= x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3 + H- L x4 = Ix1 - x4 M

, Lorentz j
j
Minkowski. A, , x j = L m xm y j = L m ym ,
Ix , y M = Ix , y M

(2.10)

j k x j y k = j k x j yk

x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 - x4 y4 = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 - x4 y4 .

, () Lorentz (2.7) (2.10).

x j = L m xm , yk = L n yn
j

j k x j y k = j k x j yk
(2.11)

j k L m xm Lkn yn = j k x j yk

,

() . (2.11) ..
(2.12)

j k L m L n xm yn = m n xm yn

x = y = H1, 0, 0, 0L, (2.12) j k L 1 L 1 = 1 1 . x = H1, 0, 0, 0L,

x , y . ..
j

y = H0, 1, 0, 0L, (2.12) j k L 1 L 2 = 1 2 . , (2.12)

j

x , y
(2.13)

j k L m Lkn = m n

, (2.13)
j
Lorentz L : x j x j = L k xk .
, , , (1.16), j k 44 :

 Lorentz Poincare

(2.14)

179

1
0
= I j k M=H1, 1, 1, -1L
0
0

0
1
0
0

0 0
0 0
1 0
0 -1
j

, L 44 (L k ), L
44 LT =ILT k j M,
j

LT k j = L k .

(2.15)

, LT 1 2 = L21 . , (2.13)
(2.16)

LT m j j k Lkn = m n LT L = .

(2.17)

detHA BL = detHAL detHBL

(2.18)

detHL = -1.

detIA M = detHAL. A

(2.16)

@detHLLD2 = 1 detHLL = 1.

(2.19)

Lorentz L : x j x j = L k xk L = IL k M
. , Lorentz (2.8) . :
j

L11 L12 L13 L14

(2.20)

L21
L31
L41

L22
L32
L42

L23
L33
L43

L24
L34
L44

L11 L12 L13 L14

(2.21)

L21 L22 L23 L24

L31 L32 L33 L34
L41 L42 L43 L44

1 0
0
=
0 0
0 -
1
0
=
0
0

0 0
0 -
1 0
0

0 0
0
1 0
0
0 -
0 -

(2.20) (2.21)
V = c
y z, .
To Lorentz
L+ L- .

180

- Minkowski

K L,
Lorentz. , L = L+ L- , L+ L- = .
(2.13) 44 = 16 16
L. , (10) ,
: j k = k j . , 16 L
.
.
, 16 L
. Lorentz
- - L
, Lorentz .
L
. , '
V . , Lorentz ,
, .
,
(2.13):
L11 L12 L13 L14
(2.22)

L21
L31
L41

L22
L32
L42

L23
L33
L43

L24
L34
L44

L11 L12 L13 L14

(2.23)

L21

L22

L23

L24

L31 L32 L33 L34

L41 L42 L43 L44

L11 L12 L13 L14

(2.24)

L21
L31
L41

L22
L32
L42

L23
L33
L43

L24
L34
L44

1 0
0
0
0 cos -sin 0
=
0 sin cos 0
0 0
0
1

cos
0
=
-sin
0

0 sin 0
1 0 0
0 cos 0
0 0 1

cos sin 0 0
-sin cos 0 0
=
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1

x1 x2 x3 x y z x1 x2 x3 x y z

 Lorentz Poincare

181

x, y z, . ,
L

.

, , x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M, y = Iy1 , y2 , y3 , y4 M.

Lorentz L, x y , ,
x j = L k xk y j = L k yk . ,
j

y j - x j = L k yk - L k xk = L k Iyk - xk M.
j

(2.25)

,
(2.26)

x j = L k xk ,
j

xk := yk - xk .

A Lorentz
Minkowski
(2.27)

Ix , y M = Ix, yM.

j k x j xk = j k x j xk

A , , x y , ,
x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M y = Iy1 , y2 , y3 , y4 M,
(2.28)

x j = L k xk + a j ,

y j = L k yk + a j

a = Ia1 , a2 , a3 , a4 M 4 .
(2.29)

y j - x j = IL k yk + a j M - IL k xk + a j M = L k Iyk - xk M
j

, , (2.27).

(2.30)

P : 4 4 ,

x = PHxL x j = L k xk + a j
j

Poincar () Minkowski. M 1-1 4

Ix, yM.

182

- Minkowski

7. 3
(-) x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M , ,
Minkowski, 1 ,
. , , y = Iy1 , y2 , y3 , y4 M

2 , z := y - x 1
2 . ,

1 2 z
, , x.

, , ,

z

(i) , , Iz, zM < 0,

(ii) , , Iz, zM > 0,

(iii) , , Iz, zM = 0.

,

Iz, zM. ,
Minkowski (-)
Minkowski ( Lorentz).
To x ( 1 )
x KHxL. ,
(3.1)

KHxL := 9 y : j k Iy j - x j M Iyk - x j M = 0 =.

T KHxL y4 - x4 > 0 x,
K + HxL. , KHxL y4 - x4 < 0
x, K - HxL.
KHxL y
x,
j k Iy j - x j M Iyk - x j M < 0.
, KHxL y
x,
j k Iy j - x j M Iyk - x j M > 0.
KHxL 1 .
1 , FHxL, K + HxL

183

K + HxL. M ,
(3.2)

FHxL := 9y : j k Iy j - x j M Iyk - x j M 0, y4 - x4 > 0= .

, 1 , PHxL,
K - HxL . M ,
(3.3)

PHxL := 9y : j k Iy j - x j M Iyk - x j M 0, y4 - x4 < 0= .

184

- Minkowski

7.4
-
(-) x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M, y = Iy1 , y2 , y3 , y4 M
1 2 x := x - y
, ,
(4.1)

I x , x M j k x j xk H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 - H wL2 < 0,

1 .
(4.2)

:=

1
c

H wL2 - AH xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 E

:
(i) ,
(ii)
1 2 ,
(iii) E 1 2
.
, u :=

. ,

,
x y . ,
Ix1 , x2 , x3 M
Iy1 , y2 , y3 M Iy4 cM t Ix4 cM. , u .
, 1 2

x , x j = L k xk
j

(4.3)

u j :=

x j

j xk

=Lk

L k uk .

u (-)
,
(4.4)

= I1 , 2 , 3 M := K

x1 x2 x3
,
,
O
t
t
t

x y z
,
,
N
t
t
t

,
(4.5)

x = 1 t,

y = 2 t,

z = 3 t,

185

(4.2)
(4.6)

Hc tL2 - AI1 tM2 + I2 tM2 + I3 tM2 E

1
c

= t

1-

1
c2

AI1 M2 + I2 M2 + I3 M2 E t

,
(4.7)

t = HL ,

HL :=

1-HcL2

1-

1
c2

:= .

, -
(4.8)

u := K

x1 x2 x3 x4
,
,
,
O

= J

= J
,
(4.9)

x y z ct
,
,
,
N

x t y t z t ct
,
,
,
N
t
t
t
x
t

HL,

y
t

HL,

z
t

HL, c HLN.

u = HL H, cL

M , 4- u
3- , , HL.
(4.7), HL t

H xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2

- . , u
H t L, t
.
, m

(4.10)

p := m

,
(4.11)

p := m u ,

(-) -, . (4.9)
(4.12)

p = m HL H, cL

, 4- p HL p . , p
p4 = m c HL, .

186

- Minkowski

,
E := c p4 = m c2 HL

(4.13)
:

() , ()() 2 = gr Hcm secL2 erg.

()
(4.14)

1
1-x2

= 1+

1
2

x2 + OIx4 M

1
1-x2

> 1+

1
2

x2 , x ` 1,

(4.15)

m c2

E = m c2 HL =

1-HcL2

> m c2 +

1
2

m 2 ,

` 1.

,
, E
, H1 2L m 2 , m c2
.
,
, E
()
4- u .
, ,

EHL = m c2 HL

(4.16)

: m c2
EHL :
E0 := EH0L = m c2

(4.17)

m c2
m. H (4.17) -.
, (4.17) ...
! , ,
.
,
, 4- u ,
(4.3). , Minkowski u

(4.18)

Iu , u M j k

u j uk
=

x j xk
jk

j k x j xk

H xL2 +H yL2 +H zL2 -H wL2

HL2

HL2

187

, (4.2) ,
(4.19)

HL2 =

1
c2

(4.18)

9 H wL2 - AH xL2 + H yL2 + H zL2 E =

Iu , u M j k u j uk = -c2

(4.20)

-
I p , p M j k p j pk = -m2 c2 .

(4.21)

A
, E, :
(4.22)

I p1 M2 + I p2 M2 + I p2 M2 -

I,
(4.23)

E=c

m2 c2 + P2 ,

E2
c2

= -m2 c2 .

P := I p1 , p2 , p3 M.

(4.19)
.
(4.23) , m = 0. A, ,
P
.
,
n.
,
(4.24)

E := h

(4.25)

P :=

h
c

n.

, h () Planck,

(4.26)

E = ,

(4.27)

P = k.

O (4.24) (4.25), ,
(4.28)

:=

h
,
2

:= 2 ,

(4.29)

k=

n.

188

- Minkowski

(. . 5, . 6).
, 4- -
(4.30)

p I p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 M := H k, cL.

(4.29)
(4.31)

k = c.

, 4- -
(4.32)

I p , p M j k p j pk = 0.

189

7. 5 K
4- -
, . ,
,
. ,
.
, , ,
Minkowski Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M = Hx, y, z, w c tL,

(5.1)

x1 x = f HtL, x2 y = gHtL,

x3 z = hHtL

f : I , g : I h : I
I.
, ()

(5.2)
HtL I1 HtL, 2 HtL, 3 HtLM := I f HtL, gHtL, hHtLM,

f HtL Hd f d tL HtL f HtL, gHtL hHtL.

(5.3)

, ()

a HtL Ia1 HtL, a2 HtL, a3 HtLM := I f HtL, gHtL, hHtLM,

f HtL Id 2 f d t2 M HtL = Id 1 d tM HtL .

, . , (5.2)

HtL := I f HtL, gHtL, hHtLM = . = I1 , 2 , 3 M.

(5.4)
, (5.1)
(5.5)

x1 = f HtL := x1 0 + 1 t,

x2 = gHtL := x2 0 + 2 t,

x3 = hHtL := x3 0 + 3 t

, , T : I
(5.6)

T HtL =

1
HL

1 - H cL2 .

:= .

(5.7)

THtL = T0 +

1
HL

t,

T0 . , , T : I ,

190

- Minkowski

= THtL = T0 +

(5.8)

1
HL

t,

1
HL

(5.9)

t.

H (5.9) (4.7),
.
(5.8) t
,
(5.10)

t = HL = 0 + HL

0 . , T0 = 0 = 0,
t .
, (5.10)
(5.5) (5. 10)
x1 = FHL = f HHLL = x1 0 + 1 HL ,

(5.11)

x2 = GHL = gHHLL = x2 0 + 2 HL ,

x3 = HHL = hHHLL = x3 0 + 3 HL ,

x4 c t = HL = HL c .

.
, FHL, GHL, HL
HL 4- :

(5.12)
u := I F HL, GHL, H HL, HL M = HL H, cL

, (5.5).

HtL (5.2). , (5.6)

(5.13)

T HtL =

1
H HtLL

1 - @ HtL cD2 .

,
HtL < c t I . ,
, t0 , t I,
(5.13)
(5.14)

THtL = THt0 L + t t

1 - @ HL cD2 d

, ,
(5.15)

= THtL,

191

t = HL.

(5.16)

,
HL

(5.17)
HL = 1 T HHLL.
(5.16) (5.1)
. , (5.16),
(5.11). ,
(5.18)

x1 = FHL = f HHLL,

x2 = GHL = gHHLL,

x3 = HHL = hHHLL,

x4 c t = HL = cHL.
,
(5.19)

u := I F HL, GHL, H HL, HL M

FHL, GHL, HHL HL

4- .

, FHL = f HHLL, (5.17)

FHL

(5.20)
F HL = f HHLL HL = f HHLL T HHLL.

, (5.19)

1
(5.21)
u HL :=
I f HHLL, gHHLL, hHHLL, c M.
T HHLL

t,
(5.16), (5.15). (5.21) 4-

1
(5.22)
u HtL := u HHtLL = I f HtL, gHtL, hHtL, c M
T HtL

= H HtLL I f HtL, gHtL, hHtL, c M H HtLL H HtL, cL.

A 4-
,
. ,

.
(5.23)

(5.24)

Iu HL, u HLM j k u j HL uk HL = -c2 ,

I p HL, p HLM j k p j HL pk HL = -m2 c2 ,

192

- Minkowski

p HL := m u HL

(5.25)

4- -. ,
(5.26)

EHL := c p4 HL = c

m2 c2 + P HL2 ,

P HL := I p1 HL, p2 HL, p3 HLM.

, a HtL
, 4-

(5.27)
a HL := I F HL, GHL, H HL, HL M
4-
a HtL (5.22).

aHL. , , 4- u HL, a HL
, Minkowski:
z

(5.28)

Ia HL, u HLM j k a j HL uk HL = 0.

(5. 23),

(5.29)
a j HL = u j HL.
5.1 ( )

(5.30)

x1 = f HtL = r cosH tL,

x2 = gHtL = r sin H tL, x3 = hHtL = b t,

r, b . O
, HtL,

1 HtL = f HtL = -r sin H tL , 2 HtL = gHtL = r cosH tL , 3 HtL = hHtL = b .

(5.31)

HtL =

(5.32)
,
(5.33)

H HtLL

(5.13)
(5.34)

Hr L2 + b2 c.
1

1-@ HtLcD2

T HtL =

1
1-2

1 - 2 .

(5.35)

= THtL =

1 - 2 t ,

193

t = HL =

(5.36)

1
1-2

, (5.30)

x1 = FHL = r cos
x3 = HL =

(5.37)

1-2
b

1-2

x2 = GHL = r sin
1

x4 c t = HL =

1-2

1-2

c.

(5.19), (5.27)

4- uHL 4- aHL
z

u1 = -

r
1-2

sin
u3 =

(5.38)

1-2
b
1-2

u2 =

u4 =

r
1-2
1
1-2

cos

1-2

c,

(5.39)

a1 = -

r 2
1-2

cos

1-2

a2 = -

r 2
1-2

sin

1-2

a3 = a4 = 0.

.
c :
(5.40)

c=1

A
c. ( , c ).
, 4-

(5.41)

x HL := I x1 HL, x2 HL, x3 HL, x4 HL M

4-

(5.42)
u HL := I x1 HL, x2 HL, x3 HL, x4 HL M

(5.43)

a HL := I x1 HL, x2 HL, x3 HL, x4 HL M,

.
, ,

. x1 x1 HL, x1 x1 HL ..

194

- Minkowski

..
(5.44)

j k x j xk = -1 j k u j HL uk HL = -c2

cosh2 HL - sinh2 HL = 1,

(5.45)

(5.44)

x1 = a HL sinh@ f HLD, x2 = b HL sinh@ f HLD x3 = c HL sinh@ f HLD,

(5.46)

x4 = cosh@ f HLD,
aHL, bHL cHL
a2 + b2 + c2 = 1.

(5.47)

, o 4-
:

x1 HL = aHL f HL cosh@ f HLD + a HL sinh@ f HLD,

(5.48)
x2 HL = bHL f HL cosh@ f HLD + b HL sinh@ f HLD

x3 HL = cHL f HL cosh@ f HLD + c HL sinh@ f HLD, x4 HL = f HL sinh @ f HLD.

, (5.47)

aHL a HL + bHL b HL + cHL c HL = 0,

(5.49)

(5.50)

z
z

JaHL, aHLN = j k x j x k

=A f HLE + :@a HLD2 + Ab HLE + @c HLD2 > sinh2 @ f HLD

f HL, aHL, bHL cHL.
5.2 ( K 4- )
A a, b, c

(5.51)
f HL = =.

f HL = H - 0 L, 0 =.

(5.52)
(5.50)

j k a j ak = 2

(5.53)

4- .
0 = 0,

f HL = , ,

195

x1 HL = Ha L coshH L + A,

x2 HL = Hb L coshH L + B,

x3 HL = Hc L coshH L + C,

(5.54)

x4 HL = H1 L sinhH L + D.

:
A = x1 0 - Ha L := x1 H0L - Ha L,

B = x2 0 - Hb L := x2 H0L - Hb L,

C =x3 0 - Hc L := x3 H0L - Hc L,

(5.55)

D = x4 0 := x4 H0L.

x1 HL = Ha L @coshH L - 1D + x1 0 ,

x2 HL = Hb L @coshH L - 1D + x2 0 ,

(5.56)

x3 HL = Hc L @coshH L - 1D + x3 0 ,
x4 HL = H1 L sinhH L + x4 0 .

x4 0 = 0, , t,
, ,
t HL x4 HL = H1 L sinhH L.

(5.57)
,

1 + H tL2

coshH L =

(5.58)

(5. 59)

x1 HtL = Ha L B

1 + H tL2 - 1F + x1 0 ,

x2 HtL = Hb L B

1 + H tL2 - 1F + x2 0 ,

x3 HtL = Hc L B

1 + H tL2 - 1F + x3 0 .

(5.60)

x1 HtL = a t

1 + H tL2 , x2 HtL = b t

1 + H tL2 , x3 HtL = c t

1 + H tL2 .

(5.47)
(5.61)

HtL =

1+H tL2

, , ,
. t,
", "

(5.62)
x1 HtL = a t ,
x2 HtL = b t , x3 HtL = c t .

196

- Minkowski

(5.63) x1 HtL = a A1 + H tL2 E32 , x2 HtL = b A1 + H tL2 E32 , x3 HtL = c A1 + H tL2 E32 .
,
(5.64)

a HtL = A1 + H tL2 E32

. , t ` 1 ,
a HtL > , (5. 62).

197

7.6
,
. ,

,
Lorentz ( Poincar).

,
. , a = F m
.
t 0, , HtL,
.
,
. HtL = HF mL t HtL = HF mL t. , C
, HtL C, t Hm CL F. M ,
,
( ) C.
,

.
, ,
, (),
. , ,
a = F m .
4- 4-

a = H1 mL F
(6.1)

a =

1
m

F 4- .
Minkowski
,
.
Minkowski, 4- .
, ,
F :

198

- Minkowski

JF , u N j k F j uk = 0

(6.2)

, u = u HL 4-
F . (6.1)
, Minkowski, 4- a = a HL
4- u :
j k a j uk = 0

(6.3)

(6.2)
F :
(i) F u :
F j = F j m um

(6.4)
(ii)

Fi j := i k F k j ,

(6.5)

F j k ,

Fi j = - F j i .

(6.6)

: A (6.5)

F m n um un = - F n m um un - F n m un um = - F m n um un .

(6.7)

, (6.5)
F m n um un = 0.

(6.8)
,
(6.9)

j k F j uk = j k F j m um uk = k j F j m um uk = Fk m um uk = 0 .

.
, m
q,

(6.10)

Fe j = q F j k uk .

9F j k =, , x ,
.

.
6.1 ( K )
, m

q
(6. 11)

199

x j HL = Hq mL F j k @xm HLD xk HL

(6. 12)
u j HL = Hq mL F j k uk HL,
u j HL := x j HL.
F 1 2 , F 3 4
F j k = - Fk j , (
x3 z, ),

(6.13)
u 1 HL = Hq mL F 1 2 u2 HL b u2 HL,
(6.13)
(6.13)
(6.13)

u 2 HL = Hq mL F 2 1 u1 HL -b u1 HL,

u3 HL = Hq mL F 3 4 u4 HL e u4 HL,

u4 HL = Hq mL F 4 3 u3 HL e u3 HL.

(6.13) (6.13)

(6.14)
u 1 HL = b u2 HL = -b2 u1 HL.
, (6.13) (6.13)

(6.15)
u 3 HL = e u4 HL = e2 u3 HL.
,
(6.16)
(6.16)

(6.17)
(6.17)

u1 HL = sin @b H - 0 LD,

u2 HL = cos@b H - 0 LD,

u3 HL = C sinh He L + D coshHe L,

u4 HL = C coshHe L + D sinh He L.

E 0 ,
.

, j k x j xk = j k u j uk = -1
(6.18)

A2 + D2 - C 2 = -1 C 2 = A2 + D2 + 1.

(6.16), (6.17)
(6.19)
(6.19)
(6.19)
(6.19)

x1 HL = H bL cos Hb L + C 1 ,

x2 HL = -H bL sin Hb L + C 2 ,

x3 HL = HC eL coshHe L + HD eL sinh He L + C3 ,

x4 HL = HC eL sinh He L + HD eL coshHe L + C 4 .

9C j = .

200

- Minkowski

x1 H0L = H bL + C 1 ,

(6.20)

x2 H0L = C 2 ,

(6.20)

x3 H0L = HC eL + C 3 ,

(6.20)

x4 H0L = HD eL + C 4 ,

(6.20)

(6.21)

C 1 = C 2 = 0,

C 3 = -C e,

C 4 = - D e.

x1 HL = r cos Hb L,

(6.22)
(6.22)
(6.22)
(6.22)

r := b,

x2 HL = -r sin Hb L,

x3 HL = @HC eL - 1D coshHe L + HD eL sinh He L,

x4 HL = HC eL sinh He L + @HD eL - 1D coshHe L.

r.
:
(6.23)

1 HL =

(6.23)

2 HL =

(6.23)

3 HL =

u3 HL
u4 HL

u1 HL
u4 HL

u2 HL
u4 HL

=
=

b r sin Hb L
,
C coshHe L+HD-eL sinh He L

b r cos Hb L
,
C coshHe L+HD-eL sinh He L

HC-eL sinh He L+D coshHe L

C coshHe L+HD-eL sinh He L

HC-eL tanh He L+D

.
C +HD-eL tanh He L

T . 6.1
(6.22).
z

. 6.1

201

7.7 N
,
,
.
.
, 1 2 , m1
m2 , . 1 HtL 2 HtL, ,
p1 HtL = m1 1 HtL p2 HtL = m2 2 HtL.
A , , t1 t t2
(7.1)
(7.2)

p1 := p1 Ht1 L,

p2 := p1 Ht1 L,

p1 * := p1 Ht2 L

p2 * := p2 Ht2 L

I = @t1 , t2 D
81 , 2 < ,
t2
t1 :
(7.3)

p Ht1 L = p Ht2 L

p1 + p2 = p1 * + p2 * .

K .. ,
.
,
.
,
1
2 . , (7. 3),
.
, (7.3)

(7.4)

m1 1 + m2 2 = m1 1 * + m2 2 * .

, m1 , m2 , 1 2 ,
"", 1 * 2 * . (7.4)
, -
1 * 2 * .
.

: ()
(, )

202

X- Minkowski

. , E , E
, , , ,
E := E * - E ,

(7.5)

, E > 0,
, E < 0. ,
, , ,
-.. .
, ,

E := T + V

(7.6)

(7.7)

T :=

1
2

m 2

V . ,
x, , V . ,
(7.3).
, ,
,
T := T * - T ,

(7.8)

.
.. T = 0, ,

(7.9)

T = T *

1
2

m1 1 2 +

1
2

m2 2 2 =

1
2

m1 1 * 2 +

1
2

m2 2 * 2 .

7.1
(-) ,
1 2 , m.

t1 t t2 . t1 1 1 2
, ;
, 1
x 2 (0, 0) x y.
, . 7.1.

.

203

v1
m1

v1

m1

m2

m2

v2

. 7.1
,
, .
y

v1
m1

m1

v1

m2

m2

v2

. 7.2
, ,
, .
m1 = m2 = m 2 = 0, (7.4)
1 = *1 + *2

(7.10)

,
.
(7.9)
1 2 = *1 2 + *2 2

(7.11)

. 1 2
.
1 , -
(1* x , 1* y ) *1 (2* x , 2* y ) *2 .
, ,

204

X- Minkowski

1 := 1 ,

(7.12)

*1 := *1 ,

*2 := *2

x *1
*2 , , . 7.2 ( ,
). (7.10)
(7.13)

1 = 1* x + 2* x = *1 cos + *2 cos ,

(7.13)

0 = 1* y + 2* y =*1 sin - *2 sin .

A , . (7.11)
*2
1 2 = *2
1 + 2

(7.14)

M I1* x , 1* y , 2* x , 2* y M

I*1 , *2 , , M.
. (7.13)-(7.14)
.

, (7.13) (7.14)

(7.15)

*1 *2 Hcos cos - sin sin L *1 *2 cos H + L = 0.

*1 *2 0, (7.15) + = 2.
sin = cos , cos = sin , (7. 13)
(7.16)

1 = *1 cos + *2 sin ,

(7.16)

0 = *1 sin - *2 cos .

(7.17)

2 * = sin 1 ,

*1 = cos 1 .

0 2, 1 , *1
*2 , , .

+ = - 2, sin = cos , cos = -sin ,

(7.13)

(7.18)

1 = *1 cos - *2 sin ,

(7.18)

0 = *1 sin + *2 cos .

(7.19)

- 2 0.

*2 = -sin 1 , *1 = cos 1 ,

= 0 = 2.
' , *1 = 1 , 2 * = 0 1 2 .
= 2 *1 = 0, *2 = 1 .

205

1
2 1 .
(7.17) (7.19) = 0
, 1 2

.

Minkowski,
4- -, p . ,
j

Lorentz L : x j x j = L k xk , p ,
j

p j = L k pk .

(7.20)

, x j = L k xk
(7.21)

x = Hx - wL,

y = y, z = z,

w = Hw - xL

(7.22)

:=

V
c

HL :=

1
1-2

(7.20)
(7.23)

px = J px - N,
E
c

p y = p y ,

pz = pz ,

E = HE - c px L

(7.23) , ,
. ,
.. , , ,
V x , .
, (7.23) px = - E c = - m c = - m V .
,
,
.
- :
p 1 + p 2 = p 1* + p 2*.

(7.24)

, p , p * , = 1, 2, 4- -
, , .
, (7.24) , ,
P1 + P2 = P1 * + P2 * ,

(7.25)
,
(7.26)

E1 + E2 = E1 * + E2 * ,

206

X- Minkowski

.
, (7.25)
m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 = m1 1 * *1 + m2 2 * *2 ,

(7.27)

H L :=

(7.28)

1- 2

:=

:= , = 1, 2.

, . (7.26)
(7.29)

m1 1 + m2 2 = m1 1 * + m2 2 * .

, (7.27) (7.29) .
,
P p . ,
(7.25) (7.25),

(7.30)

E = c

m2 c2 + P 2 .

(. . (4.23) ). .

.
-.
, . ,
.. .
(=
= , )
.
,
. A .
. ,
parity (
)
. ..
.

7.2
.
, , 1 ,
1 2 . , ,
, x.

207

,

m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 = m1 1 * 1 * + m2 2 * 2 *

(7.31)

m1 1 + m2 2 = m1 1 * + m2 2 *

(7.32)
.

,
, , .
.
(7.31) (7.32)
m1 2 + P1 2 m1 2 +

(7.33)

m1 2 + P1 2 +

m2 2 + P2 2 =

m2 2 + P2 2

P1 + P2 = P1 * + P2 * ,

(7.34)

, c = 1, .
,
,
(i) m1 = m2 = m.
' (7.33)
m2 + P1 2 +

(7.35)

m2 + P2 2 =

m2 + P1 *2 +

m2 + P2 *2

. (7. 34)-(7. 35)

P1 * = P1 , P2 * = P2 P1 * = P2 , P2 * = P1 .

(7.36)

,
.
(ii) 2 = 0.
o (7.33) (7.34)
m1 2 + P1 2 + m2 =

(7.37)

m1 2 + P1 *2 +

m2 2 + P2 *2

P1 = P1 * + P2 *

(7.38)
.

(7.39)

m1 = m,

m2 = M ,

P1 = ,

P1 * = p

P2 * = P,

208

X- Minkowski

m2 + 2 + M =

(7.40)

m2 + p2 +

M 2 + P2

= p+P

(7.40)

,
,
(7.40):
p=

(7.41)

P=

(7.41)

Jm2 -M 2 N : m2 +M -2

2 +m2 +M >

m4 -4 2 M 2 -2 m2 M 2 +M 4

2 M :m2

2 +m2 -M +M B-2 2 +M -

2 +m2 +M F >

m4 -4 2 M 2 -2 m2 M 2 +M 4

p=

(7.42)

Jm2 -M 2 N

m2 +M 2 +2 M e

e :=

P=

2 M He+M L
,
m2 +M 2 +2 M e

2 + m2 1 .

, 1 ,
e > m+

(7.43)
o (7.42)
(7.44)

p>

Jm2 -M 2 N

Hm+M L2 +HM mL 2

2
2m

P>

,
2 M Hm +M L +HM mL 2
Hm+M L2 +HM mL 2

7.3 ( , )
1 1 2
, . (7.40)

m2 + 2 + M =

(7.45)

2 + P2

= P.

(7.45)

(7.46)

m2 + M 2 + 2 M

2 + m2

m2 + M 2 + 2 M e

, (7.43),

(7.47)

> m+M +

2
M
m+M 2 m

209

2 H2 mL

1 . M
m 1 , M Hm + M L .
(7.47)
> m+M +

(7.48)

2
2m

2 H2 mL.
1 .

1 2 . 1
2 . , :
() P ,
1 2 , m M , .
( ).
7.4 ( )
, , 1 ,
2 , . (7.45)
, 1 .

+M =

(7.49)

2 + P2 ,

=P.

(7.49)

4- - f
(7.50)

p = H k, E cL ,

k =

2 f
c

E = = h f .

c = 1,
(7.51)

= E =h f,

(7.49)
(7.52)

h f +M =

2 + Hh f L2 .

, 2
1
(7.53)

=M

1 + 2 Hh f M L .

M c2 2 , h f ` M , (7.53)
(7.54)

> M +h f.

210

X- Minkowski

, c = 1, 2
.

7.5 ( Compton)
, 1 ,
2 m,
.
81 , 2 < :
(7.55)

h f0 + m = h f + m

(7.56)

k0 = k +m

k0 , k , ,
2
(7.57)

:=

1
1-2

:= .

X , ,
, 2 x y z
,
x. (7.56) :
(7.58)

k0 = k 1 + m 1 ,

0 = k 2 + m 2 ,

0 = k 3 + m 3 .

k 2 = -Hm L 2 ,

(7.59)

k 3 = -Hm L 3 .

k .
x y z x, x y
k (. . 7.3).
y

k
ph
ph

k0

. 7.3

211

. ,
x y z k x y. - ,
. (7.58)
(7.60)

H k0 mL = H k m L cos + cos,

0 = H k mL sin - sin,

k := k =

(7.61)

Ik 1 M2 + Ik 2 M2 .

= 0, 2
,
(7.60) sin = 0. = 0 , cos = 1, ,
(7.60)
H k0 mL = H k m L + .

(7.62)
,
(7.63)

= H mL H k0 kL = Hh mL H f0 f L.

(7.55)
(7.64)

= Hh mL H f0 - f L + 1.

, = 0, . (7.63) (7.64) f = f0 = 0.
, ,
2 . , = , (7.63) - (7.64)

(7.66)

f0

1+2 HhmL f0

f =

(7.65)
=

2 l0 I1+l0 M

1+2 l0 I1+l0 M

l0 :=

h f0
.
m

l0
(m m c2 ) 2 . l0 ` 1, (7.65), (7.66)
f > f0 , > 2 l0 .
A, , , (7.60)
(7.67)

=l

sin
sin

l :=

hf
m

H (7. 60)
:
(7.68)

cot =

1- cos
sin

:=

l
l0

f
f0

, , . (7. 55)

212

X- Minkowski

(7.69)

- 1 = Hh mL f0 @1 - H f f0 LD = l0 H1 - L .

, , . (7.67)-(7.69)
.
(7.67) ,
(7. 68):
(7.70)

H L2 = l2 sin2

1
sin2

= l2 sin2 B1 + J

H L2

(7.71)

l2 sin2 I1 + cot2 M
N F = l2

1- cos 2
sin

2
1- 2

1- 2

2 -2 cos+1
2

- 1 2 - 1.

, (7.70)
2 - 1 = l2

(7.72)

2 -2 cos+1
.
2

(7.69) (7.72),
+ 1 = l0

(7.73)

2 -2 cos +1
H1-L

(7.69), (7.73)
=

(7.74)

1
.
1+l0 H1-cosL

,
f =

(7.75)

f0

1+Ih f0 mM H1-cosL

,
2 x ,
:
tan =

(7.76)

(7.77)

2 l0 sinH2L

cot H2L
1+ l0

1+l0 I2+l0 M sin2 H2L

1+2 l0 I1+l0 M sin2 H2L

, = , .

213

.
( )
. ,
, ( )
(+) (+2 ) ,
(
) "" (2 +2 ).

, , , .
, ,
.

.
, , .
(i) To
.
, .. ,
.
-.
(ii) H , ..,
,
.
.
, ,
() ,
.
O ,
. ,
, .
. , ,
,
. H e + p e + p ..
. n + p d +
(
). d -
. T, n e + p +
, .

MeV ( -). erg = gr cm2 sec-2 -

214

X- Minkowski

1 MeV = 1, 60210-26 ergs

(7.78)

,
, m c2 , . :

n
H L

HL

mc2 MeV
0, 511
938, 256
939, 550
0
0

HL

135

139, 6
105, 7

HL

1.875, 580

2.808, 873

He4

3.727, 315

HL
HL

7.6
, - eV
.

n + p d +

, n p,
938, 256 + 939, 550 = 1877, 806eV. A
, d, 1877, 806 - 1.875, 580 = 2, 226eV. E
,

2, 226MeV.

7.7
( )
"", .
,

d +d +

215

21.875, 580 = 3751.16eV, IHe4 M
3.727, 315eV. 23, 845MeV.

8.

8. 1
f : 2
2 f Hx, yL = 2 x y. ,
f : 2 2 .
,
, 2 .
h : hHx, yL = 1 + x + y
= 9Hx, yL 2 : 0 x 2, 0 y 1=.

,
, .. ,
.
, , 2

. , gHx, yL = 1 Ix2 + y2 M

Hx, yL = H0, 0L. , gHx, yL = 1 Ix2 + y2 M

g :
= 2 \ 8H0, 0L< , ' 2 .
, Hx, yL = 1 Hx - yL
= 9Hx, yL 2 : x = y =. Hx, yL = 1 Hx - yL
= 2 \
2 .

Y
2 .
f : ,
f Hx, yL = 2 x y.

217

y
-8

-4

-4

-2
1

x
-2

-1

-2

-4

-4

-8

-1

4
-2

. 1.1

.

. ,
.
2 . , ,
f : g : 2 ,
Hx, yL Hx, yL, x
f Hx, yL y gHx, yL. M ,
Hx, yL
Hx, yL = H f Hx, yL, gHx, yL L, .

: 2 .

: 2 ,
. , : 2
f : g : 2 ,
. ,
f : 2 f Hx, yL = 2 x y, g : 2
gHx, yL = x2 - y2 , Hx, yL = H f Hx, yL, gHx, yL L = I2 x y, x2 - y2 M.

218

y
88, 0< 84, 3< 80, 4<
2

84, 3<

88, 0<

84, 3<

82, 0<

80, 1<
1

82, 0<

84, 3<

80, 4<

80, 1<

80, 0<

80, 1<

80, 4<

-2

-1

84, 3<

82, 0<

88, 0<

84, 3<

x
1
80, 1<
-1

82, 0<

84, 3<

80, 4< 84, 3< 88, 0<

-2

. 1.2
E, f Hx, yL
gHx, yL, . 1.3.
y
2

x
-3

-2

-1

-1

-2

. 1.3
, "" (PCs),
, ,
, .
.
Hx, yL = I2 x y, x2 - y2 M,

219

1 = 9Hx, yL 2 : -2 x 2, -2 y 2=,

2 = 9Hx, yL 2 : 2 x 6, -2 y 2=.

. 1.4

. 1.5
M
3 .

220

3 , f : 3

f Hx, y, zL = x y z, r : 3 rHx, y, zL =

x2 + y2 + z 2 .

M ,
a b, ,
= 9Hx, y, zL 3 : a < rHx, y, zL < b =.

g : gHx, y, zL = 1 @rHx, y, zL - aD@b - rHx, y, zLD

.

. ,
f : , g : , h : : 3
Hx, y, zL = H f Hx, y, zL, gHx, y, zL, hHx, y, zL L.
3

, = 3 \ 8H0, 0, 0L<

f Hx, y, zL = x y z, gHx, y, zL = 1

Hx, y, zL = K x y z, 1

x2 + y2 + z 2

f , g, h

hHx, y, zL = x - y + z, ,

x2 + y2 + z2 , x - y + z O.

= H x r, y r, z rL ,

r=

x2 + y2 + z2 ,

= 9Hx, y, zL 3 : -2 x 2, -2 x 2, -2 x 2 , r 0 =

. 1.6

221

, :

. 1.7
:
3 . ,
f : , g : , h :
f Hx, y, zL = x Hx, y, zL, gHx, y, zL = y Hx, y, zL hHx, y, zL = z Hx, y, zL, .
T grad : 3
grad Hx, y, zL = H f Hx, y, zL, gHx, y, zL, hHx, y, zL L.
. ,
: : 3 ,
(1.1)

Hx, y, zL grad Hx, y, zL := I x Hx, y, zL, y Hx, y, zL, z Hx, y, zL M.

.. Hx, y, zL = x y z, Hx, y, zL grad Hx, y, zL = H y z, x z, x y L.

: 3
, div : , o . H
v v .
Hx, y, zL = H f Hx, y, zL, gHx, y, zL, hHx, y, zL L,

(1.2)

Hx, y, zL div Hx, y, zL := x f Hx, y, zL + y gHx, y, zL + z hHx, y, zL .

.. vHx, y, zL = H x y, y z, z x L, Hx, y, zL div Hx, y, zL = y + z + x .

: 3
, curl : 3 , o .

222

, , .
Hx, y, zL = H f Hx, y, zL, gHx, y, zL, hHx, y, zL L,
(1.3)

curl := I y h - z g, z f - x h, x g - y f M

, Hx, y, zL = H x y, y z, z x L
Hx, y, zL curl Hx, y, zL = H - y, - z, - x L -H y, z, x L .
E

3 . , ,
. ,
.
, x 2 ,
y 2 z 2 : ,
:
(1.4)

H L div Hgrad L := x Hx L + y I y M + z H z L

x 2 + y 2 + z 2


. Laplace () 2
. ,
2 := x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .

(1.5)

H L div Hgrad L = 2 .

(1.6)

: . X ,
(1.7)

H L curl Hgrad L

= I y H z L - z I y M, z Hx L - x H z L, x I y M - y Hx L M

,
. ,
. ,
(1.8)

H L curl Hgrad L = 0

, :
.
1.1
() r : 3
(1.9)

rHx, y, zL =

x2 + y2 + z 2 .

223

= 3 \ 8H0, 0, 0L<

(1.10)

rHx, y, zL grad rHx, y, zL = H x rHx, y, zL, y rHx, y, zL, z rHx, y, zL L.

A HrL curl Hgrad rL = 0

.
() , :
(1.11)

Hx, y, zL = FHrHx, y, zLL,

F : rHx, y, zL =
,
(1.12)

x2 + y2 + z2 , .

Hx, y, zL grad Hx, y, zL = F Hr L H x r , y r , z r L,

r = rHx, y, zL F Hr L FHrL.

A F,
3 . .. FHrL = r2 ,
Hx, y, zL = FHrHx, y, zLL = x2 + y2 + z2 .
Hx, y, zL = 2 H x, y , z L 3 .

, FHrL = 1 r,
= 3 \ 8H0, 0, 0L< Hx, y, zL = -I x r3 , y r3 , z r3 M.
, H L curl Hgrad L = 0.

' Q
:
(1.13)

Hx, y , zL =

Q
r

To
(1.14)

Hx, y , zL := -Hx, y, zL.

,
(1.15)

Hx, y , zL := Q I x r3 , y r3 , z r3 M

x = Q

y = Q
z = Q

x
r3
y
r3
z
r3

, q
p Hx, y , z L H0, 0, 0L,
(1.16)

FHx, y , zL = q Hx, y , zL = Q q I x r3 , y r3 , z r3 M.

() Coulomb ().

224

: A
v : 3 : = ,
= 0 . , ,
. ,
: 3 ,
: 1 , = 1 .
.

v. M , v : 3

(1.17)

H vL div Hcurl vL = 0.

.
.
w : 3 :
w = , w = 0 .
, .
w : 3 ,
w = 0, : 1 w =
1 . ,
w.

 R^3

225

8. 2
3
: 3 .
:
Hx, y, zL = Hx, y, zL,

Hx, y, zL ,

: 3
Hx, y, zL = Hx, y, zL,

Hx, y, zL .

. ,
: w : 3 ,
: 3
(2.1)

Hx, y, zL = Hx, y, zL Hx, y, zL = wHx, y, zL

;
,
,
() . ,
, w . ,
,
(2.2)

= H f , g, hL w = Ha, b, cL,

= , = w (
(x,y,z)).
(2.3)

x f + y g + z h =
y h - z g = a

(2.4)

= w

z f - x h = b
x g - y f = c

,
.
, a, b, c
. H L = 0

x a + y b + z c = 0. ,
. (2.4)
, 1
(2.4)

226

1 = .

(2.5)

,
1 := 1 + ,

(2.6)

1 = 1 = w .

(2.7)
,
(2.8)

1 = 1 + HL = + 2

, ,
(2.9)

2 = := - ,

1
(2.10)

1 = .

1 (2.3) (2.4).
()
2 =

(2.11)

Poisson (), Laplace.

, ,
Poisson . (2.3) - (2.4)
, .

(2.12)

1 = ,

1 = 0.

2 = 0,

2 = w.

(2.13)

.

(2.14)

:= 1 + 2

(2.3) (2.4). ,
:
3 , ,
, 1 2 ,
( 1 = 0) ( 2 = 0).
,
, ,
= 0.

To

227

8. 3
19 ,

, , , ,
, .
,
Hx, y, zL, Hx, y, zL .
(3.1)

= 0,

= 4 ,

(3.2)

= 0,

4
c

J.

H = Hx, y, zL
esu cm3 . H esu (electrostatic unit = ),
sCoul (static Coulomb = () ),
F = Qq r2 Q '
q r .
HesuL2 = cm2 dyne = gr cm3 sec2 .
c , ,
c = 3 1010 cm sec. ,
- - .
H JHx, y, zL .
' ( )
(), Iesu cm3 M Hcm secL = esu Icm2 secM.
(3.1) (3.2)
, esu cm2 .

. ,
= 0 , , Hx, y, zL,

(3.3)

= -.

= 4 .
Poisson
(3.4)

2 = - 4 .

228

, = 0 , ,
Hx, y, zL,
= .

(3.5)

4
c

H L =

(3.6)

J.

,
H L = H L - 2 ,

(3.7)

2 . = H, , L
2 I2 , 2 , 2 M. , . (3.6)
H L - 2 =

(3.8)

4
c

J.

, ,
= 0. , (3.8)
2 = -

(3.9)

4
c

J.

, , . (3.6)
= 0. = T 0.
= + , Hx, y, zL
2 = -. ,
= + 2 = 0.

(3.10)

= H + L = .

(3.11)

= - (3.8)
(3.12)

@ H - LD - 2 H - L = -I2 M - 2 + 2 HL = -2 .

(3.9). , (3.11)

(3.13)

= ,

( Poisson) (3.9).
3.1

a .
, Q.

To

229

x y z. V = H4 3L a3 ,
0 = 3 Q 4 a3 .
, Hx, y, zL
Hx, y, zL = :

(3.14)
r =

0 , r a
0, r > a

x2 + y2 + z 2 .

, ,
, , r Hx, y, zL

. Hr, , L,
Hx, y, zL Hr, , L. ,
, r, Hr, , L = HrL.
Laplace
2
r

2 = r 2 + r +

(3.15)

1
r2 sin

Isin M +

1
r2 sin2

2 .

, HrL
+ 2 r = HrL = :

(3.16)

-4 0 , r a
0,
r>a

= ,

+ 2 r = HrL.

(3.17)

(3. 17) r2 , .
r2 + 2 r Ir2 M = r2 HrL.

(3.18)

HrL = -4 0 ,
r2 = -

(3.19)

4 0
3

r3 + C1

=-

4 0
3

r+

C1
.
r2

O ,
HrL = -

(3.20)

2 0
3

r2 -

C1
r

+ C2 .

, r = 0, C1 0. ,

HrL = -

(3.21)
,

2 0
3

r2 + C2 = -

Q
2 a3

r2 + C2 ,

r a.

230

C1
r

HrL = -

(3.22)

+ C3 , r > a.

, C3 = 0. HrL r = a,
:
-

(3.23)

Q
2a

+ C2 = -

C1
,
a

Q
a2

C1
.
a2

,
C1 = -Q,

(3.24)

HrL
HrL = :

(3.25)

Q
2 a3
Q
r

C2 =

3Q
2a

I3 a2 - r2 M, r a
ra

, , = -

.
Hx, y, zL = :

(3.26)

Q
a3
Q
r3

r,

ra

r,

ra

r = Hx, y, zL,

(3.15), "",
r > a, '

.

3.2
a.
J0 .
.

z
x y z. ,

(3.27)
r =

Jx Hx, y, zL = J y Hx, y, zL = 0,

x2 + y2 .

Jz Hx, y, zL = :

J0 , r a
0,

r>a

To

231

, (3. 9)
2

(3. 28)

= 0,

= 0,

=:

4
c

J0 , r a
r>a

0,

E ,
x Hx, y, zL = y Hx, y, zL = 0 (3.
28). , ()
Hr, , zL. ' , Laplace
1
r

2 = r 2 + r +

(3.29)

1
r2

+z 2 .

, Hr, , zL = z Hx, y, zL,

Hr, , zL = HrL. , (3.27)
1
+
r

(3.30)

= HrL = :

4
c

J0 , r a
r>a

0,

Hr L = r HrL.

(3.31)

(3.32)

HrL = :

- J0 r2 + C1 ln r + C2 , r a
c

C3 ln r + C4 ,

r>a

H r 0, r . ,
,
. r . ,
C1 . , HrL r = a,
:
(3.33)

- J0 a2 + C2 = C3 ln a + C4 ,
c

2
c

J0 a = C3

1
a

, (3.32)
(3.34)

HrL = :

- J0 r2 + C2 ,
-

c
2
c

J0 a2 ln Hr aL -

ra

J0 a2 + C2 ,

r>a

a2 . I = a2 J0
. ,
C2 = 0.
:
(3.35)

x Hx, y, zL = y Hx, y, zL = 0,

z Hx, y, zL = :

- J N ,

ra

r>a

I r 2
c a
I
@1 + 2 ln Hr aLD,
c

232

T, = (3.35),
:
(3.36)

x Hx, y, zL = :

(3.36)

y Hx, y, zL = :

(3.36)

z Hx, y, zL = 0.

2I y
,
c a2
2I y
,
c r2

2I x
,
c a2
2I x
,
c r2

ra
r>a
ra
r>a

To

233

8. 4

J
, . ,
= Hx, y, z, tL J = JHx, y, z, tL, = Hx, y, z, tL, = Hx, y, z, tL. -
'
.
,

3
. , , .

, t Hx, y, z, tL. ,

t Hx, y, z, tL. ,
t t
.
19
.

(4.1)

1
c

= - t ,
= 0,

= 4 ,
=

4
c

J+

1
c

A () Maxwell.
.

(4.2)

t + J = 0

. H L = 0,
Maxwell 4 J + Ht L = 0.
4 J + t H L = 0,
. , Maxwell
.
Maxwell,
= 0 , ,

234

Hx, y, z, tL,
= .

(4.3)

, Maxwell ,
t H L = Ht L,
J +

(4.4)

1
c

t N = 0.

, , , ,
Hx, y, z, tL,
+

(4.5)

1
c

t = - .

( ). ,
=-

(4.6)

1
c

t - .

.
(, ),
(4.3) (4.5)
. ,
.
(4.6)
Maxwell
(4.7)

J t + N = - 4 .

(4.8)

1
c

, H L = 2 . ,
1
c

t N + 2 = - 4 .

,
Maxwell
(4.9)

H L =

4
c

J-

1
c

t J t + N.
1
c

H L = H L - 2

(4.10)

2 -

1
c2

t 2 - J +

1
c

t N = -

4
c

.
J, (4.8) (4.10)

. , (4.8) (4.10) . ,
. ,

To

235

1
c

t + (4.10)

, (4.8).
, (4.8)
(4.10)
+

(4.11)

1
c

t = 0

, . (4.10)
(4.12)

2 -

1
c2

t 2 = -

2 -

1
c2

t 2 = - 4 .

J ,

(4.8)
(4.13)

! ,
,
- () d Alembert (N
)
(4.14)

.

c2 2 u - t 2 u = f ,

f = f Hx, y, z, tL u = uHx, y, z, tL

, , (4.12)
-
. .. Ix , y , z M

J IJx , J y , Jz M, (4.12)

(4.15)

c2 2 x - t 2 x = -4 c Jx

(4.15)

c2 2 y - t 2 y = -4 c J y

(4.15)

c2 2 z - t 2 z = -4 c Jz

,
(4.11)
Maxwell.
(,) ()
(4.11). ( , )

(4.16)

= + ,

= -

1
c

236

(4.17)

1
c

t = 0,

Hx, y, z, tL
c2 2 - t 2 = 0.

(4.18)

. , ,
, (, ),
( , ) (4.16).
= - ,

(4.19)

= +

1
c

(4.8) (4.10) (4.17),

( , ) (4.12) (4.13) ().
,
:= = H + L = = ,

(4.20)
(4.21)

:= -

1
c

t - = = -

1
c

1
c

t H + L - J -

1
c

t N

t - = .

, ,
( , ) (, ) . , .

(gauge freedom) (gauge
symmetry) Maxwell.
.
E . (4.12) (4.13),
, ,
d' Alembert (4.14). , ()

(4.22)

c2 2 u - t 2 u = 0,

, f , . ,
,
J,
. (4.22). , -
,
c . (4.22).

.


.

To

237

,
. , ,

, . ,

()
.

238

8. 5 Lorentz
axwell
Maxwell - -
, ()
,
. ,
.
'
-
Minkowski, , .
. (4.12) (4.13)
,
, (4.13)
.

(5.1)

(5.2)

A IA1 , A2 , A3 , A4 M := Ix , y , z , M H, L
J IJ 1 , J 2 , J 3 , J 4 M := IJx , J y , Jz , c M HJ, cL.

, (4. 12) (4. 13)

(5.3)

2 A j -

1
c2

t 2 A j = -

4
c

J j,

j = 1, 2, 3, 4.

'
x := Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M Hx, y, z, c tL. A, ,
j x j x j
Einstein,
(5.4)

1
c

t = j A j x j A j .

K , (4.11)

(5.5)

j A j = 0.

, . (4.2)

(5.6)

j J j = 0.
Minkowski (-)

 Lorentz Maxwell

239

x y

Ix , y M := j k x j yk , j, k = 1, 2, 3, 4,

(5.7)
O

= I j k M = H1, 1, 1, -1L

(5.8)

, detHL = -1.
, j k . ,
-1 = I j k M = H1, 1, 1, -1L.

(5.9)

-1 = -1 = I H1, 1, 1, 1L

(5.10)

j k k m = m k k j = mj :

(5.11)

1, j = m
0, j m

(5.12)

j k j k = 1 1 +2 2 +3 3 -4 4 1 2 +2 2 +3 2 -4 2 = 2 -

1
c2

t 2 .

, (5.3)
(5.13)

m n m n A j = -

m n m n A = -

J j,

(5.14)

-1
.

Minkowski.
, X j
. Y j = j k X k .

, HY1 , Y2 , Y3 , Y4 L = IX 1 , X 2 , X 3 , - X 4 M. ,
Z j = j k Yk ,

X , IZ 1 , Z 2 , Z 3 , Z 4 M = HY1 , Y2 , Y3 , -Y4 L.

:
(5.15)

Y j = j k X k , Z j = j k Yk Z j = j k Yk = j k k m X m = m X m = X j .

A X j
Y j = j k X k .
, X j ,

240

- j. , X j
X j .
,
F j k = j m F m k , F j k = k n F j n = j m k n F m n , ...

(5.16)

Lorentz

x j x j = f j Hx L := L m xm .
j

(5.17)


(5.18)

L = IL m M
j

j k L m Lkn = m n L m j j k Lkn = m n L L =

(5.17)
(5.19)

k f j Hx L xk f j Hx L = k IL m xm M = L m k H xm L = L m mk = L k
j

O (5.17)
(5.20)

x j x j = j Hx L = L-1 jm xm ,

L-1 jm , L-1 , L.

(5.21)

k j Hx L xk j Hx L = L-1

(5.22)

GHx L := FI j Hx LM,

j
k

A, , FHx L x j , (5.20)

x j .
(5.23)

FHx L = GI f j Hx LM.

(5.24)

k FHx L xk FHx L = m GI f j Hx LM k f m Hx L.

A (5.19),
(5.25)

k FHx L xk FHx L = m GI f j Hx LM Lmk .

(5.26)

k GHx L xk GHx L = m FI j Hx LM k m Hx L = m FI j Hx LM L-1 mk

A , , ,
Minkowski x j ,
Minkowski x j . A j Hx L (5.5) (5.13)

 Lorentz Maxwell

241

B j Hx L := A j Il Hx LM,

(5.27)

A j Hx L = B j I f l Hx LM.

(5.28)

(5.25)
(5.5) (5.13)
m A j Hx L = r B j I f l Hx LM Lrm .

(5.29)

H5.29 )

m A j = r B j Lrm .

, . (5.5)
r B j Lr j = 0,

(5.30)

.
A j
j

A j := L k Bk ,

(5.31)
o B j

B j = L-1 k Ak

(5.32)

T (5.30)
(5.33)

r B j Lr j = r IL-1 k Ak M Lr j = r Ak Lr j L-1 k = r Ak rk = r Ak
j

(5.30)
r Ak = 0.

(5.34)

(5.31) , (5.27) B j .

(5.35)

A j Hx L := L k Bk Hx L = L k A j Il Hx LM.
j

(5.36)

A j Hx L = L k Ak Hx L
j

Minkowski.
, Minkowski
Lorentz (5.36).
,
.
J j Lorentz.
. (5. 13)

242

(5.37)

m n m n A j = m n r As IL-1 k Ak M Lsn E Lrm = m n Lrm Lsn L-1 k r s Ak

j

(5.18)

j k = j k

m n Lrm Lsn = Lrm m n Ln s = r s .

(5.38)

K , (5.37)
j

m n m n A j = L-1 k r s r s Ak

(5.39)

. (5.13)
j

L-1 k r s r s Ak = -

(5.40)

4
c

J j.

,
r s r s Ak = -

(5.41)

4
c

J k ,

J k = Lkm J m .

(5.42)

,
Lorentz (
(5. 41) (5. 13) ),
. ,
k J k = 0

(5.43)

(5.6). (5.26) (5.42)

(5.44)

k J k = m ALkn J n E L-1 mk = m J n L-1 mk Lkn = m J n mn = m J m

(5.43) (5.6).

A Hx L

(5.45)

(5.46)
(. (5. 26) )
(5.47)

j Hx L := j Hx L

Hx L := I j Hx LM Hx L = I f j Hx LM,
k Hx L xk Hx L = m J j Jx NN k m Jx N
z

(5.48)

k Jx N = Mk m m Hx L
z

 Lorentz Maxwell

243

k := k Hx L,

(5.49)

Mk m := k m = L-1 mk

K 9A j =
(5.50) Lorentz. ,
9A j =
(5. 36), 9A j = , 9A j = .
9A j1

, 4m+n
j2 ... jm
k k ... kn = m + n
1 2

Lorentz,
(5.50) A j1

j2 ... jm

k1 k2 ... kn

= L a11 L a22 ... L amm Mk

b1

Mk

b2

... Mkn bn Aa1 a2 ... am b

1 b2 ... bn

..
j

A j k = L a Mk b Aa b ,

F j k = M j a Mk b Fa b ,

T j k l = L a Mk b Ml c T a b c

8Aa b <, 9Fa b = 8T a b c < .

. ,
- - ,
.
, , j Hx L,
( ).
9A j Hx L=

9A j Hx L=. M , 9A j Hx L=

A j Hx L = j k Ak Hx L,
.

(5.18)
L = L-1

(5.51)

LT a k k j = a k L-1 k j a k M j k

,
j k LT a k a b = a k M j k a b = M j k k b = M j b .

(5.52)
,
(5.53)

A j Hx L := j k Ak Hx L = j k Lka Aa Hx L = j k Lka a b = j k Lka a b Ab Hx L.

I,
(5.54)

A j Hx L = M j b Ab Hx L.

, ' , 9A j Hx L=
,

244

F j k := j Ak - k A j

(5.55)

.
F j k = - Fk j

(5.56)

44 (F j k ) . ,
(F j k ) {F1 2 , F2 3 , F3 1 , F1 4 , F2 4 , F3 4 }.

, , 9A j Hx L=

9A j Hx L= . (5.3) (5.5) .
F1 2 = 1 A2 - 2 A1 x y - y x H Lz ,

(5.57)

" " . , (4.

3), H Lz z- .
,
F1 2 = H Lz = z

(5.58)

F2 3 = H Lx = x ,

(5.59)

F3 1 = H L y = y

,
(5.60)

F1 4 := 1 A4 - 4 A1 = -1 A4 - 4 A1 = -x - c t x

(4.6),
F1 4 = -x -

(5.61)

1
c

t x = x

M
(5.62)

F2 4 = - y -

1
c

t y = y,

F3 4 = -z -

1
c

t z = z

, IF j k M
, , , , :

(5.63)

F11
F21
F31
F41

F12
F22
F32
F42

F13
F23
F33
F43

0
z - y x
F14
-z 0
x y
F24
=
F34
y -x 0 z
F44
-x - y -z 0

F j k Maxwell,
.
, , ,
.

 Lorentz Maxwell

245

, ,
Maxwell, Maxwell, (4. 1),
:
k F j k =

(5.64)

4
c

Jj

j F k l + k F l j + l F j k = 0

5.1
Lorentz
j

x j x j = L k xk ,

(5.65)

(5.66)

0
j
IL k M =
0
-

0
1
0
0

0 -
0 0
,
1 0
0

:=

V
c

HL :=

M ,
(5.67)

x1 = Ix1 - x4 M,

x2 = x2 ,

1
1-2

x4 = Ix4 - x1 M

x3 = x3 ,

' ,

J 1 = IJ 1 - J 4 M
(5.68)

J j

j
Lk

Jk

Jx = HJx - V L
J y = J y

J2 = J2

J3 = J3

J 4 = IJ 4 - J 1 M

Jz = Jz
= K -

V
c2

Jx O

, Maxwell
(5.69)

F j k = M j a Mk b Fa b

F j k = L a Lkb F a b ,

F a b := a j b k F j k

(5.70)

A (6. 63)

(5.71)

IF a b M =

- y -x

-z

- y

-x

-z

, (5. 69)

246

(5.72)

F 1 2 = L1a L2b F a b = L11 L22 F 1 2 + L14 L22 F 4 2 = z - x

M ,

z = Hz - x L

(5.73)

Maxwell ,
x = x
(5.74)

x = x

y = I y - z M

y = I y + z M

z = Hz + x L

z = Hz - x L

(5.74) ,
,
. , =0, (5.74)
(5.75)

x = x
y = y

x = 0
y = - z

z = z

z = - x

, ,
, =0 (5.74)
(5.76)

x = 0
y = - z

x = x
y = y

z = - x

z = z

,
- .
Maxwell
.

5.2
(5.74)

.
'
. .. Q
u x . ,
t = 0 x = 0.

(5.77)

x = u t,

y = 0,

z = 0.

, , V = u
Lorentz . (5.67).
.

 Lorentz Maxwell

247

, ' ""

(5.78)

x Hx L = Q

x
,
r 3

y Hx L = Q

(5.79)
I,
(5.80)

r2 := x2 + y2 + z2 ,

z Hx L = Q

y
,
r 3

z
,
r 3

x := Hx , y , z , t L.

Hx L = Q r r 3 ,

r := Hx , y , z L

, (5.74)

x = x
(5.81)

y = I y + z M

z = Hz - x L

x = x

y = I y - z M
z = Hz + x L

, , ,
(5.82)

x = x
y = y

x = 0

z = z

z = x

y = z

(5.67) ,
(5.77) (5.78),
(5.82) :
(5.83)

x Hx L = Q

(5.83)

y Hx L = Q

(5.83)

z Hx L = Q

Hx -u tL
32
2
B Hx -u tL2 +y 2 +z 2 F
y
32
B 2 Hx -u tL2 +y 2 +z 2 F
z
32
2
2
B Hx -u tL +y 2 +z 2 F

x Hx L = 0

y Hx L = - z Hx L
z Hx L = y Hx L.

248

02-09-2003
1o

, 1 , 2 3 Hx1 , w1 L = H5, 3L, Hx2 , w2 L = H3, 3L,

Hx3 , w3 L = H6, 10L, .
)
V = 0, 6 c.

) 1 , 2 , 3 x w .
, x w .

) V = 0, 6 c, Lorentz
= 0, 6 = 3 5.

,
=

1-2

x =

1- HV cL

Hx - V tL,

= 4.

y = y, z = z, t =

1- HV cL

Jt -

V
c2

xN ,

x = Hx - wL,

w = Hw - xL,

.
,
x =

5
4

Jx -

3
5

wN, w =

5
4

Jw -

3
5

xN.

Hx1 , w1 L Hx H 1 L, w H 1 L L = H4, 0L,

Hx2 , w2 L Hx H 2 L, w H 2 L L = I 2 ,
3

3
M,
2

Hx3 , w3 L Hx H 3 L, w H 3 L L = H0, 8L.

) 1 , 2 , 3 x - w .
x w x - w. (
, ).

250

, w x - w
V = 0, 6 c t = 0
x = 0. x, w

= arctanHL = arctanH0, 6L = arctanH3 5L

w. , w
Hx, wL = H0, 0L Hx, wL = H3, 5L, .
, x x - w
Hx, wL = H0, 0L Hx, wL = H5, 3L.
w
14
w

12
3

10
8

6
4
2

10

12

14

2o
t = 0 x = -2 lsec ( ) ,
u1 = 0, 6 c. u2 = -0, 8 c.
) t1 > 0 x = 0,
t2 x = 0.
) x - w, 0 t t2 ,
.
) u1 u2 V = -0, 8 c
.

)
0 = Ix0, w0 M = H-2, 0L
2 = Ix2, w2 M = H0, c t2 L, .

) ,
x = x0 + Ht - t0 L,

t0 t t0 + T,

T > 0 .

251

,
x = -2 + 0, 6 c t,

x = x - 0, 8 c Ht - 10L,

0 t 10 sec,
t 10 sec.

lsec x t = 10 sec,
.
, , t = 10 sec,
x = -2 + 0, 6 c 10 lsec = -2 lsec + 0, 6 10 lsec = 4 lsec
, t 10 sec
x = 4 - 0, 8 c Ht - 10L,

t 10 sec.

x = 0 t1 ,
0, 6 c t1 = 2 .
,
t1 =

2 lsec 2 c sec
0,6 c 0,6 c

10
3

sec.

x = 0 t2
0, 8 c Ht2 - 10L = 4

t2 = 10 + H4 0, 8L = 15 sec.

)
.
tHsecL
15 2
12.5

10
7.5
5
2.5 1
-3

0
-2

-1

xHlsecL

1 - 2 t

0 t 10 sec,

1 =

u1 = 0, 6 c 1 = 0, 6.

1 - H0, 6L2 10 sec = 0, 8 10 sec = 8 sec.

252

10 sec t 15 sec, u2 = -0, 8 c 2 = -0, 8.

2 =

1 - H-0, 8L2 5 sec = 0, 6 5 sec = 3 sec

, 0 t t2
= 1 + 2 = 8 sec + 3 sec = 11 sec
) V = -0, 8 c ,
u =

u-V
1-

uV
c2

u1 =

u1 -V
1-

u1 V

c2

u2 =

0,6 c-H-0,8 cL
1-

0,6 cH-0,8 cL
c2

u2 -V
1-

u12 V

c2

1,4 c
1,48

70
74

H-0,8 cL-H-0,8 cL
1-

H-0,8 cLH-0,8 cL

c=

35
37

=0

c2

)
w = Hw - xL.

0 = Ix0, w0 M = H-2 lsec, 0L,

2 = Ix2, w2 M = H0, c t2 L = H0, c 15 secL = H0, 15 lsecL,

w0 = Hw0 - x0 L =
w2 = Hw2 - x2 L =

@0 - H-4 5L H-2 lsecLD = - 3 lsec

8

1-H45L2

@15 lsec - H-4 5L H0 lsecLD = 25 lsec

1
1-H45L2

, , 0 2 ,
t2 - t0 =

w2 -w0
c

18 lsec
c

83
3

sec.

3o
, 1
0, 6 c.
) 0 c (
), 1 ;
) , 2 , 0, 4 c.
2 1 .

Doppler

253

1-
1+

0.

' , = V c (, )
(, ) .
) 1 0, 6 c,

1-H-35L
1+H-35L

v1 =

85
25

0 =

0 = 2 0.

c. , .

) 2 0, 4 c,

1-25
1+25

v2 =

35
75

0 =

0 =

= c . ,
=

3108 msec
10
3

MHz

3108 msec

10
3

106 sec-1

3
7

= 90 m.

) 0, 8 c, = -0, 8 = -4 5,
=

1+45
1-45

10 MHz =

95
15

10 MHz = 30 MHz

,
=

3108 msec
30 MHz

3108 msec
30106 sec-1

= 10 m.

4o

) , (.. ) @t1 , t2 D,
. A
, t2 ;

) 1 m1 = 1 MeV c2 E1 = H5 3L m1 c2
x . t0 , 1 2 , m2 = 4 m1 ,
E2 = 3 E1 , , 1 .
3 m3 = 5 m1 .
(i) {1 , 2 }
.
(ii) 3 .

) ,
E = m c2

m c2
1-2

254

E0 = m c2
, ,
m c2

E = 2 E0

= 2 m c2 .

1-2

,
1 - 2 =

1
4

2 = 4 ,

3
2

-i)
m c2

E = m c2

1-2

E1 = H5 3L m1 c2

1 m1 c2 = H5 3L m1 c2 1 = H5 3L.

,
1

1-2

2 -1

1 ,
1 2 -1

1 = 1 =

= 5.

,
E2 =

m2 c2
1-2 2

2 m2 c2 = 3 E1

2 4 m1 c2 = 3 H5 3L m1 c2 m1 c2 2 = 5 4,

2 ,
2 2 -1

2 = - 2 = -

= -5 .

:
E = E1 + E2 = H5 3L m1 c2 + 3 H5 3L m1 c2 = 20 m1 c2
p = p1 + p2 = m1 1 1 + m2 2 2

= m1 H4 5L H5 3L + 4 m1 H-3 5L H 5 4L = @H4 3L - 3D m1 = -H5 3L m1

-ii) ( . ,
x ).

p =

E
c

hf
c

255

f . ,
c = 1,

h = 1,

:
p = E = f .
, ,
- ,
E3 + E = E,

p3 + p = p,

E3 + f = H20 3L m1 ,

p3 + f = -H5 3L m1 ,

= 1.

E3 - p3 = H20 3L m1 + H5 3L m1

m3 3 - m3 3 3 =
m3 H1 - 3 L 3 =

4+

1+ 3

=J

1+ 3

m1

1- 3
1-3

1- 3

4+ 2

20+5

1- 3

m1

5 m1 H1 - 3 L 3 =

( m3 = 5 m1 )

H1 - 3 L 3 =

20+5

3 =

20+5
3

m1

4+
3

4+

1-K
1+K

3
O

4+ 2
3

16

4+ 2
3

= - 34 = - 17 .

, = 1,
1-J N

5 2

3 =

1+J N

5 2

9-25
9+25

16

= - 34 = - 17 .

3 =

1
1-3 2

1-H817L2

17
289-64

f = E - E3 = H20 3L m1 - m3 3

17
225

17
,
15

= H20 3L m1 - 5 m1 3 = @H20 3L - 5 H17 15LD m1 = m1 .

, = -1,
1-J N

3 2

-3 =

1+J N

3 2
3

= 0,

256

3 =
,

1
1-3 2

= 1.

f = E - E3 = H20 3L m1 - m3 = H20 3L m1 - 5 m1 = @H20 3L - 5D m1 =

5
3

m1 .

257

28-01-2004
1o
, Minkowski 1 , 2 3
Hx1 , y1 , z1 , w1 L = H1, 0, 0, 0L,

Hx2 , y2 , z2 , w2 L = H4, 0, 0, 5L

Hx3 , y3 , z3 , w3 L = H0, 0, 3, 5L,

.
) 1 , 2 , 3 '
x, z w .
) , , .
, .
) 1 3 .

) Hx1 , y1 , z1 , w1 L = H1, 0, 0, 0L, Hx2 , y2 , z2 , w2 L = H4, 0, 0, 5L

Hx3 , y3 , z3 , w3 L = H0, 0, 3, 5L, . ,

1 , 2 , 3 , .
( ).

0
w
6

3
2

4
2
0

0 1 2

258

w
3

x
1

Hx1 - x2 L2 + Hy1 - y2 L2 + Hz1 - z2 L2 - Hw1 - w2 L2 = 9 - 25 = -16,

Hx1 - x3 L2 + Hy1 - y3 L2 + Hz1 - z3 L2 - Hw1 - w3 L2 = 10 - 25 = -15,

Hx2 - x3 L2 + Hy2 - y3 L2 + Hz2 - z3 L2 - Hw2 - w3 L2 = 16 + 9 = 25.

.
)

Hx1 - x3 L2 + Hy1 - y3 L2 + Hz1 - z3 L2 - Hw1 - w3 L2 = 10 - 25 = -15

Hc L2 = 15.

,
=

15 c > 3, 873 c

2o
,
x = 1 + c 0

1 - H4 5L2 e-2 s d s, t 0.

)
=c

1 - H4 5L2 e-2 t .

) , t .
) HtL t, H0L = 0.
)

dx
d

HL c

dt
d

)
=c

1 - H4 5L2 e-2 t

HL .

259

xHtL.
)

1 - H4 5L2 =

H0L = c
)

d =
,

c,

HL = c.

1 - H cL2 d t

d =

3
5

1 - 91 - H4 5L2 e-2 t = d t = H4 5L e- t d t.

HtL = H0L + 0 H4 5L e- d = H4 5L I1 - e- t M, t 0.
t

, t @0, L, @0, 4 5L.

) t,
tHL = -lnI1 -

5
4

0 5.

M,

,
dt
d

1
.
H45L-

dx
d

dx dt
dt d

dx
1
d t H45L-

= c

1 - H4 5L2 e-2 t

= c

1 - H4 5L2 I1 -

= c

1 - @H4 5L - D2

= c
,

-1 .

dt 2

dt 2

dx
d

=c

@H45L-D2

-1 .

1
H45L-

1
H45L-

J d N = c2 BJ d N - 1F = c2 BJ H45L- N - 1F ,
dx 2

3o

5
4

J d N - c2 J d N = -c2 ,
dx 2

@H45L-D2

1
H45L-

260

m = 2 MeV c2 = H4 5L c
x . t1 ,
.
) 4- - t1 .

) V = H3 5L c
.

) 4- - m
pa = m ua = H p, E cL = m H, cL.

'
E = m c2 ,

p = m c ,

= c

1-

).

I p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 M = m I x , y , z , cM.

pa = m ua = m H, cL
:

2 -1

= c = HH4 5L, 0, 0L

= c = H-H4 5L, 0, 0L.

, ,
1

1-

=
2

5
3

1-H45L

pa = m ua = H p, E cL = m H, cL = m c H c, 1L

-
,

pa = I2 MeV c2 M c

pa =

5
3

HH4 5L, 0, 0, 1L =

H-4, 0, 0, 5L MeV c.

2
3

2
3

H4, 0, 0, 5L MeV c

) Lorentz -
p1 = HV L I p1 - p4 M,

p2 = p2 ,

p4 = HV L I p4 - p1 M,

:=

V
c

HV L =

1-2

= 5,

HV L =

1
1-H35L

= 4,

p3 = p3 ,

261

p1 = HV L I p1 - p4 M =

5
4

p4 = HV L I p4 - p1 M =

5
4

J p1 J p4 -

3
5
3
5

p4 N,
p1 N.

, 4- - :
,

p1 =

5
4

5
4

p4 =

p1 =

p4 =

5
4
5
4

J p1 -

J p4 -

J p1 -

J p4 -

3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5

p4 N =

p1 N =

p4 N =

p1 N =

5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4

J3 8

10
3

3 10
5
N = 6,
5 3

3 8
13
N= 6 .
5 3

J- 3 8

10
3

3 10
35
N=- 6 ,
5 3

3 8
37
N= 6 .
5 3

4o

1 m1 = 1 MeV c2 1 = H4 5L c x
. t0 , 1 2 . ,
1 1 = -H3 5L c 2 2 = H3 5L c.
2 , .

:
E1 + E2 = E1 + E2 1 m1 + 2 m2 = 1 m1 + 2 m2
p1 + p2 = p1 + p2
:

m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 = m1 1 1 + m2 2 2

1 = 4 5,

1 = -3 5,
2 = 3 5,

1 = H5 3L,

1 = H5 4L,

2 = H5 4L.

: m2 , 2 .
,
1 m1 + 2 m2 = 1 m1 + 2 m2 ,
,

H5 4L + H5 4L m2 = H5 3L + 2 m2 ,

15 + 15 m2 = 20 + 12 2 m2 ,

15 m2 = 5 + 12 2 m2 ,

H15 - 12 2 L m2 = 5.
,

m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 = m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 ,
,

262

-H3 5L H5 4L + m2 H3 5L H5 4L = H4 5L H5 3L + m2 2 2 ,

-H3 4L + m2 H3 4L = H4 3L + m2 2 2 ,

-9 + 9 m2 = 16 + 12 m2 2 2 ,

9 m2 = 25 + 12 m2 2 2 .

H9 - 12 2 2 L m2 = 25.

H9 - 12 2 2 L m2 = 25,

H15 - 12 2 L m2 = 5.

H9 - 12 2 2 L = 5 H15 - 12 2 L,

-12 2 2 = 66 - 60 2 ,

-2 2 2 = 11 - 10 2 .

4 2 2 2 2 = H11 - 10 2 L2 .

,
1

1-2

2 -1

2 =

4 I 2 2 - 1M = H-11 + 10 2 L2 ,

4 I 2 2 - 1M = 121 - 220 2 + 100 2 2 ,

0 = 125 - 220 2 + 96 2 2 .

2 9 24 ,
25

5
=
4

2 =

: 25 ,

2 -1

3
>.
5

,
5
H15-12 2 L

m2 =

J15-12

25
24

J15-

25
2

10
H30-25L

m2 =
, 2 =

5
4

5
H15-12 2 L

J15-12
3

5
4

5
H15-15L

= 0.

( 2 = 5 ) .

=2,

263

, m2 = 2, 2 = 25 24
H9 - 12 2 2 L m2 = 25

2 = - 25 .

264

07-09-2004
1o
() , 1 , 2 3 , ,

Hx1 , w1 L = H0, -3L, Hx2 , w2 L = H5, 0L, Hx3 , w3 L = H-6, 3L.

) ' 1 3 .
) ' 1 , 2
.
) 1 , 2 , 3 x - w .
, x w .

x3 - x1 = -6, w3 - w1 = 6.

Hx3 - x1 L2 - Hw3 - w1 L2 = 0.

1 3 (
).
.
1 3 :
Hx3 - x1 L2 - Hw3 - w1 L2 = 0.

, 1 3
. , , w3 - w1 = 0.
, x3 - x1 = 0. , 1 3
. .
, x3 - x1 = 0, w3 - w1 = 0 1 3
( ).
)

x2 - x1 = 5,

w2 - w1 = 3.

Hx2 - x1 L2 - Hw2 - w1 L2 = 25 - 9 = 16.

1 2 . ,
.
w2 - w1 .
Lorentz

w2 - w1 = @Hw2 - w1 L - Hx2 - x1 LD

,
w2 - w1 = 0

Hw2 - w1 L - Hx2 - x1 L = 0.

265

w2 -w1
x2 -x1

3
5

) = 3 5, x w x - w
3/5 x w, , .
w
w
6
x

4
3
2

-6

-4

-2

2
6

-2
1

-4
-6

, 1 , 2 , 3
.
1

1-

= 4.

, Lorentz
x = Hx - wL,

x =

5
4

Jx +

3
5

w = Hw - xL.

wN, w =

5
4

Jw +

3
5

xN.

1 , 2 , 3
.
Hx1 , w1 L Hx H 1 L, w H 1 L L = I 4 , 9

15
M,
4

Hx2 , w2 L Hx H 2 L, w H 2 L L = I 4 , 25

Hx3 , w3 L Hx H 3 L, w H 3 L L = I-

15
M,
4

39 33
, 4 M.
4

2o
, 1 2 , L = 300 m
. ,
1, 2 10-6 sec L.
) T
1 .
) , 12
, 1 2 .

266

) 1 2 ,
12 .
) , 12
.

) , ,
(i) 1 x = 0 2 x = L x .
(ii) 1 t = 0.
, 2 t1 = 1, 2 10-6 sec.

u =

300 m
1,210-6 sec

= 2, 5 108 m sec =

5
6

c,

1, 2 10-6 sec 1 . ,
1 t2 = 2 I1, 2 10-6 secM= 2, 4 10-6 sec
t4 = 4, 8 10-6 sec.
,
x = x + uHt - L,

,
x=

5
6

c t,

x=Lx=

5
6

c Ht - t1 L,

c Ht - t2 L,

x=L,

5
6

5
6

c Ht - t3 L,

0 t t1 = 1, 2 10-6 sec
t1 t t2 = 2 t1 ,
t2 t t3 = 3 t1 ,
t3 t t4 = 4 t1 .

w1 = c t1 = I3 108 m secM I1, 2 10-6 secM = 360 m.

,
w2 = 2 w1 = 720 m,

w3 = 3 w1 = 1080 m,

w4 = 4 w1 = 1440 m.

, 0 t 4, 8 10-6 sec
() - .

267

wHmL
1500
.
1

.
2

1250

1000

750

500

250

-200

-100

100

200

300

400

500

xHmL

) 1
1 - 2 L.

2 L ' =

L' =

1 - H5 6L2 L =

36-25
36

300 m = 50

11 m > 165, 83 m.

) x 12 x = 0 t = 0.
, t1 sec 1 2 .

1 =

1 - 2 t1 =

1 - H5 6L2 t1 =

11
6

1, 2 10-6 sec = 2

11 10-7 sec

12 1
2 , 1 , 12 , 1
2 .
) 12 , o 1 x = 0 t = 0. 2
L x . 1 , 2
x = 0. 2 12
=

Hx L -Hx L
Ht L -Ht L

0-L
1 -0

1-2 L

=- =-

1-

t1

= -t = -6 c
1

2 , 12 .

268

, Lorentz
: 12 V = H5 6L c ,
12 -H5 6L c.
.
3o
) f = 100 MHz. O
50 MHz
200 MHz. '
"" .
) 1 2 , m1 = 1, 6 MeV c2 , m2 = 0, 9 MeV c2 E1 = 2 MeV,
E2 = 1, 5 MeV, , .
, .

) Doppler.
1-
1+

f '=

f ' ,
f ( ). ' , = V c
.
, f = 100 MHz. f min = 50 MHz
f max = 200 MHz. H
V = c,
1-

f min =

1+

,
1-
1+

f min

1
2

3
5

,
1-
1+

1
4

1-H14L
1+H14L

,
V = c,
1+

f max =

1-

,
1+
1-

f max
f

= 2.

269

1+

= 4,

1-

,
=

4-1
4+1

3
5

)
m c2

E=

1-2

1 2 . ,

1

HL :=

=
2

1-

E
m c2

,
=

2 -1

2 -1

E2 -m2 c4
E

, 1 2
1 =
2 =

E1
m 1 c2
E2
m 2 c2

2
1,6

= 4,

1,5

= 3,

0,9

1 = 5 ,

2 = 5 .

, , 1 x 2
.
5

c p1 = c m 1 1 1 = m 1 c2 1 1 = 1, 6 MeV 4 5 = 1, 2 MeV

c p2 = c m 2 2 2 = m 2 c2 2 2 = 0, 9 MeV 3 J- 5 N = -1, 2 MeV

5

,
p1 + p2 = 0,

E1 + E2 = 3, 5 MeV.

( ) x,
:
E = E1 + E2 ,

p = p1 + p2 .

, E ', p '
.

. "
". ' ,
.
, .
(i)
"" , 3 .
3 m3 ,
E = 3 m3 ,

p = 3 m3 3 ,

270

3 m3 = 3, 5,
,

3 m3 3 = 0.
m3 = 3, 5 MeV c2 .

3 = 0,
(ii) E

,
E = E1 + E2 = 1 m1 + 2 m2 ,
p = p1 + p2 = m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 .
, - :
E = 3, 5

p1 + p2 = 0

1 m1 + 2 m2 = 3, 5
m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 = 0 .

m1 = 1, 6 MeV c2 , m2 = 0, 9 MeV c2
16 1 1 + 9 2 ' 2 ' = 0.

16 1 + 9 2 = 35 ,

16 1 1 = -9 2 2
, ,
256 1 2
1-1

81 2 2
1-2 2

2 =

256 1 2
81+175 1 2

1 = - 5 ,

2 = 5 .

271

01-02-2005
1o
1 (sec)
() . , 2 3
t2 = 3 sec t3 = 6 sec, . x
x1 = 0, x2 = 3 lsec (= ) x3 = 8 lsec, .
) 1 , 2 , 3 x - w ,
w = c t.
) ' 1 , 2 2 , 3 .
.
) x - w , x w .
) 1 , 2 , 3 x - x .

) 1 , 2 , 3 x - w
.
w
10
3

-10

-5

10

-5

-10
) .
,
x12 = x2 - x1 = 3 lsec,

w12 = w2 - w1 = c@3 - H-2LD sec = 5 lsec.

1 2 . ,
1 V1 = 1 c , V1
x12 = H1 L H x12 - 1 w12 L = 0.

1
V1 = 1 c =

x12
w12

c=

3
5

c.

,
x23 = x3 - x2 = 5 lsec,

w23 = w3 - w2 = cH6 - 3L sec = 3 lsec.

272

2 3 . ,
2 V2 = 2 c ,
x23 = H2 L H w23 - 2 x23 L = 0.

2
V2 = 2 c =

w23

c=

x23

3
5

c.

V1 = V2 , V =

3
5

c 1 , 2

2 , 3 .
) x w x - w .
w
w

10

-10

-5

10

1
-5

-10
1 2
w 1 2 x ,
. , 2 , 3 x
w , o .
) 1 , 2 , 3
Lorentz. , ' V =
,
=

V
c

3
5

= 0, 6,

HL =

1-2

5
4

= 1, 25.

, 1 , 2 , 3 '
x = HL Hx - wL =

5
4

Jx -

3
5

w = HL Hw - xL =

y = y,

wN,
5
4

Jw -

:
Hx1 , w1 L = I 2 , - 2 M,
3

Hx2 , w2 L = I 2 , 2 M,
3

3
5

z = z,

xN.
Hx3 , w3 L = I

11 3
, M.
2 2

3
5

273

1 , 2 , 3
x - w .
w
6
4
2 2
-6

-4

-2

-2
1
-4
-6
2o
, L = 1.200 m, x - y . ,
, x
y. t = 0
0, 8 c. 1 , 2 , 3 4
, , , .
) t1 , t2 , t3 t4 1 - 4 .

) Hx , y , z , w c t L
x V = -0, 6 c .
) .
) ,
.

)
T=

1.200 m
0,8 c

= 1.500

m
c

1.500
m
3108 msec

= 5 10-6 sec.

,
t1 = T,

t2 = 2 T,

t3 = 3 T

t4 = 4 T.

) Hx, y, z, w c tL 1 - 4 :
Hx1 , y1 , z1 , w1 L = HL, 0, 0, c TL = H1.200 m, 0, 0, 1.500 mL,

Hx2 , y2 , z2 , w2 L = HL, L, 0, 2 c TL = H1.200 m, 1.200 m, 0, 3.000 mL,

Hx3 , y3 , z3 , w3 L = H0, L, 0, 3 c TL = H0, 1.200 m, 0, 4.500 mL,

Hx4 , y4 , z4 , w4 L = H0, 0, 0, 4 c TL = H0, 0, 0, 6.000 mL

Hx , y , z , w c t L
x V = -0, 6 c

274

Lorentz,
V
c

:=

= -0, 6,

HL :=

1-

x = HL Hx - wL =

Jx +

5
4

3
5

x1 =

5
4

Jx1 +

w1 =

5
4

Jw1 +

3
5

w1 N =

5
4

JL +

x1 N =

5
4

Jc T +

3
5

Jw +

5
4

= 1, 25.

3
5

z = z,

xN.

c TN =

5
4

J1.200 m +

3
5

1.500 mN

3
5

5
4

J1.500 m +

3
5

1.200 mN

= H1.500 m + 1.125 mL = 2.625 m,

3
5

5
4

y = y,

wN,

w = HL Hw - xL =

=
2

LN =

= 5 H375 mL + 3 H300 mL = 1.875 m + 900 m = 2.775.

,
x2 =

5
4

w2 =

5
4

x3 =

5
4

w3 =

5
4

x4 =

5
4

w4 =

5
4

Jx2 +

Jw2 +

Jx3 +

Jx4 +

3
5

3
5

Jw4 +

3
5

x3 N =

w4 N =

3
5

x4 N =

JL +

5
4

x2 N =

w3 N =

3
5

Jw3 +

w2 N =

3
5

J0 +

5
4

3
5

J0 +

3
5

3
5

LN = 4.650 m,

3 c TN = 3.375,

J3 c T +

5
4

5
4

2 c TN = 3.750 m,

J2 c T +

5
4

5
4

3
5

3
5

0N = 5.625,

4 c TN = 4.500 m,

J4 c T +

3
5

0N = 7.500 m.

) = 0, 8 c,

=4

T
HL

1 - H0, 8L2 I5 10-6 secM = 12 10-6 sec.

1 - 2 T = 4

=4

) Lorentz ,
x = HL H x - wL,

y = y,

z = z,

w = HL H w - xL,

x
w
y
w
z
w

HL H x- wL
HL H w- xL

HL H w- xL
y

z
HL H w- xL

H x wL-
,
1- H x wL
H y wL

HL@1- H x wLD

HL z w
.
HL@1- H x wLD

,
x =

x -V

1- x V c2

y =

HL I1- x V c2 M

z =

HL I1- x V c2 M

, , x .

275

x =

x -V

1- x V c2

0,8 c-H-0,6 cL

1-H0,8 cL H-0,6 cLc2

1,4 c
1,48

35
37

c 0.946 c.

, ,
x =

x -V

1- x V c2

-0,8 c-H-0,6 cL

1-H-0,8 cL H-0,6 cLc2

-0,2 c
0,52

= - 27 c -0.384 c

, , ,
x y . ,

x =
y =

x -V

1- x V c2
y

HL I1- x V c2 M

= -V = 0, 6 c,

vy

HL

0,8 c
1,25

= 0.64 c.

,
=

H0, 6 cL2 + H0, 64 cL2 0.877 c .

x 2 + y 2 =

, ,
x =
y =

x -V

1- x V c2

HL I1- x V c2 M

= -V = 0, 6 c,

vy
HL

-0,8 c
1,25

= -0.64 c.

,
, , .
2o
, x.
m = 0, 9 MeV c2 , E = 1, 5 MeV.
) .
)
x V = -0, 8 c .

) ().
Doppler .

) ,
E = HL m c2

HL =

1-2

= c.

, ,
HL =

E
m c2

1,5 MeV
0,9 MeV

= 3.

1 - 2 = J 5 N ,
3 2

2 = 1 - J 5 N = J 5 N
3 2

4 2

276

= H4 5L c

x, = H, 0, 0L.
, x.
= H4 5L c.

,
E=h f.
,

f = Eh =

1,5 MeV
h

, , 1,5 MeV h,
0, 9 MeVc2 .
Hz = sec-1 ,
:
, . 131
= 1, 05 457 10-27 ergs sec.
Planck
h = 2 = 6, 62 606 10-27 ergs sec.
, MeV ( ) erg (),
,
1 MeV = 1, 602 10-6 ergs
,
f=

1,5 MeV
6,62 60610-27 ergssec

1,5 1,60210-6 ergs

6,62 60610-27 ergssec

2,403 10-6
1
6,62 60610-27 sec

= 3, 626 1020 Hz.

) x,
x- ., 4- - ,
I p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 M H p, E cL = m HL H, cL,

p1 p4 . (),
p1 = HL m v =

5
3

I0, 9 MeV c2 M H4 5L c = 1, 2 MeV c

p4 = E c = 1, 5 MeV c.

4- -
I p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 M H p, E cL

.
p = h k,

E=h f, f =c k ,

k . ,
p1 p4 . ,

277

p1 = h k = h H f cL = E c = 1, 5 MeV c,
p4 = E c = 1, 5 MeV c.

: p1 = p4 . , ( x)
.
, p1 = - p4 . , , p4 = p .
Lorentz 4- -

p1 = HL I p1 - p4 M,

p2 = p2 ,

p3 = p3 ,

p4 = HL I p4 - p1 M,

:= V c,

HL =

1-2

V = -0, 8 c,

HL =

1-H45L

p1 =

J p1 +

5
3

p2 = 0,
p4 =

5
3

,
p1 =

5
3

p2 = 0,
p4 =

5
3

4
5

p4 N =

J1, 2 +

5
3

4
5

p3 = 0,

J p4 +

J p1 +

4
5

4
5

p1 N MeV c =

p4 N =

5
3

J1, 5 +

p3 = 0,

J p4 +

4
5

p1 N MeV c =

5
3

1, 5 N MeV c = 4, 0 MeV c,

J1, 5 +

5
3

4
5

= 3,

4
5

1, 2 N MeV c = 4, 1 MeV c.

1, 5 N MeV c = 4, 5 MeV c,

J1, 5 +

4
5

1, 2 N MeV c = 4, 5 MeV c.

) , :
f = E h = 4, 5 MeV h 10, 878 1020

1
.
sec

Doppler
f=

1-
1+

f=

1+H45L
1-H45L

f =3 f,

.
4o
, 1 m1 = 9 kg x
1 = 0, 8 c. 2
m2 = 16 kg 2 = 0, 6 c. , ,
, 3 .
) m3 3 3 , -
.

278

) 3 ,
. ();
) 1 2
3 ; 3 .
m := m3 - Hm1 + m2 L
();

)
-
m1 1 1 + m 2 2 2 = m 3 3 3

1 m1 c2 + 2 m2 c2 = 3 m3 c2

H L :=

1
1- 2

m1 1 + m2 2 = m3 3 ,

:= c,

= 1, 2, 3.

1 = H1 , 0, 0L = H0, 8 c, 0, 0L,

2 = H2 , 0, 0L = H-0, 6 c, 0, 0L.

, x- .
. , 3 3 = H3 , 0, 0L
m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 = m3 3 3 .

1 = 0, 8 c =

4
5

1 = 5 , 1 =

c,
3

2 = -0, 6 c = - 5 c,
,

2 = 5 ,

m1 1 1 + m2 2 2 = H9 kgL

5 4
3 5

2 =

1-1

1-2 2

c + H16 kgL

= 3,

5
4

= 4.
J- 5 cN = 0.
3

m3 3 3 = 0.
.
3 = 0, 3

m1 1 + m2 2 = m3 .
, 3
m3 = H9 kgL

5
3

+ H16 kgL

5
4

= 35 kg.

279

( ).
, 3 m .
,
m = m1 + m2

m1 1 + m2 2 = m .
, -
, 3
m = 9 kg + 16 kg = 25 kg.

1
m1 +m2

Hm1 1 + m2 2 L.

x- 1 2 ,
x
=

1
m1 +m2

Hm1 1 + m2 2 L =

1
4
B9 J 5
25

cN + 16 J- 5 cNF = - 125 c = -0, 096 c.

3

12

, ,
.
) 1 2
E< :=

m 1 1 2 + 2 m 2 2 2

1
2

1
2

= J9

H9 kgL J 5 cN +
2

8
25

1
2

m 2 =

1 122
2 5125

16 kgJ- 5 cN

9
174
N = 25
25

+8

3
E> =

1
2

1
2

kg c2 = 5, 76 kg c2 .

H25 kgL J- 125 cN

kg c2 =

12

72
625

= 0, 1152 kg c2

E := E< - E> = 5, 76 kg c2 - 0, 1152 kg c2 = 5, 6448 kg c2
. , ,
, () 5, 6448 kg c2
.
, () 3 ()
1 2
m := m3 - Hm1 + m2 L = 35 kg - 25 kg = 10 kg.

m c2 = 10 kg c2
" ".
.

280

E1 = 1 m1 c2
1 ( ),
1 , 1 = 1
E10 = m1 c2 .
" ". , ,
, 1
K1 := E1 - E10 = H 1 - 1L m1 c2 .

,
K = K1 + K2 = H 1 - 1L m1 c2 + H 2 - 1L m2 c2
= 1 m1 c2 + 2 m2 c2 - Im1 c2 + m2 c2 M
= m3 c2 - Im1 c2 + m2 c2 M

= m c2 = 10 kg c2 .
,
. , . ,
10 kg c2 ,
10 kg.
, ,
.
5o

4- x = Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M, y = Iy1 , y2 , y3 , y4 M 4 . ,
z

z z

Minkowski x y x y. ,
z z

x y := j k x j yk x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 - x4 y4 .
z

) ' , Minkowski 4- x, y
Lorentz
x1 = HL Ix1 - x4 M,

x2 = x2 ,

x3 = x3 ,

x4 = HL Ix4 - x1 M

:=

V
c

HL :=

1-2

) 1 , 2 x , 1 = -0, 6 c
2 = 0, 8 c, . 21 2 1 1 . ,
12 1 2 2 .
z

) 4- - p1 , p2 1 2
, m1 = 2 g m2 = 3 g, .

p1 p2 = -H12 L m1 m2 c2 = -H21 L m1 m2 c2

12 := 12 c 21 := 21 c.

281

) , (
) 1 2 .
z

: p1 p2 Lorentz,
. 1 2 ;

) , Minkowski 4- x , y
z z

x y := j k x j yk x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 - x4 y4 .

Lorentz
x1 = Ix1 - x4 M,

x2 = x2 ,

y1 = Iy1 - y4 M,

x4 = Ix4 - x1 M

x3 = x3 ,

y2 = y2 ,

y4 = Iy4 - y1 M

y3 = y3 ,

:=

V
c

:=

1-2

, ,
x2 y2 + x3 y3 = x2 y2 + x3 y3 .
,

x1 y1 - x4 y4 = 2 Ix1 - x4 M Iy1 - y4 M - 2 Ix4 - x1 M Iy4 - y1 M

= 2 AIx1 - x4 M Iy1 - y4 M - Ix4 - x1 M Iy4 - y1 M E

= 2 Ax1 y1 - Ix1 y4 + x4 y1 M + 2 x4 y4 - x4 y4

+Ix4 y1 + x1 y4 M - 2 x1 y1 E

= 2 Ix1 y1 + 2 x4 y4 - x4 y4 - 2 x1 y1 M
= 2 I1 - 2 M Ix1 y1 - x4 y4 M

= x1 y1 - x4 y4 .
,
x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 - x4 y4 = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 - x4 y4 .
.
) , 1 1 1 = -0, 6 c . ,
2 1
21 =

2 -1

1-1 2 c2

0,8 c-H-0,6 cL

1-H-0,6 cL H0,8 c-Lc2

1,4 c
1.48

= 0, 945 946 c

, 2 2 2 = 0, 8 c . ,
1 2
12 =

1 -2

1-1 2 c2

-0,6 c-0,8 c

1-H-0,6 cL H0,8 c-Lc2

1,4 c

= - 1.48 = -0, 945 946 c

) 4- - m

282

p = m H, cL,

HL :=

:= c.

1-2

1 = Hv1 , 0, 0L = H0, 8 c, 0, 0L,

1 := 1 c = 0, 8,

2 = Hv2 , 0, 0L = H-0, 6 c, 0, 0L.

2 := 2 c = 0, 6

1 H1 L := 3 ,

2 H2 L := 4 .

p1 = m1 1 H1 , cL = m1

p2 = m2 2 H2 , cL = m2

p1 p2 = m1 m2

5 5
4
BJ5
3 4

= m1 m2 J -1 -

J 5 c, 0, 0, cN,

5
3
5
4

J- 5 c, 0, 0, cN
3

cN J- 5 cN - c2 F
3

5 5
N c2
3 4

37

= - 12 m1 m2 c2 .
, (),
12 := 12 c =

H12 L :=

1
1-12 2

1,40
1,48

37

35
,
37

372 -352

37
144

37
.
12

21 = -12 ,

H21 L = H12 L =

37
12

p1 p2 = -H12 L m1 m2 c2 = -H21 L m1 m2 c2

.
) , 1 1 .
2 1 21 ,
p1 = m1 H0, 0, 0, cL,

p2 = m2 21 H21 , cL,

p1 p2 = m1 m2 21 I0 + 0 + 0 - c2 M = -H21 L m1 m2 c2 .

283

, 2 2 ,
1 2
p1 = m1 12 H12 , cL,

p2 = m2 H0, 0, 0, cL,

. ,

p1 p2 = m1 m2 12 I0 + 0 + 0 - c2 M = -H12 L m1 m2 c2 .

, H21 L = H12 L

p1 p2 = -H12 L m1 m2 c2 = -m1 m2 H21 L c2

, .

284

13-09-2005
1o
x - w () , 1 , 2 3
2 m. 1 2
w = c t.
) Hx1 , w1 L 1 , 1 2 3
x - w.

) 1 3 . x w
x - w. , 1 , 2 3 .
) 2 3 . x w
x - w. ( 1 2 3 ) .

) 1 2 a = 2 m w,
x1 = x2 ,

w1 = w2 a.

, , , 1 2 ,
w1 = w2 - a.
Hx1 , w1 L = H3, 2L,

x3 > x1 ,

. ,
, 1 Hx1 , w1 L = H0, 0L.
w
6
5
2

3
2

1
-1

-1
,

Hx2 , w2 L = Hx1 , w1 + aL = H3, 4L.

, 60 3 rad. ,
1 3 60 w 30 6 rad x. ,
Hx3 , w3 L = Hx1 + a cos H6L , w1 + a sin H 6L L
= I3 + 2 I 3 2M, 2 + 2 H1 2LM.

285

Hx3 , w3 L = I3 +

3 , 3M.

)
x3 - x1 =

3 , w3 - w1 = 1.

Hx3 - x1 L2 - Hw3 - w1 L2 = 2.

1 3 (
1 3 ). x - w
.
, 1 3 .
V = c
w3 - w1 = 0.
Lorentz
x = Hx - wL,

w = Hw - xL.

w3 - w1 = @Hw3 - w1 L - Hx3 - x1 LD.

w3 - w1 = 0

Hw3 - w1 L - Hx3 - x1 L = 0.

w3 -w1
x3 -x1

1
3

= 1 3 , x w x - w

tan-1 I1

3 M = tan-1 I 3 3M =

rad = 30

x w, , . x
1 3 1 2 3 .
1 3 .

286

w
w

6
x

3
2

1-H13L

1-2

3
2

, Lorentz
x = Hx - wL,

w = Hw - xL,

3
2

x =

Kx -

3
3

Kw -

3
2

w =

wO,

3
3

xO.

1 , 2 , 3
.
Hx1 , w1 L = H3, 2L

Hx1 , w1 L Hx H 1 L, w H 1 L L
=

3
2

Kx1 -

3
2

K3 -

I3

1
2

Hx2 , w2 L = H3, 4L

3
3

3
3

3 - 2, 2

3
2

3
2

=
=

1
2

I3

Kx2 -

K3 -

3
3

3
3

3
2

3
2

2O,

Hx2 , w2 L Hx H 2 L, w H 2 L L
=

w1 O,

3 - 4, 4

K2 -

3
3

3
3

x1 O

3O

3 - 3M.

w2 O,

4O,

Kw1 -

3
2

3
2

Kw2 -

K4 -

3 - 3M,

3
3

3
3

3O

x2 O

287

Hx3 , w3 L = I3 +

3 , 3M

Hx3 , w3 L Hx H 3 L, w H 3 L L
=

3
2

Kx3 -

3
3

3
2

K3 +

3 -

I3

3,2

w3 O,

3
2

3
3

Kw3 3
2

3O,

3
3

K3 -

x3 O
3
3

I3 +

3 MO

3 - 3M.

) ,
x3 - x2 =

3,

w3 - w2 = -1.

Hx3 - x2 L2 - Hw3 - w2 L2 = 2.

2 3 .
x - w.
, 2 3 .
U = c
w3 - w2 = 0.
Lorentz
x = Hx - wL,

w = Hw - xL.

w3 - w2 = @Hw3 - w2 L - Hx3 - x2 LD.

w3 - w2 = 0

Hw3 - w2 L - Hx3 - x2 L = 0.

w3 -w2
x3 -x2

=-

1
3

= -1 3 , x w x - w

tan-1 I-1

3 M = tan-1 I- 3 3M = - 6 rad = -30

x w, . .
, , x 2 3
1 2 3 . 2 3
.

288

w
w

3
2

-4

-2

-2

x
-4

1

1-H13L

1-2

3
2

, Lorentz
x = Hx - wL,

w = Hw - xL.

x =

3
2

Kx +

3
3

3
2

wO, w =

Kw +

3
3

xO.

1 , 2 , 3
.
Hx1 , w1 L = H3, 2L

Hx1 , w1 L Hx H 1 L, w H 1 L L
=

3
2

Kx1 +

3
2

K3 +

3
2

I3

3
3

w1 O,

3
3

2O,

,2

3 + 2, 2

3
2

3
2

3
2

Kw1 +

K2 +
+

3 + 3M.

3
2

3
3

3
3

3O

x1 O

289

Hx2 , w2 L = H3, 4L

Hx2 , w2 L Hx H 2 L, w H 2 L L
=

3
2

Kx2 +

3
2

K3 +

=
Hx3 , w3 L = I3 +

I3

1
2

3
3

3
3

w2 O,

K4 +

3
2

4O,

3 + 4, 4

Kw2 +

3
2

3
3

3
3

x2 O

3O

3 + 3M,

3 , 3M

Hx3 , w3 L Hx H 3 L, w H 3 L L
=

3
2

Kx3 +

3
3

3
2

K3 +

3 +

1
2

I3

w3 O,

3 + 6, 4

3
3

3
2

Kw3 +

3O,

3
2

3
3

K3 +

x3 O
3
3

I3 +

3 MO

3 + 3M.

2o
,
H4 5L c.
, 30 m
. , - .

. , ,
.
) .
)
, . ,
, .
) x - w , :
(i) T
(ii) T
(iii) E .
) 1 , 2
, . 1 + 2
() .

) 30 m
, . L L = 30 m.

, V = H4 5L c. L
30 m. ,

290

L=

1 - V 2 c2 L =

1 - H4 5L2 H30 mL = H3 5L 30 m = 18 m.

) , c = 3 108 m sec, . ,

T1 = L c =

30 m
3108 msec

= 10-7 sec.

, :
T2 = 10-7 sec.
,
T = T1 + T2 = 2 10-7 sec.
) t = 0
xA H0L = 0. , 1
Hx1 , t1 L = H0, 0L.
, , L = 18 m, t = 0
xK H0L = L = 18 m.
, , ,
x. V = H4 5L c,

xA HtL = xA H0L + V t = V t = H4 5L c t

xK HtL = xK H0L + V t = L + V t = 18 + H4 5L c t,

.
, 4/5
w = c t , , x x = 0 x = 18 m.
.
HtL = HV t, tL,

HtL = HL + V t, tL.

291

ctHmL

100

80

60

40

20

20

40

60

80

100

xHmL

, , t = 0,
,
x HtL = x H0L + c t = c t,

0 t t2 .

, t2 ( 2 ).
,
1 2 . ,
HtL = Hc t, tL,

0 t t2 .

,
c. , x.
, ( 2 ) ( 3 ),

x HtL = x2 - c Ht - t2 L,

t2 t t3 .

, x2 , t3
, .
2 3
.
HtL = Hx2 - c Ht - t2 L, tL,

t2 t t3 .

) 2 .
,
x2 = x Ht2 L = c t2 ,

292

x2 = xK Ht2 L = L + V t2 .

,
c t2 = L + V t2

t2 =

L
c-V

c t2 =

L
).
1-V c

,
L
c-V

x2 = L + V

L
.
1-V c

x2 = c t2 =

L
1-V c

18 m
1-H45L

= 90 m.

, 3
. 3
x3 = x Ht3 L = x2 - c Ht3 - t2 L,

x3 = xA Ht3 L = V t3 .

x2 - c Ht3 - t2 L = V t3

x2 +c t2
c+V

t3 =
,

( c t3 =

x2 +c t2
)
1+V c

x3 = x2 - cHt3 - t2 L = x2 - cJ

x3 = x2 -

x2 - V t2
1+V c

= HV cL

x2 + c t2
1+V c

x2 +c t2
c+V

- t2 N,

= HV cL c t3 .

,
c t3 =

x2 +c t2
1+V c

2 x2
1+H45L

10
9

x2 = 100 m

x3 = HV cL c t3 = H4 5L c t3 = 80 m

)
1 = t2 =

c t2
c

2 = t3 - t2 =

90 m

3108 HmsecL

c It3 -t2 M
c

:= 1 + 2 = t3 =

c t3
c

= 3 10-7 sec

100 m -90 m

3108 HmsecL

10
3

= 3 10-7 sec

10-7 sec

, 1 3

293

T = T1 + T2 = 2 10-7 sec
, T < T . T 1
3 . 1 3 .
,

1 - V 2 c2 T =

3 10
5 3

10-7 sec = 2 10-7 sec = T .

3o
, 1 2
0, 6 c. 1 2
, .
) 1 ""
1 = 120 MHz, 2 ;
) , (
);
) 1 1 = 120 MHz,
2 1 ;

)
Doppler. ,
( ), ""
1-U c
1+U c

, U . ' ,

.
V ,

1-
1+

= V c = 1,
.
1
x V1 = 0, 6 c. ,
1 =

1-1 1
1+1 1

1-0,6
1+0,6

1
2

v.

1
2 x V2 = -0, 6 c.
,
2 =

1-2 2
1+2 2

1-H-1L H-0,6L
1+H-1L H-0,6L

1-0,6
1+0,6

1
2

v.

294

2 = 1
) 1 = 120 MHz,
= 2 1 = 240 MHz.
) , V21 2
1 1 , .
1 V1 = 0, 6 c 2
V2 = -0, 6 c , " "
:
V21 =

V2 -V1

1-V1 V2 c2

H-0,6 cL-H0,6 cL

1-H-0,6 cL H0,6 cL c2

1,2 c

120

15

= - 1+0,36 = - 136 c = - 17 c.

, 21 2 1 = 120 MHz 1

1-21 21

21 =

1+21 21

1.

, , 2 x
1 . ,
21 =
,

1-H-1L H-1517L
1+H-1L H-1517L

2
32

1 =

1.

21 = 1 4 = 30 MHz.

4o

1 2 , m1 = 0, 9 MeV c2 , m2 = 1, 6 MeV c2 E1 = 1, 5 MeV, E2 = 2 MeV,

, , .
.
: , ...

E=

m c2
1-2

1 2
. ,
1

=
2

1-

E
m c2

1 - 2 = J

m c2 2
N
E

1 - Im c2 EM =
2

1 - m2 c4 E2 .

295

1 =

1 =

4
5

E1
m 1 c2

1,5
0,9

= 3.

1 = 5 .

2 =

2 =

3
5

E2
m 2 c2

2
1,6

= 4,

2 = 5 .

1 = 5 , 2 = 5 ,
,
:
4

(i) 1 2 x, 2 : 1 = 5 , 2 = 5 .
.

v1

m1

v2

m2

(ii) : 1 2
4
3
x, 2 : 1 = - 5 , 2 = - 5 .
(iii) To 1 x, , 2
4
3
1 . 1 = 5 , 2 = - 5 .

v1

m1

v2

(iv) 1 = - 5 , 2 =

m2

3
5

1 , 2

.
, ,
H1 , 2 L = J 5 , 5 N,
4

H1 , 2 L = J 5 , - 5 N .
4

1 2
5

c p1 = c m 1 1 v1 = m 1 c2 1 1 = 0, 9 MeV 3 5 = 1, 2 MeV

c p2 = c m 2 2 v2 = m 2 c2 2 2 = 1, 6 MeV 4 J 5 N = 1, 2 MeV,
5

. , ,

296

p1 + p2 = :

2, 4 MeV c
0

E1 + E2 = 3, 5 MeV.

E = E1 + E2 m c2 = 3, 5 MeV,

c p = c p1 + c p2

m c2 = :

2, 4 MeV
.
0

,
=
,
m c2 =
=
=

m c2
m c2

2,4 MeV
3,5 MeV

H3, 5 MeVL =

24
.
35

1 - 2 H3, 5 MeVL =

1 - H24 35L2 H3, 5 MeVL

649
35

H3, 5 MeVL

m > 2, 55 MeV c2 .
, = 0 = 1. , .

m = 3, 5 MeV c2 .
, ,
.
01-02-2006
1o
() , 1 2
x1 = 20 lmin (= ) x2 = 32 lmin x,
t1 = 12 min t2 = 32 min, .
) 1 0 , ,
1 , x.
) 1 2 .
0 , 1 2 .
) x w (w c t) , 0 , 1 ,
2 . x w .

) 0

297

Hx0 , w0 L = H0, 0L.

, Hx1 , w1 L = H20 lmin, c 12 minL = H20 lmin, 12 lminL. ,

x1 - x0 = x1 = 20 lmin,

w1 - w0 = w1 = 12 lmin.

w2 - w1 = cHt2 - t1 L = 20 lmin.

x2 - x1 = 12 lmin,
Lorentz
x = Hx - wL,

w = Hw - xL

w = 0

w = x.

, 0 1 ,
Hw1 - w0 L Hx1 - x0 L . ,
w1
x1

12 min
20 lmin

= 5.

, V = c = 0, 6 c .
) Lorentz,
x = Hx - wL,

w = Hw - xL,

x = 0

x = w.

,
x w
.
x
w

x2 -x1
w2 -w1

12 lmin
20 lmin

= 5.

, 1 2
() .

) Lorentz
x0 = 0,
x1 =

5
4

x2 =

5
4

w0 = 0,

J20 J32 -

3
5

12N = 16 lmin,

w1 =

5
4

3
5

32N = 16 lmin,

w2 =

5
4

J12 J32 -

3
5

20N = 0,

3
5

32N = 16 lmin.

0 , 1 , 2 , x w
. ( ).

298

w
w

40

2
30
x
20

10

10

20

30

40

2o
, 1 2 .
1 1 2 , 2
2 1 . , 1 2
, 0, 8 c 0, 6 c, .
) 1 2 , 2 1 ,
, , 1 2 ;
) 370m,
2 , 1 ; 1
, 2 ;
) 1 , 2 , 1 2 x - w .
) 1 , 2 , 1 2 x - w .

) ,
. ,
,
(i) 1 2 , o 1
t1 =

dH1 ,2 L
1

0,5 ly
0,8 c

0,5 c y
0,8 c

5
8

y=

5
8

12 mo = 7, 5.

5
6

12 mo = 10.

(ii) , o 2
t2 =

dH1 ,2 L
2

0,5 ly
0,6 c

0,5 c y
0,6 c

5
6

y=

(iii) To 1 2
t =

dH1 ,2 L
1 + 2

0,5 ly
0,6 c+0,8 c

0,5 c y
1,4 c

5
14

y=

5
14

12 mo = 4

299

:
:
1 x = 0 x , 2
x = 0, 5 ly 6 lmos t = 0.
, 1
x = x0 + 1 t

x = 1 t.

2
x = x0 + 2 t

x = dH1 , 2 L - 2 t.

t , , x . ,
x = 1 t = dH1 , 2 L - 2 t .

t =

dH1 ,2 L
1 + 2

x = 1

dH1 ,2 L
1 + 2

, 1 ,
2 . , 1 ,
. . ,
, 1
1 - 1 2 t1 =

1 =

1 - 0, 82 7, 5 mos = 0, 6 7, 5 mos = 4, 5.

, , 1 1
2 . , 1 ( ),

1 - 1 2 t =

1 - 0, 82

30
7

mos = 0, 6

30
7

mos = 2

1 .
, 2 ,
x = -H1 2L ly = -6 lmos, t2 = 10 mos. ,
t2 =

J t2 - 1

1
1-1 2

x
5
N= 3
c

J10 mos +

4
5

6 mosN = 24

2
.
3

, 2 2 = -0, 6 c .
, .
(i) 2 1 :
2 =

1 - 2 2 t2 =

1 - 0, 62 10 mos = 0, 8 10 mos = 8.

(ii) 1 :
=

1 - 2 2 t =

1 - 0, 62

(iii) o 1 :
t1 =

1
1-2

J t1 - 2

x
5
N = 4 B7,
c

30
7

mos = 0, 8

30
7

mos = 3

3
.
7

5 mos - J- 5 N H6 mosLF = 13, 875.

3

300

2
t2

1
t1

12
.
37

) , 1
1 - 1 2 L =

1 - 0, 82 370 m = 0, 6 370 m = 222 m

1 - 2 2 L =

1 - 0, 62 370 m = 0, 8 370 m = 296 m.

L1 =
2
L2 =

, , 2
21 =

2 -1

1-2 1 c2

H-0,6 cL-H0,8 cL

1-H-0,6 cL H0,8 cLc2

1,4 c

35

= - 1+0,48 = - 37 c.

, 1 , 2
L21 =

1 - 21 2 L =
=

1
37

1
37

12
37

1 - H35 37L2 L

H37L2 - H35L2 L1 =

144 L =

12
37

1
37

1369 - 1225 L1

370 m = 120 m

, , 1 2
:
12 =

1 -2

1-2 1 c2

H0,8 cL-H-0,6 cL

1-H-0,6 cL H0,8 cLc2

1,4 c
1+0,48

35
37

c.

, 1 2
L12 =

1 - 12 2 L =

1 - 21 2 L = 120 m.

: L21 , L12
.
,) .

301

wHmosL
12

10
w

xHlmosL

3o
u = 180.000 k m sec x .
t = 0 x0 = 200 m,

) x = f HtL .

) x - w .
) .
) 4-

x Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M := Hx, 0, 0, wL = H f HtL, 0, 0, c tL

t ( ).
z

x . , t1 , t2
z

x . t1 t2 , x
.

)
x = x0 + u t,

x0 = 200 m,

u = 180.000 km sec.

,
:=

u
c

180.000 k msec
300.000 kmsec

3
5

= 0, 6,

302

x = x0 + c t = 200 m +0, 6 c t.
) , x - w
, H3 5L w c t, H5 3L
x. .
)
Hx, c tL = Hx0 + u t, c tL.

t.
,
1 - 2 t =

4
5

t = 0, 8 t.

tH0L = 0
1

t = HL =

1-2

5
4

= 1, 25 .

t,
:
Hx, c tL = x0 +

1-2

1-2

) 4-

x Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M := Hx, y, z, wL

JxN := Ix1 M + Ix2 M + Ix3 M - I x4 M .

z

x Ix1 , x2 , x3 , x4 M = Hx0 + u t, 0, 0, c tL

JxN = Hx0 + u tL2 - Hc tL2 .

z

, JxN = 0, x ,
z

Hx0 + u tL2 = Hc tL2 .

,
x0 + u t = c t

x0 = H-u cL t.

,
x0

t = cu ,

x = x0

x0
1

= x0 J1

N
1

303

c t = 1 x0 ,

x=

1
1

x0 =

1
1

x0 .

,
ct=

x0
1

, x=

x0
1

x0 = 200 m,

= 3 5.

,
x1 =

x0
1+

c t1 = -

=
x0
1+

200 m
1+H35L

= 125 m,

= -125 m,

x2 =
c t2 =

x0
1-

x0
1-

200 m
1-H35L

= 500 m,

= 500 m.

. , Hx1 , c t1 L Hx2 , c t2 L
. ,
c t = x.

304

ctHmL
600
Hx2 ,ct2 L

400

200

100

200

300

400

500

600

xHmL

Hx1 ,ct1 L
-200

-400

Ht1 , t2 L JxN x
z

. JxN = x0 2 > 0
z

t = 0.

JxN
z

t, .

t @t1 , t2 D JxN
z

x .
4o

305

1 m1 = 0, 60 MeV c2 E1 = 0, 75 MeV 2
.
, 3 ,
) 1 .
) 3 .
) 3 2
1 .

)
m c2

E=

HL m c2

1-2

m 1 c2 = 0, 5 MeV,

E1 = 2, 0 MeV,

H1 L

H1 L = 4 .
5

,
1 =

2 -1

2 -1

4
5

I4M - 1 =
5 2

4 3
5 4

= 5.

, 1 x.

p1 = H1 L m 1 = H1 L m c 1 = H1 L
5 3
4 5

m c2
c

0, 60 MeV c = 0, 45 MeV c

)
E3 = E1 + E2 = 0, 75 MeV + 1, 20 MeV = 1, 95 MeV.
,

p3 = p1 + p2 = 0, 45 MeV c + 0 = 0, 45 MeV c .

3 , :

p3 = H3 L

m3 c2
c

3 ,

E3 = H3 L m3 c2 ,

p3 , E3
3 =

c p3
E3

0,45 MeV
1,95 MeV

m3 c2 =

E3

I3 M

1 - 3 2 E3 =

3
13

> 0, 23.
1 - J 13 N 1, 95 MeV
3 2

306

1 - J 13 N 1, 95 MeV =
3 2

10 0, 15 MeV =

= 4

4
13

10 1, 95 MeV

10 0, 60 MeV > 1, 89 MeV.

, " "
c2 p2 + m2 c4

E=

m3 c2 =

H1, 95L2 - H0, 45L2 MeV > 1, 89 MeV.

E3 2 - c2 p3 2 =
H3 L =

H3 L =

E3

1,95

m3 c2

E3
m3 c2

H1,95L2 -H0,45L2

1-J

0,45 2
1,95

1
1-J

3 2
13

3 =

3
13

> 0, 23.

) ,
p1 =

E1
c

0,75 MeV
c

:
E3 = E1 + E2 = 0, 75 MeV + 1, 20 MeV = 1, 95 MeV.
:

p3 = p1 + p2 = 0, 75 MeV c + 0 = 0, 75 MeV c .

, 3 :
3 =

c p3
E3

0,75 MeV
1,95 MeV

5
.
13

m3 c2 =

E3

I3 M

169-25

=
=

1 - 3 2 E3 =

132
12
13

1, 95 MeV =

1 - J 13 N 1, 95 MeV
5 2

144
132

1, 95 MeV

1, 95 MeV = 12 0, 15 MeV > 1, 80 MeV.

.
.

307

11-09-2008
1o
() , 1 2 x,
x1 = -1 lsec x2 = 3 lsec, . To 2 t2 = 4 sec 1 5 sec .
T , 0, 6 c x2 x1 .
) 1 2 .
) ( ) 1 2
.
) , 1 2 ,
and .

) O 1 2

Hx1 , y1 , z1 , w1 L Hx1 , y1 , z1 , c t1 L = H-1, 0, 0, -1L

Hx2 , y2 , z2 , w2 L Hx2 , y2 , z2 , c t2 L = H3, 0, 0, 4L,

.
O () Lorentz
x = Hx - wL,

y = y, z = z,

w = Hw - xL,

w := c t,

:=

V
c

:=

1-2

0, 6 c x2 x1 ,
:=
:=
,

V
c

H-0,6 cL
c

= -0, 6 = - 5 ,

1-2

1-H-35L2

5
4

= 1, 25.

x1 = Hx1 - w1 L = 4 @H-1L - H-3 5L H-1LD =

5

5
4

J- 5 N = -2,
8

y1 = y1 = 0, z1 = z1 = 0,

w1 = Hw1 - x1 L = 4 @H-1L - H-3 5L H-1LD =

5

x2 = Hx2 - w2 L = 4 @H3L - H-3 5L H4LD =

5

5
4

J-

y2 = y2 = 0, z2 = z2 = 0,

w2 = Hw2 - x2 L = 4 @H4L - H-3 5L H3LD =

5

) Lorentz
x = H x - wL.

5
4

5
4

J- 5 N = -2.

27
27
N= 4
5

= 6, 75,

29
29
N= 4
5

= 7, 25.

308

,
x = 0 x = w,

=
,

x
.
w

x = x2 - x1 = 3 - H-1L = 4 lsec

w = cHt2 - t1 L = c@4 - H-1LD = 5 lsec

,
=

4 lsec
5 lsec

4
5

= 0, 8.

, H4 5L c x.
1 , 2 o x , w x , w
x - w .1.
w
w

15

x
10
5

-15

-10

-5

10

15

-5
-10

-15

. 1. 1 , 2 x , w x , w
x - w .
2
1 1 2 (3 lyrs)
. , 1 u1 = H3 5L c.
1 , 2 . - ,
(i) 1 2

(ii) T 2 u2 = H4 5L c 2 1 ,

) , .

309

) 1 1 2 .
) , .
) 1 2 1 2 , ,
2 , , 1 , .
) .
,
1 2 , 1 2 , .

, , x
, 1 x = 0 2 x = L = 3 lyrs.
) 1
L
u1

T1 =

H35L c
3 lyrs

H35L c
3 c yrs

15
3

yrs = 5 yrs.

2
T2 =

L
u2

H45L c
3 lyrs

H45L c
3 c yrs

15
4

yrs = 3, 75 yrs

) , 2 1 1,25 1 .
) T1 T2
1 =
2 =

1 - H3 5L2 5 yrs =

1 - 21 T1 =

1 - 22 T2 =

1 - H4 5L2 3, 75 yrs =

3
5

4
5

5 yrs = 4 yrs,

3, 75 yrs = 2, 25 yrs.

) , ( 1 ),
1 4 . , 2 (1, 25 + 2, 25 = 3, 5). ,
2 , 2 1 !
) ,
u =

u-V
1-HucL HV cL

, 2 1
u21 =

u2 -u1
1-1 2

H45L c-H35L c
1-H45L H35L

, 1 2
u12 =

u1 -u2
1-1 2

H35L c-H45L c
1-H45L H35L

5 H4-3L
25-12

5 H3-4L
25-12

. 2.

c=

5
13

c.

c = - 13 c.

310

tHyrsL
6
5
4

1
0.5

1.5

2.5

xHlyrsL
3.5

. 2. 1 , 2 1 , 2 x t
, .
3
) -
x - w:
X1 = H5, 0, 0, 4L, X2 = H-5, 0, 0, 4L,

Y1 = H5, 0, 0, 5L, Y2 = H-5, 0, 0, 5L,

Z1 = H4, 0, 0, 5L, Z2 = H-4, 0, 0, 5L,

X = X1 + X2 .
Y = Y1 + Y2 .
Z = Z1 + Z2 .

) , (..
, ).
, .
:
- .

X1 = H5, 0, 0, 4L, X2 = H-5, 0, 0, 4L,

X = X1 + X2 = H0, 0, 0, 8L.

,
j

j k X1 X1k = 52 - 42 = 9 > 0,

j k X2 X2k = H-5L2 - 42 = 9 > 0

j

j k X j X k = -82 = -64 < 0.

4- X1 X2 , X .
,

311

Y1 = H5, 0, 0, 5L, Y2 = H-5, 0, 0, 5L,

,

Y = Y1 + Y2 = H0, 0, 0, 10L,

j k Y1 Y1k = I52 - 52 M = 0,
j

j k Y2 Y2k = H-5L2 - 52 = 0.
j

j k Y j Y k = -102 = -100 < 0.

, 4- Y1 Y2 , Y .
,

Z1 = H4, 0, 0, 5L, Z2 = H-4, 0, 0, 5L,

Z = Z1 + Z2 = H0, 0, 0, 10L.

j k Z1 Z1k = I42 - 52 M = -9 < 0,

j

j k Z2 Z2k = H-4L2 - 52 = -9 < 0,

j

j k Z j Z k = -102 = -100 < 0.

, Z1 Z2 , Z, 4- , .
4- x - w
.3.
w
12
10 Y,Z
8 X

Y2
X2

Z2

Z1

Y1
X1

4
2

-6

-4

-2

. 3. 4- X j , Y j , Z j
x - w .

312

4
, , m = 0, 9 MeV c2 , ,
1 = H5 13L c 2 = H4 5L c.

) .
) V = 0, 6 c .

) ,
E = HL m c2

HL =

= c.

1-2

,
E1 = H1 L m c2 =

13

0, 9 MeV =

1-H513L

144

0, 9 MeV =

13
12

0, 9 MeV = 0, 975 MeV.

0, 9 MeV =

5
3

0, 9 MeV = 1, 5 MeV.

,
E2 = H2 L m c2 =

0, 9 MeV =

1-H45L

) ,

p := p = HL m = c .
E

,
p2 = H2 L m 2 = H2 L m c2

2
c2

= E2

2
c2

= H1, 5 MeVL H4 5L c = 1, 2 MeV c.

, ,
, x , .
, 4- -
I p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 M H p, E cL = H p2 , 0, 0, E2 cL

I p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 M H p , E cL.

Lorentz 4- -

p1 = HL I p1 - p4 M,

p2 = p2 ,

:= V c,

p4 = HL I p4 - p1 M,

p3 = p3 ,

HL =

1
1-2

313

V = 0, 6 c,

HL =

1
1-H35L

p1 =

5
4

p4 =

5
4

J p1 J p4 -

3
5
3
5

p4 N =
p1 N =

5
4
5
4

J1, 2 J1, 5 -

3
5
3
5

= 4,

1, 5 N MeV c = 0, 375 MeV c,

1, 2 N MeV c = 0, 975 MeV c.


Bohm D. , The Special Theory of Relativity, Routledge, 1996.
Einstein A. et al, The Principle of Relativity, Dover, 1958.
Ellis G.F.R. & Williams R.M., Flat and Curved Space-Times, 2nd ed., Oxford Univ. Press, 2000.
French A. P., Special Relativity, W.W. Norton & Co, 1968.
Naber G., The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime Physics, Dover, 2003.
Rindler W., , (. . ), Leader Books, 2001.
Rindler W., Essential Relativity, Rindler-Verlag, 1977.
Schwarz P.M. & Schwarz J.H., Special Relativity, From Einstein to Strings, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004.
Synge J. L., Relativity: The Special Theory, North Holland, 1972.
Taylor E.F. & Wheeler J.A., Spacetime Physics, 2nd ed., W.H. Freedman & Co, 1992.
Woodhouse N.M.J., Special Relativity, Springer, 2003.