Anatomy and Physiology II

1) What is the chemical composition of the rod pigment, rhodopsin, and how does it appear
to act in the reception of light?
Rhodopsin is a purple pigment formed when Vitamin A is oxidized to form 11-cis-retinal. In
a process called bleaching of the pigment, this isomer of retinal then combines with a protein
called opsin to form the rod pigment rhodopsin. When light is absorbed by rhodopsin, the 11cis-retinal changes shape and becomes another isomer, all-trans-retinal, transforming the
protein into metarhodopsin II as it relaxes like an uncoiling spring. Eventually the retinal
isomer and opsin breaks down as they separate.

2) Explain why your nose runs during and immediately after a good cry.
Crying involves secretion of a dilute saline solution also known as tears from the lacrimal
gland located just above the orbit of the lateral end of the eye, and into the superior part of
the conjunctival sac through small excretory ducts. The tears are spread downward and
across the eyeball into the medial commissure by blinking. From the medial commissure, the
tears go through two tiny openings visible as two tiny red dots called lacrimal ouncta, to
enter the pair of lacrimal canaliculi. The tears then drain into the lacrimal sac after which
they drain into the nasolacrimal duct that empties into the nasal cavities causing congestion
and the runny nose.

3) Explain the role of endolymph of the semicircular canals in activating the receptors
during angular motion.
Each semicircular canal is filled with a fluid called endolymph. Endolymph conducts the
sound vibrations involved in hearing and respond to the mechanical forced occurring during
changes in the body position and acceleration. These semicircular canals also each have an
enlarged swelling at one end called an ampulla that contains an equilibrium receptor region
called a crista ampullaris. Each crista is composed of supporting cells and hair cells (cilia)
whose ends are embedded in a gelled mass called a cupula. The endolymph is thrown into
different sections of the canals during angular movements of the head. The movement of the
endolymph is detected by the cilia and a signal is sent to the brain.

4) Roger went for his yearly examination and was informed that his intraocular pressure was
slightly elevated at 22mm Hg. The physician expressed concern over this condition and

noted that if the condition got worse, eye drops would be merited. What is the wrong with
Rogers eyes and what are the possible consequences of this condition? Explain the
function of eye drops used for therapy.
Normal intraocular pressure is about 16 mm Hg and this is maintained by the constant
draining and production of aqueous humor at the same rate in the eye. The entire anterior
segment of the eye divided into two chambers, the anterior and posterior chambers, is filled
with aqueous humor. After flowing through the pupil into the anterior chamber, it drains into
the venous blood through the sclera venous sinus. Roger suffers from a condition called
glaucoma which occurs when drainage of the aqueous humor is blocked and fluids back up
increasing pressure in the eye to dangerous levels. Late signs of this condition include seeing
halos around lights and blurred vision. If the condition is detected early, blindness can be
prevented. Treatment for this condition includes eye drops that increase the rate of aqueous
humor drainage or decrease the rate of aqueous humor production.

5) A 60-year old woman is experiencing vertigo. She ignores the symptoms initially, but
now her attacks are accompanied by severe nausea and vomiting. Following an attack,
she hears crackling in her ears that causes temporary deafness for some time after. What
do you think her problem is, and what is its suspected cause?
The 60-year old woman is suffering from Mnire's Syndrome which is a labyrinth disorder
characterized by repeated attacks of vertigo, nausea, and vomiting. Balance is affected to the
extent that standing erect is nearly impossible. Also, a howling tinnitus, a ringing or clicking
sound in the ears in the absence of auditory stimuli, is common so that hearing in impaired
and ultimately lost as well. The suspected cause is either distortion of the membranous
labyrinth by excessive endolymph accumulation, or rupture of membranes which allows the
perilymph and endolymph to mix.

6) A nurse is administering Pilocarpine eye drops. The nurse instructs the client to press on
the nasolacrimal duct for 30 seconds because the medication can have some systemic side
effects, such as affecting the heart rate. Explain the rational for pressing on the
nasolacrimal duct.

Substances in the eye drain into the nasolacrimal duct through the lacrimal puncta, the
lacrimal canaliculi and the lacrimal sac. From the nasolacrimal duct, they empty into the
nasal cavity at the inferior nasal meatus. Rich plexuses of capillaries and thin walled veins
underline the nasal epithelium. Pressing the nasolacrimal duct helps prevent the medication
from draining into the vascularised area of the nose that is capable of absorbing the drug into
the body. This reduces systemic effects and maximizes absorption of the drug in the eyes.