DOCUMENT RESUME ED 166 059 SE 026 708 AUTHOR stake, Robert E.; And Others TITLE Case Studies in Science Education, Volume II: Design, Overview and General Findings. INSTITUTION Illinois Univ., Urbana. Center for Instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation. SPONS AGENCY National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Directorate for Science Education. REPORT NO NSF-SE-78-74 PUB DATE Jan 78 CONTRACT NSF-C-7621134 NOTE 517p.; For related documents, see SE 026 360, SE 026 707, ED 152 565, and SD 153 875-880 AVAILABLE PROM. Superintendent\of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.c. 20402 (Stock Number 036-000-00376-3; $6.50) EDRS PRICE MP-$1.00 HC-527.45 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Case Studies (Education); *Curriculum; Educational Research; Elementary Secondary Education; Federal Legislation; Instruction; *Mathematics Bducation; “Science Education; *Social Studies; State Federal Aid; Teaching Methods IDENTIFIERS “National Science Foundation ABSTRACT This document presents the design, overview and general findings from the case study project funded by the National Sciehce Foundation to gather data about science, mathematics ana social science education in american schools. The case studies themselves, which constitute chapters 1 through 11 of this report, are contained in a separate volume. Chapters 12 through 19 are J entitled: (1) The Various Aias of Science Education; (2, The K-12 Curriculum; (3) Ploralism and Uniformity; (4) Student Learning; (5) The Teacher in the Classroom; (6) The School and The Conmunity; (71 Survey Findings and Corraborations; and (8) Knowing and Responding to the Needs of Science Education. (PES: i AR OO R IO R IG R DA IGE ISIDORE I IIIA OIE * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that canbe made * * from the original document. * SECRETE EOE ICO EI IEICE HIG ITO RAIA IACI IEThis document is one of seven as listed below. They are reports of three complementary studies cf the status of pre-college sciance, mathematics, and social science education. . 1, The Status of Pre-Coltese Science, Mathematics, and Social Studies Educational Practices in I', $. Schools: An Overview and Sumnaries of Three Studies SE 78-71 Stanley L, Helneson, Robert £. ‘Stake, Iris R. Heiss, et al. Ohio State University, University of Illinois, and Research Triangle, Institute 2. -Renort of the 1977 tational Survey of Science, Mathenatics; and Social Studies Education SE 78-72 Iris Ry Heiss Research Triangle Institute 3. The Status of Pre-College Sciencé, Mathematics, and Social Science Education: 1955 = 1975 Volume 1: Science Education SE 78-73 Vol. I Stanley L. Helqeson, Patricia F. Blosser, and Rohert. tf, Howe Center for Science and Nathenatics Education, the Ohio State University 4. The Status of. Pre-Collene Science, Mathematics, and Social Science Education: 1955 - 1975 Volunell: Mathematics Education.SE 78-73 Vol. 11 Marilyn fl. Suydam and Aan Osborne Center for Science and lathematics ‘Education, The Ohio State versity 5. The Status of Pre-Collene Science, Mathematics, and Social Science Education: 1955 - 1975 Volumel1I Social Science Education SE 78-73 Vol. III Karen B. Wiley with Jeanne Rice Social Science Education Consortiun, Inc. 6. Case Studies in Science Education Volune. I: The Case Reports SE 78-74 Voi. I Robert E. Stake, Jack Easley, et al. Center for Instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation, University of Illinois 7._ Case Studies in Science Education Volume II: Oasian, Overview and General Findings SE 78-74 Vol. II Robert E. Stake,’ i Fasley, et al. Center for Instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation, University of IllinoisCASE STUDIES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION Volume 11 Design, Overview and General Findings TAVAVATATAVAVATAVATATAATAVATAVAVATAVAVAVATAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAY, Chapters A, B, C, and 12-19 vavavavavavavay, ‘avavavavavavave AVATATAVAVAV AVAVATAVAVAVAVAVATATATATAVAVAVAVAVAVATAVAVAVAVAVAVATA Center for instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation and Committee on Culture and Cognition 270 Education Building University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign January 1978 a"The material in this report is based uson work supported by the ~ National Science Foundation under Contract No. C 7621134. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not neces~ sarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Fer salaby the Superintendent of Documents, US. Governmant Printing Office, ‘Washington, D.C, 20402 Price $6.60 stock No. 098:000-00376.3 5The Project Case Studies in Sctence Education is a collection of field observations of setence teaching and learning in Aneriean public schools during the school year 1976-77. The study was undertaken to provide the National Science Foundation with a portrayal of current conditions in K-12 science classrooms to help make the foundation's programs of support for sctence education consistent with national needs. It was organized by a teas of educational researchers at the University of T1linols, Fleven bigh schools and their feeder schools. were selected to provide a diverse and balanced group of sites: rural and urban; east, vest, north and south; racially diverses econoaicatly well-off and inpoverished; constructing schools and closing schools, inno vative and traditional. They wore finally selected so that a researcher with ample relevant Efeld experience could be placed at each. To confirn findings of the ethaogeaplic case atedies and t0 add special information, a national stratified-randon-semple of about 4000 veach:ra, principals, curriculus supervisors, superintendents, parents, and senior class students vere surveyed. Survey questions were based on observations at the eleven eas study atte 7 ‘The field researchers were instructed to Find out what vas happening, what var felt important, io scierce (including mathenatics and social science) prograus. On site from 4 €o 15 weeks they were not required to coordinate their work with observers at other sites. Queations originally indicated important by the NSF or identified early ta the field vere “networked” by the Ulinofs tean. Efforts to triangulate findings were assisted by reports of site viate teams, Bach observer prepared a case study report which was preserved intact as part of the {4nal collection, and later augnented with eroas-site conclusions by the Illinois team. The cost of the study vas just under $300,000, taking 18 ronths actual tine and about 6 research- person years to complete. fn the principel findings it was noted that each place was different in important vays, that each teacher nade unique contributions. Nationally we found that sclence eiucation vag being given low priority, yielding to increasing emphasis on basic skills (reading and compar tation). Sell, the CSSE-high-school science faculties vorked hard to protect courses for the college-bound, with many of these courses kept snall by prerequisites and "tough" grading. Only occasional efforts were sade to do more than “read about" science topics in most of the elementary gchools. Although ninth-grade biology and eighth-grade general setence flourished, general education ains for actence instruction ware not felt vitel at any level. Seldon was scienge taught as scientific inquiry--all ehree eubjects wore presented as what experts had found eo be true. School people and parents were supportive of what vas chsen to be vaughe, omplaining occasionally that it was not taught well enough. The textbook usually was seen the authority on knowledge and the guide to learning. The teacher was seen to be che authority on both soctal and acadenic decorum. He or she worked hard to prepare youngsters for teats, subsequent instruction, and che vaiue-orientations of adult 1ife. Though relatively free to depart from district syllabus or consunity expeccation, the teacher weldon exercised either freedos. Each of the above statenents is only partly correct. This sumity is # drastic oversia- plification of the circuustances observed by the f4el4 people and portrayed in he cace study Fepotts. ‘The picture at each of the sites--seen through the experienced but singular eyes of four observer-~is a special picture, greatly influenced by the adninistrators, the parents, ond the students encounteved; colored with twchniesl, professional, economic end social problems, Somehow the pictures do not aggregate across siten to be either the picture of national edu= cuation represented vy the popular press (ehough no less aggt eved) or that presented in the professional education publication (though no less complicated). It 1s an interesting collection. Robert F. Stake Jack A. Easley, Jr. Codtreceorsu Code Name RIVER ACRES FALL Rit ALTE BRT URBAN PINE CITY, WESTERN CITY coLuMBuS ARCHTPOLIS voRTEX GREATER BOSTON LIST OF CASE STUDY SITES Desertotion a suburb of Houston a sall city in Colorado 4 suburb of a large Idwestarn city a consolidated district in rural ‘TL inois @ metropolitan community of rhe Pacific Northwest @ rural comsunity Sn Alabama a small city in miédle California the Columbus, OhJo, school district an Eastern middle seaboard city a small city in Pennsylvania an urban section in metropolitan Boston Bield Observer Terry Denny Mary Lee smith Louis M. Smith Alan ‘Peshkin yne W. Welch Rob Walker Rodolfo 6.’ Serrano Janes R. Sanders & Daniel L. Stufflebean Jacquetta Hill-Burnett. Gordon Hoke Rob WalkerChapter A ‘OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY peer B SONTERT OF PRECOLLEGE EDUCATION IN “ENERICA TODAY 2 HARD TIMES - TOUGH NEGOTIATIONS 3 Feuer School-Age Children 6 THE CITIES AND THE SUNBELT un ‘Teaching the Poor 13 THE SCHOOL AS SURROGATE : 4 State-Federal Requirenents 15 Diverse Needs 18 Broad and Nartow Aims 20. DESTINY CONTROL, 2 Powerlessness 23° YOUTH AND ALTERNATIVES 24 More Working, Fewer Jobs 26 Individualized Schooling 28 THE NATIONAL SCIENCE TOUNDATION Chapter _¢ RESEARCH METHODS USED T PROJECT FRAHEWURK 1 ‘Aims of the Project 1 Conceptual Framework 7 Two Orientations 8 Constraints 10 PHASES OF THE PROJECT 10 Case Studies 0 Sice Visite 44 Survey 45° MULTIPLE CASE STUDY PROJECT 48 Data Storage and Retrieval 50 Writing, Analysis, and Writing 51 Assimilating Issues Across Sites Chapters 1 to 11 THE CASE STUDIES Chapter 12 THE VARIOUS AIMS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION ‘3 UNDERSTANDING 3 Inquiry 6 Work or Play 9 Empiricism ul A Vignette of Inquiry Chapter 12 (continued) 16” COLLEGE PREPARATION 16 ‘A Preparation Ethic: uv The College Bound 19 ELITISK 22° VOCATIONAL PREPARATION 24 Where the Jobs Are 26 VALUES 28 Controversial Topice 30 Traditional American Values 31 ‘The Homogeneity of the Community 33 Kitual and Mathematics 35 ‘The Teaching of Values and Social Sciences 41 SCIENCE FOR THE CITIZEN a Science as General Education 43 Popular Science 45 Practical Science ("Survival Sedeace") 3 3. Biology-Chemistry-Physies 5 Blementary Science Prograns 6 Junior High Program 7 Old Science Never Dies 7 New Science Conplicates 10 Science Articulation 2 Scenario Z 18 MATHEMATICS 18 Elementary School 21 Junior High School 23° High School 26 SOCIAL STUDIES 28 Elementary 29 Secondary) 31 Social Studies as Social science 34 THE Basics 34 What Is Basic 35 Teacher Backing 37 Raising Standards 38 Reading Skills 39 A Vignette on Basics 43. Molecularizing and Sequencing 43 Analysis of Objectives 44 Sequencing 45 Scenario U 49. OUT-OF-SCHOOL LEARNING 51 Museums 52 Educational Television 54 Nonschool Educational OrganizationsCo-directors: Robert Stake, Jack Easley © Other Stafe Kip Anastasiou Connie Bowen Beth Daveon Jo Ann Day Terry Denny Tom Hastings Gordon Hoke Jennifer NeCréadie Charles Secolsky Doug Sjogren Peg Steffencon Tom Watkins Charles Weller Field Observers Terry Denny, specialist in evaluation of teaching materials, University of I1linols Jacquetta Will-Burnett, anthropologist, University of i1linois Gordon Hoke, specialist in innovation and school-community relations, University of Illinois ‘Alan Peshkin, comparative education specialist, University of Illinois James Sanders, education evaluation, Western Michigan University Rudy Serrano, anthropologist, California State College, Bakersfield Louis Smith, ethnographer, specialist in case study, Washington University of St. Tous Mary Lee Smith, edvcational evaluator, University of Colorado Daniel Stufflebeam, education evaluation, Western Michigan University Rob Walker, sociologist, field-study specialist, University of East Anglia Wayne Welch, science education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Other Site Visitors Arnold Arons Mike Atkin Fred Bohn Harry Broudy Moses Clark William Dunkum Gary Eichelsdorfer Donald Grogan Arlen Gullickson Archibald Haller Robert Henderson Kathleen Hotvedt Jennifer Janes Bernard Johns Kenneth Landin Howard Levine Susin Meyers Edwina Milam Nell Murphy Jack Neal Richard Painter Fred Rodgers Andrea Rothbart Ronald Stewart Janes Wailes James Young, Other Assistants Jolene Andres Linda Bohlayer Melanie Brian Norman Bowman Blois Butts Stan Conrad Judy Dawson Elizabeth Easley Dennis Fisher Colin Gould Betsy Hutchins Kathy Jayeox Emily Rice Carol Sage Valerie Soderstrom ‘Bernadine Evans Stake Pat Templin Charlotte Watkins Consultants David Bohm, physicist, University of London Peter Fenshau, science educator, Monash University Gi Lawrence Fuchs, American studies, Brandeis University David Hamilton, education research, Glasgow tom Hastings, measurements specialist, University of Illinois Donald Schn, urban planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Helen Sinons, evaluation specialist, University of London Louis Smith, ethnographer, specialist in case study, Washington University of St. Louie Lawrence Stenhouse, educational research, University of Hast Anglia Frances Stevens, curriculum specialist, Leeds University (retired) Claytor Thomas, educational Administration, Illinois State University Tris Weiss, survey specialist, Research Triangle Institute Hassler Whitney, mathematician, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Advisory Group Mike Atkin Alice’ Baum Robert Davis Ernest House Margie Lerch J.C. Martin Jim Raths Fred Rodgers Rita Simon Blanchard Sprunger uth Vernon Klaus Witz NSF Project Officers: Arlen Gullicksom, Linda IngisonChapter 13 (continued) 59 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 59 Centrality of the Textbook 60 Availability of Materials 61 In Science 64 In the Social Studies 65 Im Mathematics 65 In General Ghapter 14 PLURALISM_AND UNIFORMITY ‘1 DIVERSITY OF WANTS AND STANDARDS 6 Heterogeneity 7 Special Education 8 Engagement in Instruction 11 EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY 3 Mainstreaming eT ‘Tracking and Gfouping 18 Alternatives 21 ARTICULATION OF TEACHING OBJECTIVES 22 Statement of Objectives 24 Uniformity 24 Scenario T 28 Vertical and Horizontal Articulation 33. COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATION 35 Hierarchies of Learning 38 Mastery Learning Chapter 15 : STUDENT LEARNING ‘3 PERFORMANCE VERSUS EXPERIENCE 7 Learning by Experience 9 The Mystery of Learning and Forgetting 12 TESTING TO MEASURE STUDENT x ‘ACHIEVEMENT 1\ Teachers Learning about Learning 18 Teachers Telling about Learning 20 Other Uses of Testing 23. STUDENT MOTIVATION 31 Vignette on Motivation 34 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 34 Sex Differences 39 Ethnic Differences Chapter 16 5 THE TEACHER IN THE CLASSROOM —3—SOGTALIZATION-AIMS-OF “TEACHERS 7 Three Reference Poles Chapter 16 (continued) 43 K Vignette of Socialization 16 Hard Work ts Good Work 21 Preparing for ..« Future Courses 26.1 N A SOCIAL SYSTEM 26.3 Working Within the System 27 Working Alone ts 27 A"Mr, Science" Vignette 34 Scenario V 39 TEACHER, SUPPORT 40 Curriculum Coordination 48 Continuing Professional Education 5h ‘Technology spter 17 : ‘HE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY 2 3 4 6 7 9 10 al 3 14 16 19 22 22 26 ‘STARTING THE SCHOOLS Protecting Jobs The Urge Not To Change MANAGEMENT: ‘Technical Specialicts Paterns of Organization ACCOUNTABILITY AND EVALUATION Criteria ADVOCACY, APATHY, AND CRITICISHC Parents Estrangement and Indignation Valuing Science Education SCHOOLS AND CHANGE Social Change Curriculum Change Chapter 18 SURVEY FINDINGS AND CORKOBORATIONS (see over) Chapter 19 KQOWING AND RESPONDING 70 THE NEEDS OF 1 9 cr 23 25 28 32 SCIENCE EDUCATION SCIENCE FINDINGS FROM CSSE OTHER FINDINGS OF THE CSSE PROJECT NEEDS AS.A BASIS FOR POLICY SETTING POSSIBLE ACTION FOR THE NSF SCIENCE DIRECTORATE Research on Science Education SCIENCE EDUCATION STRENGTHS, PROBLEMS, AND NON-PROBLEMS SAMPLE PAGES FROM CASE STUDIES “SELECTED RBFERENCES INDEX OF Names GENERAL INDEX doTable of Contents CHAPTER 18 SURVEY FINDINGS AND CORROBORATIONS PURPOSE OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF THE SURVEY Instrument Development Sampling and Administration Response Rate Data Analysis Interpretation of Results Comments RESPONSES TO DEMOGRAPHIC AND EXPERIENCE-RELATED QUESTIONS Questions fur Superintendents Questions for Supervisors Questions for Principals Questions for Teachers Questions for Counselors Questions for Students ! Questions for Parents General Questions of Selected Groups RESPONSES 70 SCENARIOS Scenario on Budget Cuts Scenario on Uniformity Scenario on Back to the Basics Scenario on Diagnostic Teaching Scenario on Teaching and, Socialization Scenario on Teacher Support Systens Scenario on "Science in Social Studies" Scenario on Elitism in Science RESPONSES TO SCIENCE EDUCATION GENERAL QUESTIONS Page Four, Format 1: Questions on Public Schools Page Four, Format 2: Concerns About Education Today Page Four, Format 3: Purposes of Education SUMMARY Description of Response Groups Sunmary of Scenarios ¥—Sunmary-of General Questions Conclusions Li* * chapter A * . ovenview ‘There is no Chapter A, Time rin out. In order to get the final report to the NSF fon scheduio—-at the tire the review panel vas scheduled to review it, carly enough 90 that it eight stiil be distributed co setence educators during che 1977-78 school year--we have submitted {¢ without the Overview. * ‘The Overview would have told how we yot davolved in chie project, how a fey of us in Ince with colleagues fron the University of East Anglia and eleevhers had been trying to improve the portrayal of educational progrars as a part of curriculum evaluation atudies} had bean trying to capitalize sore on the fact that professional educators and other prac- eitfoners of the modern vorld make eo many of their deedsiona on the baste of conviction ‘and experience, pressed by the irrationalities of gockal, political aud econosic affair and had been trying*to build upon the hermeneutic and vorstehen episténologies for arriving ‘ae an understanding (if not an explandtion) of the mechanian# of teaching and learning. Ac the same tine, a few of us on che University of Illinois Countetee on Culture and Cognition were becoming increasingly sensitive to the role of context, (or culture, or circumstance, or fifth-order interactions) in shaping youngsters’ personal eeanings and understandings of science, mathenatica and other subject matters. We were inpreased with the vork of Jean Piaget; found ways of making phenomenological extensione of his ideas as they pertained co educational problems; and wore distressed by the increasing belief, partly based (falsely) on his vriting, chat education should be structured to speed the hierarchical stages of cognitive experience. Separately, in the fall of 1975, we were delighted to learn about the National Sctence Foundation's Request for Proposals asking for 10-15 cage studies of ecience teaching and Learning to provide information on the present ,status of things. This was seen to be needed fas part of the needs assessment of precollege science education in Anerica to permit staff personnel to plan further the NSF's programmatic support efforts to the schools. Our plan faced stiff competition. Ours wae a unique plan, in fact risky. Host of the plans submitted followed the RFP nore closely, relying on a strong sampling pisn to enable the small number of sites fo represent science classroons in the country and relying on forsal instrurente of interviewing and testing and brief site visits to get the case study datas Our plan relied on a weak sampling plan, choosing some of the sites to allow ue to put a flretcrace field fesearcher on site for a auch longer period of tine, following more Gf an othnographic or anthropological style. Qualified, experienced field researchers, ve Fealized, would insist on doing the studies thetr ow ways, rather than work from a unifors ethodological and conceptual plan, but we decided that auch would be a strength as well disadvantage, relying-on successful past efforts, shoving the diversity of the Anerican fcene in the same sense of diversity that it 4s soca by the sany different people interested in and concemed about education.. d2Ag Our sites vere to be chosen then partly ¢o fie our research manpower, but ue vere able fo five assurance that ve would provide a balance of achool clusters chat would fulfill gone of the purposes for which a strong sampling plan ie employed. To further coueers Balaice our veak sampling plan for the selection of sites ue propose eo conduct a saall sactonaL sample to ateespe to get conireation of major findings fron the case studies, Our plan was to describe vat ve found in a vay that would be useful ¢6 any other Person who could not be there to visit for hinself. We were not inpresaed with our ability. fo see what others could not, but with our opportunity to be uhere they could noe, And ee be cauesous and redundant, asking again, looking again, seeing avs, way and many ways and deseribing those several things we Enile Zola once expreseed vhat ve considered out obligation? Ne no tonger deveribe for the aake of deveribing, from a caprice and a pleaaure of mhetoriciane. We consider that rat cannot be veparated from hie surroundings, that he t= conpieted by hie elothes, his house, hie ctty, aad hi ooitrys and hence ve shall not note a eingle’ phenomenon of his brain and heart without Lroking for the causes or the consequence in hie currowndinge ...”. I should define deorription: "an accowtt of environment which determines and eompistea man." . .. Tn a novel, in a study of mumnity, | I blane ali description which ta not aacording to that d= Finteton. ALL this we yould have told. about in the Overview. We were able co win that competition because of the strength of the personnel commit- ment and in apite of the objections to our lack of prespecification of instrasente and issues. Our selection of issues, as vould be expected, was to wait, gore than most other Kesearchers would wait, until ve were well acquainted with the conditions in'the eiela” We slowly put together our list of research questions, concentrating on "enie” ieavesy Paying most atention co the perceptions of teachers, other education people, stedents and paxents there in the ton (and later eleven) clusters of schoola. There were four main groups of people vorking on the project, the field observers (sho wrote the case studies), and site visitors (who spent pezhaps 3 days at a site). the issve analysts (who coordinated work across the sites and wrote the aesiatlation chapters) , and the survey researchers. The roster is chown after the title page. At is usually the case ve had very sany different motives for doing this project. One of the few ue afl aereed on vas that ve wanted to show that a multiple case study project could be compre= hensive, timely, and useful. We continvally had the problem of dealing with our om predilections. We recognized thar ve vere prejudiced in various ways, auch as against letting test scores and scker social: indicators represent the conditions of a child's mind Or a teacher's caphagie or Preparation, Ae the outset we thought generally that inquiry teaching 1s 2 superior vey of getting children learning shout science. Also; that teachers crave better books and saterials, that specifying school objectives reduces curriculum to a lovest corson’ dengm- Anator, and that culture and circumstance influence teaching and learning £0 a great excent. He of course found widespread support for most of these views. We deliberately sought counter evidence. We tried to increase the range of people uno would influcsce the choice of what vould be observed, and how it would be interpreted, Buc some of our earliest erities confirmed our fears that we did not adequately constrain our biases. 13‘the bias is more apparent in the aseia{lation chaptere than in the cage etudtes. We chose Eleld observers with a Tange of views about scfence education, sone we knew to be tesinilar fron ours. They had their biases, but being experienced and respected in their Work, used the methodological purges of their disciplines and wrote (as best, they could) balanced and unelouded accounts of teaching at their sites. The platforn for thie project was the eleven case studies. They provided for us and our readere many views of the complexity and particularity of cach science claseroos. Tt Would be unfortunate if the assiailation chapters encouraged readers to disniss the ispor- tance of particular persons or particular contexts. The assimtlation chaptere should add to the understandings of the case studies, rather than substitute for then. They introduce new data as well a@ interpretations of old data. We wanted the reader to susmarize all these thinge for hingelf or herself. We reeieted even the idea of providing an executive summary, Dut our sponsors insisted, Still, ve urge our readers not to be satisfied with the press release or the executive sumary, oF even the asainilation chapters, but to Fead at least sone of the case study reports. We realized rather early that one of the largest probleas would be the coordination of findings from the several sites. We had seen similar projects undertaken by the Center for New Schoole and by the Educational Testing Service encountering najor tine delays anc synthesis difficulties because the secondary analys{s problens vere so great. We decided to rely on a highly infornal naturalistic cormunieazion eyetes, involving enough curious and coupatible people to cover the many happenings but few enough to peTait everyone co talk to every one else, That worked out congenially enough but not productively enough. We did not get enough of an exchange about inforsation and issues at the different sites 80 that field workers could search out possible developments along lines being productively probed elseuhere. After the case studies yere completed we spent six sonths of soaking Ehings up without a satisfactory merging of findings, leaving too much of the. essential Aseinilation for a hectic six weeks prior to the subatssion of the Final report. We did not learn how such a project might be properly organized to handle the synthesis and Seetnilation of findings fron a group of individual case study researchers. Part of the agsintlation difficulties were caused by poor planning, by the failure to allow auffictent tine after observations for field-workers to complete their studies. We eked for copy within @ few weeks after leaving the field. Observers needed and took much longer. First drafts vere scheduled by June 1, but not all were received until October and final drafts wore received barely in tine co hand out at the oral, presentation of final Feoults in Washington in a{d-Decesber.. Part of the assintlation difficulties were cau by tncreaeing the national survey to 22 groups of respondents, each with sone questions tintque to 1e and vith iten sampling to persit an even greater list of questions—and try- {ing to do this within the aseimilation period and within the 31/2 gonthe prior to that oral presentation. A ALL in all we took about 18 months to do the Job. Tt should nét have taken so long. Ie ts reasonable to say that the data would have been gore useful in 6 sonths or 12 than they vere after 18, We researchers should be able to doa high-quality national statue Study ina shorter period. Part of the problen vas the. instrunent clearance proces: hada large acount of cooperation and good advice from the CEIS and OMB committees, yet found the process troublesoae and delaying. Somehow there ought to be a way to do the sort of study the NSF wanted, one that would help then with policy setting and progras plaining, within a year~ Wee ah The need for hi practical. The circunstances within NSF and between NSP and other federal agenci iged considerably after plane for the study were drawn up. The bureaucracy often acts as if social policy research 1a independent of the political and Personnel change, but a study iderl1y guited for one tine and one agency director ton perfunctory collection of information for another head at another tree, Miges continued to change rapidly across the nation and within the nation's schoole, After the study vas uidertaken, accountability of the achoole becane auch less @ concetay financtel circumstances inproved, Schools cane to realize the deao- in what a teach- er in the elaseroom would do. (If ve fail to get distribution of these 1976-77 observations until the 1978-79 school year they will have less value than they should.) Part of the value in etther year, hovever, will be to make a Point 0 easily forgotten: that the happenings of the nation's schools are nor adequately report ed in the popular or professional press. Happy new 12 not news. Ordinary news 18 not news. The feature stories tn TIME, NEWSWEEK, and other major neve melia thie past fall (1977), storieo telling of hostility and violence in the schools, a large azount true in a few echoole, was not a picture compatibie vith the conditions we found.* Boredom was much more conmoa than hostility. Submission was much core comaon than rebel- Lion. Pride vas such nore conson than vandalios, Hostility, rebel Lion, and vandatisa, though, vere frown in every comer. “in a brief story in The Guardian (Sepeenber 18, 1977) entitied "Hate tn the Claveroon"" Fepotter Jonathan Steele cold British readere "There's peace but net much elee tn the iaren grated achools of the U.S. this tem.”J vit in fiw & and took down aoroes, the rove of bent sood teats touand-a seage nov valled off by heavy convaa cureatn. fom 11 Anerican flag end a electric clock mark the presence Of tine, bus moot other features mark the pave. How @ belt Tinga aid the prevent conga ative ao dodeno of atudonte orose bie cud toviiny to pase betsieen ciaseen, A quiet neverbera- bing flow. Teenage boye and girls cant @ curious, perhaps frionity glaice, Bath on. The reverberations cons from Sohotng hatisaye, the beit again adding to’ the clgror. ‘Hincet every student qulet, but <2 oysten a din. ‘The quality of science education was, in a sense, very much the same. The national condition had not been well represented by the reporta of College Board test scores, by the eviews of North Central or other accrediting agencies, or by expressions of outrage froa ‘Adniral Rickover and Frank Arabruster.** The views of uch reports and people are/inportant but they ere usually greatly Sncooplete views of the national scene, based upon'pkpectat ions both arvierary and farechial. There are eany different pictures of eetence eduéation, many value comitaente, even within a anall community, certainly in a vast country. We beliive that we captured & more nearly valid national picture of science education in these case Studies than have the nation's reporters and researchers, critica, and education's apologists. Quality of acience education in the schools, a6 we found ie was agen to be at least "satis: factory,” and in any inetances "very good,” by eost echool people and parents. It could have been much better, but the obetaclea to inprovenent were many, and the direction of Anprovenent was not something on which there are agreenent. If the wishes of citizenry and Gstudente had been followed better it 1s nore likely that Mr. Rickover and Mr. Armbruster would have becone even nore indignant. The question of vhich philosophies, which valu UH control the schools continues even when change in control io unlikely. If ic tal 2 national trauna to give a snall canal to ite neighbor. ro give the schools etther to the people or to the science eatabliahaent vould requ’./ )° effort beyond comprehension. We vere ever beset with paradoxes; of indoctrinating youngsters to keep our freedons, of going to extrenes to Keep things the sane, of finding everything changing but all renain~ {fag the sane. On one occasion it would seen that everybody agreed on what they vanted, but food again ail vould disagree. The nation wanted comnon classroom for all children, yet wanted each child freed from the coustraint of slover and disruptive classmates. We thought * about organizing thi report in teres,of paradoxes, for ve found 60 many in the field. But ve did not. In the sethods chapter ve speak of "multiple realities." We believe that in reality, reality is miltiple, rooted in the different perceptions of people. That does not sean that we consider ali realities worthy of equal consideration. In a project such as this we wanted to encounter aa may realities as ve could, but ve concentrated on several appear~ sing more worthy of study than others. We chose a few viows to represent the many. Reality has levels of complexity, of course. But reality, being 2 creature of those who realize, can-be simpler oF more complex, depending partly on who is paying attention. People sonetines ask for a clarification of school goals, and that is no more and no less than they are interested in, It can be ae einple-as that. And People sometines ask for a clarification of school goale, and they are there pointing out that children are Umillling to learn, that parenta are unconcerned about vhat the children do, that the learn cre are mprepsred for learning, that teaching 1s over-demanding,.ete., etc. And it 16 as “site Visitors Report **pranke E. Arébruster, The U.S. Primary and Secondery Education Process (Croton-on~ Hudson, W-Y.! Hudson Institute, Final Draft, 1975). Also college Entrance Exaniniation Board. On Further Exasination, Report of the advisory panel on the Scholastic Aptitude Test Score Decline. New York, 1997. toa6 complex and diffuse as that, or more. And 1t may be the eame situation and the eame people and the save nonent on the clock. And it 10 not that those who see the complexity, "bee Ehrough" the simplicity; because the situation 1 not complex until the reality of sinplic~ Aty 18 no longer sufficient. it often te We have asked large numbers of questions so that individuals could tell us how other individuale, especially large groups of individuals, act or feel. They. found this quite ateficult to do. They said they did not know. Apparently Little sharing of ideas, Litcle Joint teaching, 1uttle visiting over classrooms had been occurring. Those classrosbs eves it scored, public school but private space. Jchn Googled titled his book of the koerteen school curriculus: Looking Behind the Clagsroom Door. We were privileged to share in sone of that priv. Fealities. We found {t confortable to let the purposes stand for what they were, or co Probe until we found other purposes. And paradoxes. And to report then all. ie found @ paragraph by Leo Tolstoy that helped ue understand what we were dodo, ‘space and some of those private A bee poteed on a flower has afeaid of beco and declare A post delights in the bee flover and says the bee existe to auak the nestar of flosere. "A bee-kesper, ceeing the bee collect pollen and carry 2 to the hive, ‘aya that the object of beco ie t0 gather honey. Another bae-keeper, who hae studied the life of the evar nore elosely, declares that ‘the bee gathers pollen-dust to feed the yourg bees and rear a quer, wid that to exteta for the propagation of it0 epectes. the horanter, oboorving that a bee flying with pollen from one dioecious plane to the piatil of amother fertilizes the latter, ceo in tha the p of the bee's existence. Another, remarking the hybridisation of plante ad seeing that the bee aseiate in thio vork, my cay that herein tee the purpree of the bee. But the ul inate puapood of the bee is not eshausted by the finat or the vecond on the third Of the processes the hunn wind oan dace. the higher the hum intelieet goare in the discovery of posetble purposes, the more obvious it becomes that the ultimate purpose ta beyond our comprehension, Han cannot achieve more than a certain ineight in to the correlation Detween the life of the bee aid other matifestations of life. ‘Those are some of the chings we would have sadd in the Overview. “Joho 1. Goodlad, Frances M. Klein, and Associates, Looking Behind che Classroom Door, 24 ed. (Worthington, Ohic: Charlee A. Jones Publishing Co., 1974),Chapter B SE CONTECE OF PRECOLLBGE EDUCATION I AMERICA TODAY * ‘The achools are the offspring of society. They are both the image of society today and the shaper of sockety tomorrow, In Aneriea the shaping tepact of achools-as direct influence fon Individeal Lives snd the collective 1ife--hss disinished. Mass communications (pr'- barily TV, advertising, and contact through travel) have sade everyono everyone's teacher. ‘The teacher is but a voice among voices. Now as much as ever, the society outside school walls shapes the. society within~ these susiucs suggest: The IV hero. ignores Lae that seen ronstraining. And even the shy child carries that individualistic, destiny-wreating Anerican ethic t0 school. The: dental hygientot on the billboard wears a white frock and recites "evidence" ringing with authority, yet obviously devoid of logic. And the echool teacher, even while ahoring the deceit of advertiving, crepe in and out of the sane neaitation. ‘The employee-—whether. father, mother, o” youigeter—uorke loyally to JMIfILL sone Kind of production quota... And the student, nande in a ° eckly homevor’ avsignnent that fulfilis "the contract” and keeps open the option of @ soneday atnicsion to college. Shoplifting han become an economie rather than a moral issue, The only deterrent to Looting 1 the possible brief pain of apprehension. the inerchint'g price i@ nov goneroutly inerected to aecormodate the Likeli~ hood of lee. And the child in the nearby echool treate achool property wthingo they [teachers] do now! My, thie kindergarten! Sehoole have ehanged a tot.” tty husband and I, ond my woman Friende, think kids are being treated better today. and I'm Leaming thinge in those Hoad Start parent meetings. : Observer: . . . the reorganization of achools? Mathes: Sone piverite ave against thet--what do you call i? goncolidation? Well, you'll have trouble with that. I'm ajratd of big schools. I think other people are too. Observer: . . . hat olaas vould you Like? Nother I uowtd Like t0 lear move about ohild care. Ateo, I don't cook too good. Tid Like to know more about foods, about seving. kids today have, T queso you'd aall "advanced learning hie never had that! Tab veal good in art and mato. Liked thom iad Lote of fin in those otagses. But I juat waen'? too fast-- ot too mich Learning. Gueee I'm slouer than othere. T nae always behind. Observer: . . . office of the atate ewerintendent in Springfield? Nother: Yea, it does provide for equal education opportunity. Oboerver: Hex do you know? Mother: Because of the oad Start and thie kindergarten. Do you kay about vie D.V.R. program [Divivion of Vooattonal Rehabilitation)? Te ‘really helped me yeare ago. A aowselor got me into tt. Tete very important for the widerpriviteged and handicapped. Gueeo I'm sort of handicapped. Observer: . . . everybody has stvengthe and weaknesses. Wother: Aa far as Learning gocs, I am handicapped. Leaminig and Imoviedge have aluays been important, but I'm to stow. Seaond Nother: (approaching, appears agitated, even hostile; Later iL have @ aertous clash with one of the kindsrgarten teacheral? There's not much echoot left. Mother: Hello. Yeu, tine goes fast. [proudly] But Michael to going to be in Head Stare. ‘And to ta hio letle oi ‘They're going t0 be orart. You know, I'm not very amart. Second Mother: (with a trace of bitternese] Gh, I don't know. Tive had tuo years of eoliege. lov I'm here [divoreed]; making $1.60 an hour, paying a babyeitter 604 an hour--ane for what? ‘There 4s a change in the public. | Tt is a change in confidence in the schools to accomplish their responsibilities. People are less optinistic than they were. fifteen years ago. Then, and for years carlier, no matter what thé youngsters learned, they could Bo to work or on'to further schooling. And now, and-maybe for many years to cone, no matter what the youngsters Learn, they can go on to further schooling, but sot to work. Perhaps it 1s easier to believe that hat Je wrong 42 the schools, racher than political= economic systems, Any grave challenge to the centrality of the schools in the American aspiration may be more a matter of loss of the American dream. So far at Least, for all the wistfulness, there ts not a substantial turning away from the schools aa the inetrun ent of learning and scctalization,20 DESTINY CONTROL, Perha*> no America institution has been more vulnerable to competing clai... and shifting priortt}es than the public schools. Changing legal interpretations of “due process” and "equity," those Constitutional bulwarks, have had a direct dnpact on school policies and practices... The success of Russia's Sputnik just twenty-five years ago gal- Yanized a concern for political-ailitary strength. We reacted by ovarrunning the previous obstacles to federal intervention in education, passed the Natéonal Defense Education Act, ‘and sought counseling and instruction for our future scientists and engineers: And more. Contesporary obLigitions to acknowledge, even to honor, cultural and =~ Linguistic differences anong people have seriously complicated the work of a school systen built partly for the assin{lation of disparate immigrants into a honogencous sociery.* Racial desegregation and mainstreaming of handicapped children are anong the more recent and continuing obligations of the schools to disregard and diminish the differ fences among people--to the end that we achieve 2 more equitable Life in a nore honogencoue soctety.ae ‘ From coast to coast there is widespread antipathy to "honogentzation." Wow, this could be taken as evidence that che cultural enclaves still successfully resist the suelting pot ides of American destiny, evidence that the people of this country now have the nore classical Western road of “upsard aobility” via successful business or professional practice plus the wore parochial road of social success according to the standards of the Local community. And there 4s such a continual restatenent of instructional objectives and reorgant- zation of school offices. Now this could be taken as evidence that the yearnings of dedi~ cated individuals and pressure groups do redirect the work of the schools, that 4s, that the individual Anerican i attaining a greater control over his destiny. Most people we have talked with are not persuaded by such ‘evidence. They see Little increase in the leverage individuals have, The "hatoric of remediation of our problems, ergs, mainstreaming, should not be taken aa evidence of reneliation. indeterminacy, ed-5 organizational change, should not be taken as evidence of social sensitiviey. The pres= sures continue. ‘The buffeting of the achool is real. But it is difficult to see the Fesponse as responsive to che troubles of modera life. The social gtandarde set in the earliest colonial schools still prédominate in today's schools. ‘an Ansigheful document-by a forser U.S. Commfssioner of Education on what the achools 44d to help “Uberate” dumigrants and minorities from their heritages vas aptly entitled, “cowboys, Indien, and Anerican Education " by Harold Howe II, in Picking Up the Options (Washington, D.C. Departsent of Elementary School Principals, 1968). ‘stor perhaps, a¢ Joel Spring clatsed in The Sorting Machine: National Educattons? Policy Since 1945 (New York: David McKay Coapany, 1976), it was just part of the ‘unrecognized National Educational Policy, to perpetuate the benefite of the aeritorious and to quiet denands for correcting the inequities of the political-eccnoalc systen.Bit ite the rhetoric of nationat potitios had been tiberal and egati- tarian in the past, it had bean cowteoracted quite effectively by the conservasian of Local praaties. After World tar 1, the fodwrat” goo exinent Yeoane an inoveasingly important Paator in tocat affairs Se a neault of the activities of the courte ao'vell ae the impact of vush legislation ae public housing ov urban renaval programs.” Unfortunately, the national govemnent tended to implement ite thetovie with polioies aid firding whoes effeote vere aoanetie rather than renedial~-there fe" Lutte eign of ary genuine willingnesa to pay the coote involved in a aeriow attack on eooiat problena, even if the competence to deal vith then vere present.” Uninplomanted changes in legal’ stacus oan be had Gt Uitte costs the ooot of inplenenvation, ae the busing controversy of the 1970" shose, cam become an winanageable burden. “For the moss Part, efforte by the federal. govermnont £0 improve the lot of the Poor’ and soifortinate vere only tokene of intent and not sexviou efforte at venedy--an epidemie ix not cowiteracted by tmmaising and treating a onail ard aeteat porcion ofthe total. poputations ‘The author of these words, social sctentist Eugene Mechan* faulted this nation for fan inadequate effort. Was he wiver than an Oregon parent who sald, “It doesn't poy ts keep erying to do what you can't do."? The prevailing attitude in the schools todey 1 to forget the idea of reshaping a national deatiny through the schools, and t9 make hinge better here and there. Why all chis interest in destiny control? It {8 so much the yth of what the American schools are ali about. Freedom fron religious oppression, New Lande. The Westward Hover ment, “Horatio Alger. Jackie Robinson. We surprise the European visitor to sur schocte, Back hose the schools are to perpetuate a ayaten. Here too, but the eal, the talk to about the chances your grandfather never had, that a lad born in a lop cabin who studded by candlelight could become President, chat there 19 no subject watter any pupil cannot learn, given time and good teaching. Othere dream ad say "why?" T dream and aay "uiy not?” Wostiy fantasy, Bobbie Kennedy: 4f honesteading, damning river: but part of the Anerican dreae—and still a useful dream, ‘OF teaching math are your business. Plymouth Rock shone through the mists of Janes Coleman's study** of school segrega~ tion and its purported effects on children. Destiny ccntrol, the feeling that one'nas the power and the freedom to direct one's oun life and manage the surrounding cireusstance: was judged by Colenan to be a crucial variable separating the "successful" from the "unsuce ceasiul” youngsters in the classroom. ‘The plight of both parents and children in lace ‘Eugene J. Meehan, Public Housing Policy: Convention Versus Reality (New Brunswick, NoJst The Genter for’ Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1975), pp. 172-173, ‘James Coleman, Ernest Q. Campbell, Carol J. Hobson, James MePartland, Alexander M. Mood, Frederic Weinfeld, and Robert 1, York, Equality of Educational Opportunity , U.S Departs ment of Healeh, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1966).Biz ike our GREATER BOSTON site and our Alabasa site are captured in these further yords by Professor Meehan: * Ironically and tragically, the factual helplesonees of the inner city's population was inareasing rapidly at the very moment Wen . that population uae being waged to entertain rising expectations about the quality of ito om life and the life of ite children. Expectations do continue Eo change. Conditions in some cities, it appears to some observers, are "bottoming out.” In ovr middle Atlantic seaboard study, for exaaple, ve Seu residents in the school neighborhood accepting more responsibility for 1aproving their houses and landseapings. And the youngsters in those schools hearing over and over something like, "You don'e have no rich uncle; you dos't have no professional football. career; 1f you gonna make it, it's gonna be by reading these books"=~always with the tone that "yes, 1€ 18 going to happen.” Pouerlessiess. Destiny control is a matter of concern for others than students, of course. The teachers are not optimistic about changing the systen, but they have seen their salaries get better, and they think the unions can help some mote. Though suyer~ Antendents are facing a jab loagevity of but ivo to three years, they can count on "reorganization to keep then from serious trouble for # year oF two. They feel terribly constrained by state and federal desands and the unpredictables © community preasure. Even school boards, the supposed ultimate power in che Anerican cdueational system, are seaing thenselves a5 having 1ittle control over the destiny cf the schools. They once were the spokesnen for the teachers to the community, drawing ore they thought sn wages and privileges than the cosaunity vas ready or even able to pay. Wow teachers have formed collective organizations as 2 seans of job protection as well as sonetary advancenent. Boards considered thenselves the patrons of the children, but students have brought ! pressures directly and indirectly to obtain wider choices of courses and various student Fights. To the activist, parental involvement, special interest groups, basic civil rights, all are closely related to shaping one's own destiny, but to board mesbers, this activise and the state and federal requirenents are draining auay the opportunity for the Tocal' community to have the schools 1€ wants. The State Board of Education in Pennsylvania saw fie to Lapose a Studente Rights and Responsibilities Code on the state's 505 districts. District representatives pro- Tested--in a class action suit. The Court ruled that the Legislature "specificelyy gave Local school boards the right to regulate student conduct and discipline" and cautioned the State Board that {¢ could not assume 4t was a "super school board."™« ‘And 20 at every level, even at the “super board level"-—in spite of the obvious fre- quent ‘changes in what the dchools are doing--there 19 the feeling that you have less to Say about it than you used to, that you don't have auch to say about the destiny of the schools ox their children. 0p. Cit. Meshan. *eThe Scranton Tinea, February 25, 1977. fe 3YOUTH AND ALTERNATIVES If one {8 seeking a baseline for examining adolescence and the achools, nothing better is Likely to show up chan Paul Goodaan's Groving Up Absurd: Peobleas of Youth Sn the Organized Society.* Unfortunately Goodaan had relatively ietle to eay about the elu- cation of giris--a matter obviously groving in importance. lie inelghte concerning, the Loss 'of alternative ways for young men to eetablish a feeling of identity continue to be relevant.» They have been aupported by clinical studies. Ina document prepared for the Mental Health Study Center, National Institute for Mental Health, Licbow wrote:* The contratity of work, then, te ndt nev to human experience, and it did not arvive vith the appeanance of cayitaliom and the Prosestant ethic. . . that does acem to be relatively nev, hovever, ie the appearance ‘of widespread, aystenatic naniork--1menployment—~20 an ‘integral part or by-product of the ondinary finotioning of society. Both the youth vho has never worked but who seca [théel eftuation aa hie probable future, and the mm who had experienced it netreat t0 the street comer where othera Like thanaelvea, in self-defense, have constructed a uortd which gives then that minima sense of Belonging and being wee fl without which hima Life ie periape tm posatble and vhich the larger eoviety gives wp a0 very grudgingly or not at all. Jerome Brunet*#* diso explored the realm of 146 prospects in 2 1972 article partially focused on youth. He noted that adolescents ware turning to a type of "deep play" such ae "chickesi,"" tnvolving even an incomprehensively high risk of life. nat is characteristic of the vhole, however, sometimes appears very rare in the parte ‘The SSE cage studies seldom use uch dramatic. tones in portraying the youth culture: Hore common are the colors of football wara-ups and pompous.” More common are the squeaks and squeals of skylarking in the corridors. But even those distract eye and ear from the shades of gray of boredox, disinterest in student government, and disbelict in the stories of how it used to be or how st ought to be. The kids still long to get on with Life. Forty per cant of the black youngsters want work but cannot find it. Twenty per cent of the white. The desire for jobs ia evident in the readings of URBANVILLE and RIVER ACRES. Conmitnent~-even of teenagers-~to an irre~ Ertevable vay of life 1s evident in che farming comunity around BRT. The Linkage between ears and jobs ts all so apparent in WESTERN CITY. Paul Goodman, Groving Up Absurd: Problens of Youth in the Organized Society (Mew York: Randos House, 1967). S#ELléott Licbow, The Hunan Costs of Unemployment, ‘ed. A. Me Okun (New York: WW. Norton § Cony, 1972), pp. dnl ‘eAJerone Bruner, "Wature and see of Imaturity," The Anerican Paychologist 23 (august 1972 704-705.B28 Autowobiles continue to serve as the gost obvious artifact of the youth culture. trucks, and Hondas assune increasing stature, Jobs are essential for maintaining acess to heels, for gasoline 4a 58.9¢ even at "the cut-rates. purchasing the accoutrements of regional good-1ife-~ski equipaent in greater Seattle, Teather coats in GREATER BOSTON. Jobe are not apprenticeships; jobs are NOW. Hore working, fever jobs, It {9 no easter for a nineteen-year-old to get a Job than a etxteen-year-old, The market is flat that way. OF course what looks Like a good job to a sixteen-year-old boy or girl 1s not Likely to look good enough fo one three years older. ‘The situation varies from place to place. The schools arc increasingly tolerant of youngsters working, and even make accomoda~ tions (or late arcwvals and early departures. In an urban New York C{ty classroom every ten einutes oF ar a youngster elipe in of a youngster walks quietly out, without challenge, Legitinized at levee in part by “the Job." Even in the confortable suburban achool, over half of the high school youngsters have after-school, vork. That has an effect on extra: curricular prograss, to be sure, and is in tura an effect of fewer funds for special classes and extracurriculars. Goredon, cars, jobs, no seney, no habbies, no jobs--it"s a complex pateera. Only ¢ fev edges of the pattern seen in our sites show up as distrossful as the con ditions cited by Bruner, Liebov, and Coodasn. Students acknowledge "a lack of sotivation” for school work. Teachers recount the troubies of teaching lover-ability students. The folka in the RIVER ACRES schools deal at length with guch matters. Similar concerns are found in all eleven sites, Particularly comon 1s the loss of youth interest in fol~ lowing traditional pathway's of acadenic progress. Youth jobs bring tmodiate choices but not long-range choices, After working @ year the sixteen-year-old does not get prosoted to a seventeen-year-old’a job. It doesn't vork that way. He or she quits. Yaybe because che Job no longer 1s good enough. Maybe because Atte Just no longer necessary or fun to work. Ie's not clear. What is clear ts that nobody {5 offering career work to teenagers. According to economist Elt Ginzberg* only Ehree out of ten new Jods now being created are "good jobs." MeDonala's has ite famous Hasburger 0. forthe training of Mebonald sanagenent people—but it takes about a0 sany recruits aa the National Football League. So young people pass into their tventies with oth an education and an appetice for spending voney greatly exceeding the long-tera work. opportunities available to thes, Seven yeara Later, about at age twenty-five, they Finally Set into long-term work. Nobody geens to know why it takes 80 long. Already, in a sense, "overeducated," the two main ansvers to che high Achool graduates" question "Now what?"-are! more education oF hanging around. The influsnce of "overeduca tion," the prolongation of formal schooling prior to entering the work force, appears to be one of the chief undercurrents in the troubled waters of public education, Its rela~ tionship to structural changes in world econoaies was featured ia the May 23, 1977 edition * of Neusueek. Noting s{ntlar conditions throughout western Europe, the authors conpared thea to the state of affairs in this country: “the Purpose of an Econoay," Jobs for Anereahs, ed. Eli Ginzberg (Englevood Cliffs, Préatice-Hall, 1976), pp. i-7.225 The youth-wienploynent disease that hae plagued the United Statee since the early 18600, has crossed the Atlantic, None than 2 million people wider 26 may be out of work in the nine Common Market cowitries, and at the eoonomis aumit in London thie month, “ youth wienploynent onenged ao one of the Heat's thormlest teouse- The danger ts that diviliwioned and oidetined youthe may take @ sharp political’ tum to the left. "We Just can't afford to have yowig people out on the etreet at the meray of radical rat eatchera,” eaye Neat German Chancellor Helmet Sohmidt.* ‘The Chancellor's strong words are a reminder that traditional long-range goa! F to be losing thetr hold, not only.on youth but on other segments of society. alse app The youngsters are in trouble because they are idle, they are idle because they do not works they do not vork because they are ignorant and'lazy; they are ignorant and lazy because the schools have failed to do their Job. So goes a common line of reasoning. No doubt there is sone eruth in it, but not much. Most youngsters want very mich to work. Most have strong preferences ax'to the kinds of work that are worth doing. And they have energies that compare well with other segnents of the population. There are political complications here. Brendan Sexton,** formerly director of the Center for Leadership Training, United Automobile Workers, ‘has warned that the educator who 4¢ concerned with talent. developaent, but sho at the sam cine divorces himself from the political probleno of the econoay te “fooling hinself and misleading the people he secks to educate and train.” The inplic. tlons for both schools and the social order may have been stated by Robert Merton several years ago.*™ In the Anerioan Drean there io no final stopping point... . At each income Level... . America vant Jjuat about 25 per cont more... . (but of aowee thia "ust a bit more" continues to operate once it is‘obtained). . .'. The family, the school, and the workplace--the major agencies shaping the personality otra: ture and goal formation of Amertcans--Join to provide the énten= sive disciplining required tf an individual te to retain intact @ godt that romaine eluaively beyond reach. ‘This striving, competitive, aatertallstic side of the Aserican dream, vhether the working of avarice or fulfillment, cannot help but confine youth, Not in vanta, they want the diversities of che universe--but confined in opportunity to pursue those wants. Tt fs tine of Job shortages, a tine when initial capital needed for franchise or fara is fenorsous, a tine when family control, “old boy networks" and unton quotas, choose, legiti- mate, and Limit vho will get the good Jobs, the tenure tracks, the career oppertuntete ‘These are nor inventions of the 1970's, of course, but they are the realities of the youth-opportunity world this decade, ‘avid Pauly, “Europe: Idle Youth," Neveweeke, 23 May 1977, p. 53. ‘Brendan Sexton, “Opening Up the Options," (Adéreas prepared for Syappaiun on Talent Developnent, University of Illinois, May 1970), isco. stamobort K, Merton, Sectal Theory and Sne pp. 136-137. Structure (New Yor! MoGrau-H{l1; 1962),8:26 Advertising has urged us to exces, Art and Literature have revered individuality ‘and downplayed modesty. The Wouen's Movement has prompted wonen to vork, and for all ite justification, has put wives in competition with youngsters for work. Privilege in the society has become increasingly related co the expense account, s0 becoming corporately Salaried has become anong the holies of our tine. In seeking gore we are saying to the twenty-year-old ag well as the:sixteen-year-old: your tise will come later. ‘The soctety 1e berated, freer, less constrained. The alternatives for youth, ta cerss of expression, are many, The alternatives for youth, in. teras of career choices, fare such nore constrained, Wow auch so is not well known--how much the schools contribute, LE any, co the broadening or narrowing of 1ife opportunities 1s not readily apparent. Increasingly, schools have been offering alternative curricular prograus. For many years a student could take a nore college-preparatory ar nore vocationally-related Sequence of courses. Special tracks have-been available for children with learning disa~ billetes and physteal defects. Electives have made the school course-catalogue appear to be nicely diversified. . Individualized schooling. Teachers once champloned the idea of taking a child where he/she is and helping hin/her along his or her own developaental, experiential path. You do not hear auch of that talk today. Most counselors and teachers iapress upon you che isportance of necting aininun requiresents and comon terminal objectives. There is "individualized" instruction in many schools but it seans proceeding to a common goal at your own pace, with relatively little contact with teachers or other learners. With everyone on the sane track there are fev choices for youngsters to make other than whether or not to try. Interest in “career education" ig on a five-year high throughout the country despite the evidence chat it hag no standard interpretation. The flovering of comun'ty colleges, with their two-year tersinal prograns and ease of access, contributes to prey:wation of youth for jobs, but they still offer “school,” not "work," and the assurance of eaploy- ‘nent in gost fields is not high. ‘As youngsters became increasingly disillusioned with the war {n Vietnam and other aspects of our culture, both sacred and folly, they dropped out of school. And schools, veually at the initiative of disillusioned young faculty uesbers, created store-froat azadeales and alternative schools to lure thea back and to keep others from dropping out: ‘The school's offering of alternatives 1s usually, perhaps ag 1t should be, to satiafy parent concerns sore than student. The description of the alternative achool in ALTE 19 an interesting case in point (p 3:101), Some of the nore recent alternative schools con Centrate on teaching the basic skills and traditional values. Private and parochial schools continue to offer parents many alternatives, but cost are not real alternatives for the young. An effort to diversify alternatived was tried in the "Voucher-Plan” expers~ ents, but even If they had struck @ popular chord, they vould have been for parents more than youth. Perhaps that is az 1€ should besB27 Research on learning styles and aptitude-treatnent interaction* has not shan a way for the schools to contribute more to the diverse individualities of youngsters. The School's role ts an uncertain one. Youngsters do not seen to feel that the schools have too limited a selection, or that they Limit their later selections, but we do not really know. We know too Little. The problens are too large. Too much is expected of the schools ‘The pressures are too many. IE is e gray background against which we examine eleven school setence prograns. Readers wil find one spectal these running throughout our eleven case atudies and this entire report, It is alcely described by the words of Marcin Trou," reporting on 5 disessston anong sociologists as to stat their discipline aight offer eo the (Ehes) newly-created National Institute of Edveation: One thene that rwidertay much of oun discursions uae the tension between the broad cuente of populion in the eociety, whieh we geom to agree ane greving én otrength, and the importance of the training and forma~ tion of elite groups, and the conditions for elite achievenent. I think Ut £2 perkopa the central tension tn jmevican acciety, ard nat~ urally choue tteelf very clearly in mow edwational inetitutione. Our case studies’ captured both the positive and negative effects of this tenston- The picture we obtained from any one site, from all together, ts fractured, incouplete, sonetites contradictory--as 1s all husan drama. There are momenta of truth, aoments of vision. There are {llustrattons in the folloving pages of administrators, students and espectatly teachers, hanging on, fashioning creative responses to complex and distresving situations-—of course sone of their ovn making. In moat places we visited, we found the WALL to prevail. And new fdeas. Ie was Thonas Jefferson whose philosophical and political batcles with Hantiton foreally launched the struggle outlined by Trow and who first resinded us that "shere there is no viston, the people perish Lee J. Cronbach and Richard E. Snow, Aptitudes and Ik Handbook for Research on Interactions (New York: Irvington, 1977) WAIn a Letter to Professor Burton 8. Clark, Yale University, August 3, 1971, p. 5 fa he{WE NATIONAL SCLENCE FOUNDATIONS The National Science Foundacton vag created nearly thity years ago as an all-purpose selence organization of the United States government. Alaos, {ron (13 start, NSF has adopted position that, a the government sckence ofgantzation, it should be concerned 4nd involved with science education in the country: This dnvolvenent has focused more of quality than quantity in-che sense that che emphasis has been on improving the quality of setence education rather than on increasing the nuaher of persons who pursue sctentitie careera. The program to effect improvenent in science education has had two general related thrusts: curriculum development and teacher education- Most people asked to date the start of NSF {uvolvenent with science education vould probably respond chat it started with Sputnik I (1957) when the launching of che first Soviet satellite esphasized the trenendous progress of the U-S.S.R. in science and tech= nology, While Spuentk 1 confirmed che Russian capabilities, they had been recognized earlier by NSF, and the program to improve science education was started before the appearance of Sputnik 1. The first teacher education efforts were in 1953 when two sumer institutes were con~ ducted. One was for college teachers of physics and the other for college teachers of Pathematies. The first institute for secondary science teachers vas held tn 1954, The Eeachers education program grev quickly and in the peak year of 1966 over forty aillion dollars was spent on education for over 40,000 teachers gost of whom wore secondary teachers. the teacher education progran has been reduced since 1960 and tn 1973 about ten aillion dollars was expended for various kinds of teacher training activities. — enphasis, curriculum development which is known formally ds Course Content Improvement. “The content of this section 1s°based for the sost part on the following sources MAlcon Lonask, A Minor Micacle: An Informal History of the Nattonal Setence Foundation (Washington, D.Cc? National Sefence Foundation, 1578) Dorothy Nelkin, "The Sclence-Textbook Controversies," Sefentiftc Avertean 234 (apes 1976): 93-39 Suzanne Kay Quick, "Secondary Impacts of the Curriculua Reform Moveent: a Longitudinal Study of the Incorporation. of Innovations of the Curriculum Refore Hovenent Into Commercially Developed Curriculum Programs,” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977). John Walsh, "NSF Education: fasie Teaves Sti11 Unresolved." Sehence, 15 July 1977, pp. 233-236. The reader with a strong interest in the history, controversies, and tmpact of the setence education efforts of NSF is referred to these sources.B29 Commitvee and the project has becone vell known as PSSC. Over thirty Course Content Improvenent projects have been funded aince that tise. Anong the core well known are Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), Chemical Bond Approach (CBA), School Mathe matics Study Group (SMSC), and Man a Course’ of Study (MACOS). Funding for curriculus work reached its peak at about twenty million dollars in 1968 and has declined to about tx ation doliate in 1973, Rogardlees of relative costs the science education progras of NSF has beon large fenough that it should have had a major npact on science education in the country. Indeed the evidence supports the expectation. The Quick study documents considerable evidence of curricular, course, teacher, and student impact consistent with the goals of NSF. ‘The kinds of impact, hovevor, are not equally valued by all. Consequently a consid= erable anount of controversy has been stimulated by the program, especially the Course Content Inpre senant aspect. Some of the controversy arise fron imagined Lepacta, but chat does not mitigate the concer. ‘There sre chroe general thones in the controversies, One theme reflects a concern about Federal control of the schools through imposition of a nationwide standard curricu- lun. NSF has been exceedingly sensitive to this issue and has done many things to insure that they do not becose directive. The evidence thus far is that thie issue represents fan tnagined inpact. Quick argued in her study that the science curriculun wav more unl~ fied ot comon across the nation's gchools prior to NSF than it is nov. she suggested that the inereased asount of variation is attributable at least in part to the eurriculua work of NSF. A second these 1s that the content of the course has been changed so that the course does not teach the important content. This issue has been especially noticeable with the athenatics curriculum and the controversy about the "nev math.” ‘The third theme indicates a basic difference in values or, beliefa azong sectors of society. BSCS and MACOS materials have been severely criticized by some because they either fail to recognize alternative explanations or present explanations that are regarded fas subversive to the "cruth." ‘The political pressures on NSF fros these controversies have becone strong and have forced ehe Foundation to becone extra careful in ite science education efforts. It appears Eo sone that NSF is being forced to withdraw froz the leadership role that it has held and £0 assume a responsive role. - Efforts in science eduction must now be juetified on the basis of a needs assessment study. One night speculate that the justification will be beet received if the needs are those expressed by politically viable group. Three needs aasessnent type studies were initiated by NSF in 1976. The results froe the three studies will be used to make and support policy and program decisions for the science education progran. ‘This report is of the findings and recomendations from one of the studies, Case Studies in Science Education.Chapter © Jo Ann Day and Robert Stake RESEARCH MBTHODS USED * Jn this chapter we describe the research methods used ro obtain and present multiple case studies in science education to the National Science Toundation (NSF). Our study wae fone of three" funded by the NSF to aggese national needs identifiud in a Request for Pro- posals (RPP), dated Septenber 16, 1975. Our field vork was carried out in three phases be~ tween Septenber 1976 and Novenber 1977. The three phases of the project consisted of case studies observaticns, site visits, and a national survey. While these activities are listed in order, they vere planned and executed in three overlapping phases, approximately: Cage Studies Septenber 1976 - May 1977 Site Visits November 1976 - May 1977 Survey Operations August 1977 - Novenber 1977 AINS OF THE PROJECT ‘The major purpose of this study was to describe the status of pre-college scfence. education in che United States in the 1976-77 school year. Lesues and existing practices ‘and outcomes were found, explored and deacribed by researchers with the intent of providing another Link between tuo camps~-the camp of school people in.each local community and the camp of national education policy makers. Tt yas recognized that each camp had its on perceptions of what e needed and desired within a nation's school districts, and what 18 heeded and desired for a nation's school syaten. The canps overlap, yet renain distinct. ‘The case study descriptions were expected to be useful first in Washington, but later around the country ao well, as people of all kinds struggle to mest the needs of 2 nation for sedence education of high quality. ‘CONCEPTUAL, AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Seeing rather chan measuring was the activity of this project. "Issues" were central foct, guiding the seeing, organizing the understanding. We sought vignettes and devised scenarior, representations of experience, to illustrate the issues, What principally we hoped to see was "how much science is being taught (and) the obstacles to good science teaching." (proposal) During the contract period ve prepared statenents, i.e., extended menos, to guide the project staff and others as to conceptualization and operation. Sone of these statenents will be included here, as 1s Nunber 20 on the next page. *The other two were reported as: Iris R. Weiss, Report’ of the 1977 National Survey’ of Schence, Mathenatica, and Social Studies Education (Research Triangle Park, North Carol in Center for Educational Research and Evaluation, 1978); and Stanley L. Helgeson, et.al., Status of Pre-College Science, Mathenatics, and Social Science Education 1955-1975, 3 vola. (OMe Stave Universitys, center for Science and Mathenatice Educat ion, 1977)SSE STATEMENT HO. 20 Of SEEING AND MEASURING Septenber 12, 1976 Tt is natural to see. It is natural to measure. Seeing and measuring are not the same act. But they are even more difficult than we-suppose. The common notion is that when one mea= Sures one sees the sane thing but sees its amounts. As if one were seeing through glasses having graduated-scale markings on then. Measurenent glasses, however, do much more than scale the view. Much more difference there is between seeing and measuring. There is. a transfomation fron experiential perception to representational perception. The observer switches fron actor to director. He/she gives up the direct impression of the thing, perceiving it no longer as another being, 2 whole object, a menber of the Physical populace, and perceives it then as a bearer of properties, or even merely as an array of characteristics. This is no small transformation. When I find yself in the conpary of a'rose I see it. I do not see its redness, nor the Washington Honunent its tallness, nor Professor Bronowski his intelligence. inorder to talk about then--and perhaps even to think about then--I am always putt ing-on the measure ment glasses, and of course I see then, at least partly, each as a collection of properties: its brilliance, its tallness, its redness. Getting ready to measure may be more Tike changing mindsets than putting on glasses. Taking Vitamins, going on a diet, downing a martini, or submitting to sodium pentathol nay be nore the analogue. They change mindset, changing’ one's ability to respond, changing one's expe= Fience itself. Now one fits into different clothes, into different roles, into different valuings. And these changes bring changes in strength and power. The way most of my researching colleagues want to see the world 4s through the properties Of things. The way most of my teaching colleagues want to see it is to see things as things Putting on glasses that focus on properties, scales, and amounts changes the perception. Perhaps only a little, as sunglasses do; perhaps a lot, as reversal prisms do. Whether the distortion is slight or great, whether the change. results in nore oF less comprehen sibility, the impression gained i5 different from that for the unaided eye. ¥ do not know whether the unaided eye is more or less likely to see the truth. But it 1s inpor- tant for ne to realize that the perception of things with an orientation to properties, with an orientation to measurenent, is "corrected" vision. Measurement is common and natural, but it is “corrected” vision. \ihether or not such vision moves us closer to truth is a matter to worry about. Many of Us have not been worrying because we have been taught that when we measure we are closer to truth than when we Just see. The difference between seeing and measuring seens small when Experience is the heat of the day and Heasurenent is the colunn of mercury in a thermoneter. It is because of the conmonness of Tooking at the thermoneter; or hearing its anounts, and realizing the corre- spondence to our feeling. For most of our measurenents in education we do not have such @ correspondence. Neasuresent is not just holding a ruler to what we see, but seeing something to hold a ruler to.3 Issues. Seeing something to hold a ruler to vas not our ain, This research project was experience-orieated. We relied heavily on intensive field cbservations and Intervieus as 2 means of ‘recording differing inages and meanings. Issue-based images and meanings sove than properties and seasuremente--were to form the conceptual structure for the work. In CSSE Statenent Nusber 21 ve defined an issue (for our purposes) in the following ‘An issue is a ctrcunstance about vhich people disagree. It usually Involves a conition having some features causing (or believed to cause) cerrsi. ccfects. These effects are valued differently by akiferent people--so they disagree a to whether and hoy the condition should be changed. : The ingredients for an issue then are che condition, the effects, the relationships betueen condition aid effect, the different valuing, and the alternatives aiiong courses-of-action for changing conditions. (ie is true chat che contention might be due more to disagreenent as to whether or not a relationship holds thah to different valuing of the effects. Either way, issues ore points of contention.) The issue List was one conceptual structure for observations throughout che project? Yo be sure se was an evolving list, one chat was expected to be modified and changed by involvenent in the sites. ‘The {esves were originally conceived of a8 "foreshadowed probleas: Was £¢ Benediet or Malinowski who apoke of "foreshadowing problems?” Ones perhaps doth, and nore recently, Lou Srith, urged the field cbeerver to specify the big questions that take hin/her into the field. Such questions are the basie for deciding what vill be observed. Foreshadowing problene are not "the hypotheses to be tected." They are not that durabte. Though apparently the most important questions at the outset, they are expected to give uay to etill more important questions. The tseuse that dominate the final repori. may be reformilations of the original tesues or may be cone that anerge during the inveatigation. The investigator neede to avoid overhonoring and overkeeping the shove foreshadoving probleme, but ateo t0 avoid approaching the scene ith too Utele an idea as to what to atoh and what to record. * : ‘AE the outset of the CSSE project it seened there were three large foreshadowing profitens: How 4s science being caught today? Wat are the current conceptual izations of science in the classroca? ‘mat are the curremt encroachgents won the science curriculus? “Robert £, Stake, "Secking Svect Water: Case Study Methods in Educational Research" (Webana, 11.1 Center’ for Instructional, Research and Curriculum Evaluation, AERA Training Tape Cassette, forthcoming) «cx : The foreshadoved problems constituted the starter Lat of issues. The List soon changed and continued to change over che course of the study. We expected that local issues would energe 485 observers attended to such concerns as the following: = Science Ingeruction Different Conceptualizations of Setence ‘Appropriateness of teacher preparat ici Sefence a¢ inquiry Organization for teaching, claes yeriods Setence 28 explanation : Testing, assessment, céaching for the Sctence vs technology test Social science va social studies Laboratories, materials, projects Scfence clubs, competition, honors Perception of Conflict Between Science "Driving-force” persons, “Hr. Sedence” and Culture Changing roles for teachers Sefencel and Religion Social science and cultural eaboos Chaniges in School or Community that may Moral ‘sues and science teaching affect the sedence (Including math and secial sciences) curricula Place of Seience in the Curriculus Diminishing budgets for education Core subjects and electives Emphasis on the basic skills Preparation for colleges Emphasis on bilingual programs Vocational rlevance of science Adversarial roles.of teachers and Integeation of subjects adninietrators Increasing role of parents and cittzens Desegregation actions Some issues were found in che nous media: back co the basics, declining enrollments, {seal problens and conception of science education as vocational and environmental education "te had been anticipated that five oF six major thenes woUld emerge as the-most inpor~ taht issues across the sites. Possibly they would be sone identified in the professional Literature. However, before the end of the project, the five major clusters of Sssues Listed above had developed into many clusters, with’ sub-tssues and new collections of sub- Assues to form nev clusters. We had expected to organize the final repor: assimilation chapters around the predominant issues, bur our authors found auch an orgenization too indifferent to many inportant observations--so ve shifced to a nore taxonomic table of Seventeen substantive questions vere raised in the RFP to guide case study observation and analysis in this project. Direct responses to these questions appear beginning on page 19:16. Data for ‘those answers are inherent in the quotations ard descriptions of each case study. The questions direct one's attention co the general roles and practizes of today's science educator. These roles and practices are essential backgrcund circumstances for Understanding the issues we found-at the sites and in survey returns {rom around the country. Vignettes and Scenarios. The connitnent "to see" nore than "to measure” invited the use of vignettes and scenarios, These distinctions were wade for our purposqs:*™ A vignette is a small illustration or perhaps che facet of an tasue; only suggestive, but potgnant. Ie will often be a wisp of a dialogue but sometimes grows beyond the size of anecdote to becone a short story. Te may be the trace of previous action, auch as the smudge of Lip prints fon a photograph. Monentarily it ie "figure," but shades off into the Larger seaming of the issue, In this study ve will label something & vignette only if {t de reported as an actuality: "SSE Statement No. 2. wacSSe Statement Wo. 21.cs A scenario, on the other hand, for us, 1s 2 contrived illustration Of one or nore Sssues, {ts parts joined together not only co indicate conditions and to suggest courses-of-action, but to provide 2 stimulation fo discussion end deseription of personal points of view. The scenario say include vignettes or be reconstructed from then. Questions, some- Himes calling for-categorie.1 ansvers but ueually calling for explanation of narration, will be a part of the scenario. ‘An example of thege differences can be seen in the following statenents as it relates toa particular issue.* Issue: Yoleculerization of the curricylum, breaking dovn the course content to snail pieces, of knoviedge and skill; to facilitate teaching, Tearning, and retention; possibly resulting ina narrowing of the subject matter, diminishing differences between leaner scoring on tests; perhaps Fequiring nev orientation and skills of the teacher; perhaps enabling administrators to state school ain and accomplishnent nore accurately, fo be accountable; possibly consistent with desires to return "to the basics" and eo teach responsibility and respect. Vignette: One frustrated eixth grader sn District Alpha, uhose teacher was very proud of the rapid progress he was making in the Individval{zed math progran, was asked, ‘mae kinds of answers do you want to put down?" “Any,” he replied, “as Jong as they agrea with the key. You see," he said, "it doesn'e matter, {f you are right or wrong, it's arcording to whether it's what the key says. TE you put dowm 2/4 and the key says 1/2; you get marked wrong even if they are the same thing. If the answer really was 1 and the fey had 2, you'll get marked wrong, if you put don the right answer. ow do you vork so fast, then," he was asked. "I just ery doing each page quickly vsing one way. IE I get them ali marked wrong, I try another pattern. Sooner or later, I find the right pattern and get the vhole page Tight." “Don't you then try to use that pattern again?” "No! Each page is different. Scenario: Excerpt from Scenario D. The superintendent of the Dorchester Schools is telling everyone about the nev objectives-based curciculus in the local schools. Each teccher has identified the basic goals of each course--the knowledge and skills each collected and bound in a bright orange-and-black notebook, one copy of which has a prominent place on the table each evening the sehool board meets. Is this the vay it is in your School? Is there any danger in breaking things too snall? Vignettes are found throughout the case studies and site visit reports. The CSSE personnel used vignettes from their oun experiences on site team visits as well a vignettes From other reports to aiecuss the issues. Our final choice of scenarios 1s found with the survey findings (Chapter 18) and within the assimilation chapters (12-17). Scenarios as contrived illustrations were constructed originally from foreshadowed problems and vignettes found in our field observations. In the process of Jeveloping the scenarios they were presented to respondents at all case study and trial sites™® {a the form of issue-acenarios. FCGSE Statenent No. 21, vignette adopted fron Stanley Erlvanger , "Case Studies of chitaren's conceptions of Mathematics,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Tilinois, 1974). sigur planning included she use of trial sites. These sites (both rural and urban) were used to provide information for and reactions to our scenarios, plans for site visits and survey questions. a 6ce These scenarios weve meuat to reflect more than tamediats prohlen: to a local district, yet to retain @ sense of inediacy to local teaching and leacwicn int vay most rexeseeh hypotheses do not. They were neither highly general nor higoiy tal zed. questions ‘The site visit cean* originally spent @ mitor portion of {es onsite cine pursuing these issues via the technique of an issue scenario. A typieal session included a snail group of people-~site visitors and respondents, h scenati yresonted to this group fo find out what kinds of teaching and Learning we¥e occuring, how science was conceptualized by teachers and students and how various things happening in the comunity and school were affecting the science, math, and social studies curricula. Teachers, adainistrators, students and residents of che comunity were asked to respond by drawing upon thetr experience in reaction to the scenario presented. Conceptual izations of Assues were to be those held by these groups. The intent of che development of issues into scenarios was chat they would be used in che nattonal survey. Survey questions were designed around a particular scenario to confirm of disconfitm the Importance of the Lesues nattonally. : During preparation of the scenarios, we took chen to the field and ratsed several westions of teachers and others. We asked quest ions about each scenario to ascertain:** 1. the typteality of the situation depicted 2, the accuracy of the representation in the scenario 3. the importance of the {ssues, 4. suggestions for reaedy of the problens at issue 5. other important issues we should be raising After further refinenent based on the responses, the scenario format vas set up for inclu sion dn our mail survey. The eight chat continued to be seen as vital at the cage study sites were to be included. Categorical responses vere added for survey use, though any open-ended questions were retained. This 1s described further in chapter 18. ‘As the months passed, the scenarios became less used at the sites. They served nicely as "{ee-breakers” for discussion, but school people often felt the scenarios vere unsatisfactory representations of conditions at their site, gonetines even because (It appeared) only one part of the scenario did not correspond. But algo, the scenarios pre- sented so complex a picture that on-aite respondents concentrated on detail shen ue wented fo talk about major povenents. It yas seldom that the issue of the scenario was considered uninportant, urrecogntzed, or inapplicable, but 1t was too seldom couched in the appropriate context for'then. the discussion often would continue with the issue presented by the req apondents in a context sore fitting to their situation. As a Tepresentation for conditions broadly, the scenarios becane less and less useful. ‘The conceptualization of the issues of sctence teaching continued to be incident oriented rather than property-oriented uncil the end of the field ork. The scenarios were used in the survey, but the case study writers found the effectiveness of their descriptions depending on decails and ‘eireunacances idiosyncratic to a site, even though the issues theaselves appeared to be quite general. ‘Carrying out the second phase of the project. See p. C138 for the site visit calen- da. By the sixth site visit, eight issues had been selected for survey questionnaire eee, Site viste interviewes continued, of course, to be asked about broad range of taseea, MOSSE Statement No. 22. oo acr ‘MO ORIENTATIONS FOR STUDYING EDUCATION We ained to identity an understand sajor isaues as they were perceived in the eld by administrators, students, parents, and curriculum supervisors. Their perceptions were |sought and recorded by intensive unstructured intervies as well as by structured ‘Their teaching and Learning situations were observed formally and infor~ mally. Data were gathered, analyzed and reported in a conbination of two methodological orientations: naturalistic and formalistic. We used both orientations, but the naturalistic orientation more. It might alsobe said that we were more qualitative than quantitative, nore asued-based than property-based,, ore case-particularistic than population generalizing, more subjective then objective, nore experiential than rationalistic, more enpirieal than idealistic, and more hermeneutic than positivistic. But in each instance, of course, we vere some of beth. Natural Orientation.” We tried to see and to record the educational phenomena as others were seeing then. We tried not to impose’ special constructs to represent typical situations (or underlying bases of covariation. Of course we brought along our theories, our snorie: four tabulations of history, and our “etic” issues--and to a certain extent those fornelisne {nfluenced vhat we viewed. We were looking for vhat was particular to individual persons, or to individual class~) roons, in individual sites. If it existed, we sought a conmunity view, or all-school view, ‘but we tried to make sure that ve understood any of the views more particularized than that. It 49 implied by the “definition of the situation" that there 1s no one-to-one correspondence between an objectively real world and people's Perspectives of that world, that instead something intervenes when events and persons cone together, an intervention that makes possibl. the variety of ntérpretation which Schutz calle "nuleiple realities. According to this views the same events of objects can have diferent meanings for different people. ‘These differing views, these sultiple realities, vere apparent in each of the case studies and site visitor reports. They vere apparent in the responses to survey questions as vell, Dut thera, both questions and answers vere predominantly formalistic. Still, ansvers to the open ended questions cane back oriented to the concrete particulars of experience: the persons, places, events, and things the respondents knew. Formalistic Ortentation. In educational research the most common way of describing complex things 18 £0 analyze then into their constituent parte and to summarize quantita tively the properties or variables comon across a sanple of these things. Understanding of particulara 1s expected to come by reference to populations which in turn are understood inferentially by @ study of sampled cases. In order ito make these inductive and deductive leaps, certain properties are identified 2s of particular relevance. The property 15, measured for each case. Inferential statistics are used as the basis for understanding the "general" situation. The description of complex things necessarily is Linited to those things that can be expressed in terns of relationships anong properties. To describe one-aspect of 4cience teaching ve might have identified the teacher and the textbook as tvo important parts. A property of classroon recitation might have been the frequency of teacher requests that 2 question be answered by reading it directly from the text. The actual frequency of this occurance would have been small, but it did cura ‘out to be much larger than our expectation. Had we anticipated it and made such a count, wwe would have had formslistic vay of presenting that one issue. As it was, tovard the ‘Peter Metlugh, Defining the Situation, (ew York: Bobbs-Merrill Co-, 1968) p.9.cs end of our fteldwork we realized that such questioning was nore connon than we expected, and noted ur connon recollections across field sites, . Ae it happened, then, it was © natural~ Aetic rather than formalistic finding, though it could have been either. In SSE we supported our naturalistic ineuirtes by collecting som standardized date and by classifying typical situations. We expected to do more than we did, We ended up withove the quaftitative summaries of the properties of science tnstruction that other, Pro™ posers answering the RFP would have featured. What ve did was to use the naturalistic ortentation to identify the issues of teaching and learning, then to use the nore formal- istic questionnaire to get additional information: Thus we have many statements aboot tho Frequency of viewpoints, and relatively few enunerations of etual eventa.® Upon receipt of first’ drafts of case studies, we debriefed ourselves in a naturalistic way, trying to exercise the discipline of the historian, ethnographer, and archeologist, Searching for confirmation and disconf irmation in the experience ue had encountered, and preparing @ report based on generalizations dravn as much from recollection asi ineuteion as From the formal records we kept. ) ‘consTRALwrs - Some of the framework for this study was set by the constraints of contract research in a real world situation. As ind{eated berore, the National Science Foundation inposed certain requirenents, such as the nusber of sites and representativeness of the sites. The schools, the research community, the calendar and our budget inposed certain other constraints. . 2 ‘The constraints that ‘we were working under are discussed throughout this chapter as a part Of the methodological context. We have presented then both as spectfle to each part of our methods sections and indicated how they shaped or changed our research designe The constraints are not unknown to many other researchers and are act mituslly exclusive of each other. Time, budget and the state of social science methodology in general and 2 multiple ease study project in particular are discussed. ‘The greatest constraint vas time. We had a long eighteen months to do the work, to Bet answers needed much sooner, but still ve had too Little tine. We Jid not have tine to integrate into our thinking hundreds of suggestions, writings and research results that ve cane upon. The administiative burden took nore tine than it should have, We needed nore tine to write up the case studies and to agsinilate the findings. Perhaps we should have confined our field observations to a single senester--but then ve might have missed the Feality of year-based schooling ané we would nd€ have had Lou Saith, Jacquie Hill-Buenett, Rudy Serrano, Dan Stufflebean and Jim Sanders working on the project. The CEIS and OMS clearange procedures and NSF final review took too mich time, even though those people Were extremely cooperative--and our ovn clearance procedure for maintaining anonyaity cook too Long, even though ve ran into ne problems. If we had had more time, ve probably still would have vanted more tine. i ‘We were avare that some readers vill dismiss as invalid any summary that is not based on objective measurenent and impersonal analysis. The validation of our assinilation Findings does not depend primarily on formalietic analysis. Within our case stuiy chapters wwe present innumerable confirmatory itexs and the most contrary evidence we could find. Our metheds are not innediately replicable in che sense that our fieldwork has been ex. plicated so that another researcher could take exactly the same steps But the study Is feninently replicable tn that our constructs are conmon and public, not steeped in spectal abstract or technical meaning. They are open to verification or repudiation by anyone. Other data auch a2 ours are accessible. If we have failed to recognize a mass of dis~ confirming evidence, we are confident that our professional colleagues and others will bring it to ateention--instance by instance perhaps--to discredit or qualify our findings.cs As with any stuly, and even with a generous funding here, money was a constvaint. he original budget was for $256,000 for an eighteen-nonth period. To add the Colushus site we vere avarded an additional $26,000 and to improve the survey operations ve ob~ tained $10,000 and evo months more study time. A rough breakdown of institutional allocations shoved: Proposed Acewal Professional salaries $203,000 $132,000 Travel, lodging 52,000 41,000 Office, computer, printing 445000 49,000 Indirect costs 37,600 72,000 Total . $256,000 $294,000 A sore functional breakdown of actual expenses vas estimate’. to be: Field observations $130,000, Site visits, coordination 40,000 Survey 30,000 Project administration 22,000 * Indirect costs 72,000 $294,000, Although nore volunteer labor becane available than expected, allocations of funds and ether resources vere essentially an planned. Had sore money been avatlable we would have been able to pay observers for analysis fand writing tine and for additional time on site. Additional funding would probably not have availed us a more coapetent staff, nor inclined our observers more to the standardized techniques sone critics vanted. In retrospect we realize we should have increased the size of our survey respondent groups (rather than going for additional groups, aa ve did) and ve might have done that better had we had more money. At che outset te was apparent that there are but few researchers experienced in fLeld observation in schools, particularly regarding pedagogical and curricular issues. This, was a corstraint, but ue accomodated che design to it, and got such people agsigned to almost all our sites. "We could have bevn disrupted by weather, or by dissension at head- quarters, or by withdraval of school cooperation, but we were not. The only constraint we were continually sensitive to was Eine,\ co : \ . [ Phases of the project est siretes, we wwlertouk thewe ease studies to provide'an enpathetic view of setence education iu 4 seal! her of sehoots~-a view especially agen by the persons who spend their time Liierw. I Lor example, the work Ls sonetimes seen to be nore difficult or less difficule becnois of shat "outsiders" do (outelders euch as citizens, university projects, govern Feat stgtefes) we singed to document chat. . The final” portrayal was not expected to Be vist Ix tepicat fer the eduntry, but a guide to issues that are widespread. Readers may ser they focal situation ina new Light, polley setters my sre new nplications of thede policies, oor Chee read there ease studies Site Selection, Tom sites were selectod at which to do Case Studies in Setence ‘hdutdints “an eleventh site was"added when NSF personel becane interested in an soyertunity t> study science education within 3 context of crisis, @ heating fuel shore vie during iatw winter, 1977.* We wanted to select 9 manageable group of eases chee ‘sii isusteute the diversity of the cotal group, yet shov the need to exasine the con ples witure af scence education in each site. eye sites were chosen within driving distarce of witere prospective fLeld observers wore Going other work.” (We beLléved that qualified field observers are rare and difficult Fi Ino: getting «. oor fanced educattonal field researchers to do the case studies was of Nigh lor smce eo us 2) Within this deiving range, the five school clusters, and the nother “ae school clusters sattonally, vere ehiosen to give us a balance in geographic Koay a tris af com lty Curban, suburban, middle-sizad city, of rural conmunle)), EWES on J vton Ginmovutive, traditional) and reputation of the sclence curtleulun. Ih APY two! eallee fur a well eongetved sampling plan. Many proposets and reviewers inter vreted iis fo rvqufte-a scracified random sample. We would have preferred randontzed selecrion if 1) whl sie low allow as the balance just mentioned and an effective observer corms Titi wasn cay of tdenetfying. the above characteristics for all sehools dn the popwhit. ou. “ecmld have drawn a Raapley stratified for geography and type of coemuntey, How chon/a out each now selection to see if 4 Fit our definition of balance, replacing, Joints Wil the balance was attained. Even $0, this sample would have eaused us co Jose four or ‘ive o° our bout ffeld observers. We had £0 choose between a more robust ite sample ar, sore ropuse team of observers, We chose the latter. ‘iethodon iy, of Case Study in Columbus. ‘the cage study authored by Jim Sanders and ‘oan Stuifiehonit wis Fesearehed Independently, It represented an opportunity to stay gel few vducstt ion within a context of erisia-a achool district crisis recognized by conmuntcy and natin. Intensive efforts vere made to gather appropriate information welliztng the fal ving: observations; interviews; newspaper, Nelsen and Arbitron surveys; television ratines; random sampling of groups of teachers, students, and. parents; and hearings with reaches who taught nver celevision, : Ita collection cook place during february 1977, when the schools vere closed and owt Seioois" was conducted. The observations, interviews and surveys were con Linuel for a week after the school reopened tarch 7, 1977. Faailiariey with the site vas a Tactue for Stufflebeam whe once directed The Evaluation Center at the Ohio State Univer= ity 0d continued to have ches with the Columbus public school aysten. Unlike our ocher Sites rhés ose could aot be granted anonymity in our reports because of che uniqueness nul puhlHekLy of the energeney effort on cAccess to the sites was en important consideration in site selection, but we did not urn down any possibility because access appeared difficult or unattractive. Only one Potential site (Grand Rapids, Michigan) refused our request. In retrospect, we realized wwe might have biased the sample sonevhat by thinking of (and later celecting), for a rural community in the South, a district whose superintendent ve already knew. Tn sone districts having multiple schoolé ve sev that district officials vere steering ua tovard or avay fron s particular school. Sometimes they persueded us that their reasone were good. Soce~ times we were able to perstet with our rationale for a particular echool, Me conpleted the selection of school clusters with the conviction that we had gained access to a auit~ ably balanced sanple, free as one could expect a sample of ten to be free of misrepresent ative characteristics. An overview of the geographic location of our sites 1s shown on the nap below.* Te 4s obvious that the locations vere not representative of all the country. We vere pleased to get coverage of school situations in the nevly envigorated Sun Belt and in the old inner cities of the North as well as schools East and Weat.*# While the eleven sites possibly vere not representative of the schools of the nation in certain ways, the key Assues in these sites vere found in the national survey issues in many school systena. ‘unite showing the regional location of the sites for Case Studs ton the exact locations have been disguised to maintain anonymity. han economic description of the sites 1s included on page (+16.cra nile negotiating with the school district for access ve indicated which high school vr which kind of high setiool ve needed for our sample. After identifying that particular hhigh school we selected sone of irs fealer schools (Juntor high schools and eleneatary schools) to complete the makeup of a: ite's "school cluster.” The original plan vas co study all the feeder schools but most field observers found it overly deaandiag of cine 0 staly more than 2 cr 3. In more ays than one, greater consideration ws given £0 Secondary schools: Proportionate populations in the selected school clusters were different, of course, from the district population figures presented on page C:13, However, due to concern that inority population not be igtored, minorities say be seen to be overly numerous in the Schools in uhich ve worked, In addition to allovance for ethnic and socio-economic diversity was @ concern that the elven sites vould have a balance of curricular orientation--traditional er anova Elve-wand differing reputations for science programing. These criteria were considered casually, checked out by asking around, both in and outside the districts, and these reputational definitions fell roughly inte the following description: Six sites were considered to have rather traditional curricula and four sites, nore innovative curriculs. Of the forner, four had no particular science reputation and two had a good science reputation. Schools with innovative curriculum vere located in two districts vith good science reputations, and tuo districts with no particular science reputations. We did not feel the dufinitions rigorous enough to justify formal compart= Te is obvious that the characteristics of the school clusters in this selection were not perfectly blocked; as they vould not.be in any selection of eleven sites. The impor tant goal here vas to get broad and sonevhat balanced representation-of school situations: rial sites” yere very inportant to the CSSE profect. One {s a small rural setting in central Tilinois, the other a large upper-Hidwestern city marked by ethate neighborhoods and the denands of implenenting a court-ordered school desegregation plan. We functioned in both places throughout 1976277, In Getober 1976, we conducted a trial version of the forthcoming site visits tn Arcola, Illinois. Students, faculty, administrators, and tovnspeople reacted to scenarios and £0 questions raised during interviews. Our early sensitivity. to issues posed by the "Back to Basics" aovenent vas reinforced by thelr responses. Also in October, che CSSE site-coordinator spent a wack in Milwaukee reviewing documents made available by city adninistrators and interviewing subject-matter supervisors, resource teachers, and repre Sentatives of the "Committee of 100," which fashioned the desegregation plan.” The work An MLIvaukee ‘provided 3 fine opportunity 0 exanine both the influence of racial matters In sehool-connunity affairs and the impact of pluralism upon educational policy and prograas. Respondents in each trial site later critiqued inetrunents developed for use in the esse survey13 Site Description. The eleven sites studied vere diverse, Size of a school systen, population characteristics, and funding sources, are descriptive socio-economic statistics that usually come to mind when discussing a school district.* As depicted in Table 1, our sites included districts with enroll- ments of from 400 to 131,000 students. All but two districts were experiencing declining enrollments since the national high point of enrolinent in.1970-71- i soso "ABLE Ean SehenDatnt ud 00 a am SS on . i000 vr iiiinaad pot : Lo EERIE % 100 *Denographic information that vas obtained from public documents or “Vief State SY School Officers is presented here with concern for the confidentiality f the site.‘TABLE 2: % Racial/Ethnic Group Enrollment by School District 7 UMA WHE = BLACK SPANSHAMERICAN % of fnrojiment by RactaVEthnic Group SehoolDitrets "US, Oepaien © sith, Ezatan ant Wel eof i ih Dts of Puble Elonetay and Secndey Schoo! Selected Carte. Enoliments and staf by racalelini grcup, 1872, 197 “1915-16 Chil State Scie! Offer wih permission of ratiating sthoo! esis. bd5 Alsose halé (f4ve out of eleven) vi ile districes reported mluority eaollnuuts between 23% and 40% with evo wore school distriets reporting minority eerollucuey ef. about 22 and NE respectively. The extrome cuses were two school districts with winsrity exoll= ments as wore than lialf of their student population and two school districts with vo wieeee ities or 80 fev as to be unteporeed.» » AS can be seen in Table 2 eight sites enrolled Black students’ and ¢ix uites enrelied Spanish Americin minorities. iu tvo of chese sites the Spanish Americans made wp eve chtrds of the ainoriey enrolinaut and ina ehird site vert elnost all of the alverity earolimenc. saiks {2 como nationally, the minority seafting of the school districts in our case studies was consistently lower than the pevcencage of minority students emolled. tee Shoo! systems had about 50% or wore of their seaff as minorities and tuo school syecen had none oF too fev to be reported. The majority (seven) of che districts sneloyes between of 12 and 152 minorities on their faculeses #* The Eype of city and source of funding vere also diversifted. Nine districts rex getved between 33% and 702 of choir revenue from state and federal sources. the exccame cases were the curl southern comunity who received 92% of its funds from stave aad fete “GEST sources, and the suburban midvestorn site which vas least heavily supported Gish ely 9% of ies funds from che same sources (sce Table 3). These sane two clees vere aloe Lee extraner in expenditures per pupil. The rural site was spending eve chan $1,060 er PupflA** and the suburban site was upcnding mire than $2,000 pet piptl mask MIhere are no minor ities ut one site. (Chef State Schéol Officer) And onty 22 of ghe total population is repoéted as of minority composition at the other vite. G90 Census of Population, vol. 1, ps 1:27, Table 39) AAU. S. Department of Hosith, EMucat lus and Welfare, Offtee for Civil Right», Biregtory of Public Elenewtary ant Swcondiry Schools in’ Selected Distflets: futel ocnte and Seaff by Racial/etide Group Washington, D. G.i U. 8, Covernaene Princlig Office): “Heschief Stare Sctiwol Officer vieh perfusion {rom pareicipating school distr lee. AANtU. S$. Department of lth, Kdveatton and Welfare, tattonal Center for Educattona! Statistics, Statistics of Local Public School Systens, finance Cashington, De Ge Ws Governnent Printing OFftce)-16= few apprehensions and stir fev turlosities, ve tried to sake it a blank-losking sage, ear Field obstrvation At loast for this project, no one method of f4eld observation vas seen vs the “rigut" method of field observation. Methods were expected tv change to fit the situation. Exch field observer was expected to rely on methods uhich worked best for-his or het, JHe thought there would be more methods than there vere. We expected some to use struc” tured observation schedules, others to pore over the district's own schlevenent test resulta, still others to arrange sone stnulated decision situations. But tiaeywas short and things happened fast. Yost observers vere doing vhat vas sinplest and sore/direct, watching aa ‘asking questions : According to the RF? the observations were to be nade by site visit ceaus.* The CSSE design called for observation by participant (or ethnographic) observers, aa well as by site vistt eeans. The field observer took the role of "participant, as @ visitor,” ‘The observers gbserved, and as visitors, participated in the ongoing events of the aysten, They reported Eheir obvious but not uncommon presence aa researchers, carFying notebook os recorder’ gery the hall and into meeting toons. Vartous degreos of obtrusiveness vere noted by case study authors. We Liked to think Ehey were unobtrusive on most occasions. Rob Walker made note of the interest in hia ee 4 “foreigner.” On occasion of course 1t vas the observer observed, : . Recordings, We originally planned to record science teaching and learning both in {the conventional scaled~property language of the paychonetrician and the ineddent-nerrative language of the anthropologist. As it turned out, gur case studies yielded iitele of ene forner, almost entirely the latter. Me wanted to nake sone sinplo aggrogate-data statenents about the classroom at various sites, Ancluding some rough indications of the modernity of the zoom, the texeboundennean of the pedagogy, and the frequency of references to "what selence means.” We thoughe.oe ‘Bight €ind connon factors or categories that would help us typologize the classrosee aed their teachers. Prior to the! August orientation session we developed @ checklist. A copy’ of the final revision ts shown on the folloving pang. Me devised this @ 1/2 x 11 checksheet that could be completed by the observer tn jess than thros minutes. Ne left space on the sheet {or the observer's Feminders of what specially should be Looked for on that occasion, and for notes about Lesson, eleescoon activities, and science education issucs encountered. Wanting a sheet that would roto Each observer was asked to make 9 aininun of ten classroom observations a week, and to urn in a completed sheet on each. We had hoped that this task would not interfere with the individual observer's nornal observing activities. We counted on a minimis ef 150 completed shects, ubich even vith the huge mix of clasaroons, would sive us some nice Anput for statistical analysis ‘tas the RFP design been followed more closely the study would probably have been com= pleted with a roport sonething like, Office of Rural Development, Getting timan services te Rural People (Department of ilealth, Education, and Welfare, 1976).c:18 aosarver: -OE School Code: date: °/7 Time: 2/080 To: 2/30 Teacher Cle: yr] Subject Matter Code: SeuseGrade: /¢& Time of write-up: 7:20,, fo. students: )4 Teacher N@€S)35 $0 65 experienced: i DN directive: L-OH VE Tog Foal 64cr9 ut one observer said that it was contrary to his fLeld-method to do any writing during ta firse months of observation. Another sald that the acaled proper tes we vere aotivg for were inisical to his frane of reference for classrooms and vere Likely fo be diseet= ing. He fried a feu and asked to be excused. Another observer did a fev, then deciaea vith eoly four weeks available, classroom observation vould cevesl circumstances sod caves too slowly. He shifted alnoat entirely to an interview approach. The sehee avo seal gonestar observer : went about the business of completing the acallng requesced, bee hen At became apparent that the others were not going to provide these data; we male ie opetonaly and Ehey too stopped. We. thought that we might be able to pick up sone oF thave sees es the national survey, but dowagraded that information chere oD, and ended uy without arp Property-sealed descriptions of the classrooms at our eleven sites, Thus we presented to many © reader a major disappointment. 1 seemed important to then, even though we vere working vith @ anall number of districts, that we mroela at feast givea careful coding to the ‘instructional activities we found there, We chose in= stead €o insist upon attention co our list of science education ieauea, foreshadeued ond gvolving. Wanting not to lose any of our observers, or thelr enthusiaan for che fobs on id not Insist on the use of the checklist Only later did ve realize this to be a major choice point in our design. ta #0 doing ye committed ourselves largely to an instance-and-issue offentaeion in the case ctedicn, Bur the choice point vas earlier still. At the tine ve selected the iret of ous social selentists ve apparently had unconsciously foregone the standardized checklist approseh, for feu of them vere interested in having this side of descriptive work covered too, OF course even though our observers were rather agreed on this deemphasis on scattectzal, description, they were different in other ways of describing the field situstiong, Techolques of escription. We found an interesting contrast in techniques of descrip [oop wishin the case studies. “In gone, comparisons were made between a school's race nie $ErY and its current sttuation in terns of population mix, curricular emphecia, on ealet flonship to the outside world, Comparisons were made betucen the particclac schocl cate An which a f1eld observer vas working and: past school sites with which he/she ee tastriar. wereatbstract themes were presented by sone observers, Leading to discussion of chest at Puetures and quotes from teachers and students were used aa explicit cravplee of tree the ebservar found. "Literature wa introduced as a means of inviting the reales to ronee ce the f1eld observer's analysis. Some examples are shown below, For Jastance @ tyr-- of comparison used by Rob Walker in the South; Lou Smith in the Wavest and Mary Lae Smith in the West was chat of historical compatison, ‘Retecenes (the Past was used to gtructure description (p 2:1) The study of actence education prograna at a single site, FALL RIVER; Colorado, exposed bits of the history of the fLeld. In this archeological dig can be found Femants of each era: the pre~Sputnik traditional disciplinary acience--vtill. vaca An sone classes; the textbooks, equiprent and inatitute-trained tescher® left oy the first tuo generations of National Sclénce Foundation activity; the enrollaest decline and disillusionment vith sefence coincident with the Toaeatie rebellions the enrollment resurgence that has come with the new pragnacisn; the recent pope larization of the ecology sovenent. Al1 of these historical ecas have hed orfects fat FALL RIVER, and all Left sone relic. In each case the {apace vas defleced oe defused in sows way, as L£ an alten culture had attacked an tlder one, entered Les feeritory, but gradually Lost ite language and separate Ldentity, absorbed Into the older one. b,Another type of coaparison writers used was reference to previous conceptusltzation, seeeetSLiy hon Le uss altered upon entering the site and engaging in participant observa~ tion (p 522-3): As 1 turned right on-Evergreen Street and started dow the hill, I noticed Speavling yellow brick building outlined with white trim, A red, white, and blue Patriot (the school ascot?) painted on a single chimney stood guard over the school. A sodern two story building, about aidozen years old, was nestled inva large grass-covered valley. A raft of tennis courts was flanked by football and baseball fields, and several adults were jogging on a path that circled the Erldiron, Several tenporary buildings, painted a dull orange, were behind the School and a large parking Lot was f1iled with brightly colored cars. The vhole Setting was surrounded by an anpitheatre of green pine trees, yellow naple leafs, ane manicured ans leading fron the street to single dwelling hones. For = Sonene, I thought I had escaped the city boundary and had mistakenly arrived at fone of the surfounding suburbs, But no, the silver block letters to the right Of the white pillared entrance clearly spelled out: HARDY HIGH ScHoOt, 1965. As I pulled {nto one of four parking spaces sarked VISITOR, I thought how far Grong ay expectations for the appearance of the scnool, hed been. I locked my car doors and went through the main entrance. The halls were filled with students, telking and walking, and I was struck by hov similar the picture was to the Milwaukee suburban school I lefe in 1963, I entered a door sarked OFFICE and introduced ayself. They were expecting aé. Another comparative technique was the use of che stranger co a situwtion, The stranger notices phenonens that the participants have long ago accepted and no le 2c consciously considers. For instance, Rob Walker stated (p 11:2) e's an interesting thing about the school that once inside. you lose much sense ofwhat lies outside, It's one of those things that {s so obvious to all the teachers that they have long since ceased to question it. Ethnographers often rely on theoretical orientation. In Lou Smith's study he invited the reader to see how his attention was éfrncted co theory. This technique of reaching for Snore general abstract thene runs throughout Lou Smith's study. He described an incident, then seated (p 3:22) 1 think what I'm reaching for 48 # set of reasonably simple hypotheses (nechanisns) on the antecedents, nature and conception of school learning with particular eaphasis on explaining the high achievenont levels of upper Madie class kids, e.g., the two grade levels and/or 1+ SD above the mean on Another interesting manner of pursuing @ thought or explanation can been seen in Lou Snith's interpretive asides (p 3:13): : [As they talked S¢ seened to cone out that different schools had different / things going for then (as I'd heard previously). For exanple--one has @ big outdoor cdueation program, second grade and up, overnight camping, etc. Another 12 erying out Some of the nev CEMREL nath saterials in the prinary grades, and so forth. (obs ~ ALL this suggests aspects of the old elementary principals competition Indentity, and place in the sun as a major issue in the dynanics of a district and efforts in curriculum, teaching, parents, etc.) /ca Explicit examples of what che observer heard or saw sa the class were used extensively by Peahkin, Serrano, denny, Walker, Hill-Burnect and both Smiths. Entire ests were ine cluded by Alan Peshiin because he "believes tests are particularly indicative of those things @ teacher sost values, hough not exclusively, their students knowing.” Piceores were used by Rudy Serrano, an advocate of visual anthropology. But Terry Denay said (1:1): Seeing aay be believing, bit I need more.” I never see the picture worth @ thousand words. It occurs to me that a very few words can represent a chou sand pictures; can represent vnobservable feelings; can reves! tomorrow's hopes and yesterday's fears which shane today's actions. My story ia largely teachers’ words i ALL of these fteld observers made extensive use of direct teacher-student dialogue. This Sia logue often included description of the context in which the interaction took piace. Reference to Literature--poens, stories, plays and hooks--vas yet another cechaLque. Terry Denny used poens. Wayne Welch used a book, Working, by Studs Terkel, to describe a style of writing. Rob Walker used Steinbeck co suggest caution in Interpretation Lo Smith ueilized educational 1icerature to tell the Treader his interpretation of a apecttic classroom situation (p 3:17): (Obs ~ Through all this I'm resinded of Brueckner's Diagnostic Tests in Arithmetic. The syscen sens a logical outgrovth of that point of view. ‘Weed to look at old NSSE Yearbook from, 1934" (7) aad the Bond and Brueckner Diagnosis and Treatment of Learning Difficulties. Need to check manuals. Seens ike Eeaching and organizational systen (aides, atorage and LAC) butiding upon that. Need to look at IPI manuals and reference literature.) E go through Placenent Test C. There are 2-3 pages on each area. te does ook Like Brueckner writ Large At another point Lou Smith used writings on philosophy of history to make an analysis about what he saw'in ALTE (p3:109): : i ¢ Matorical perspective can lead also to a fundamental revorking of one's approach to the very nature of knowledge. Reading Toulmin’s and Goodfield's triad of books on the history of science, Architecture of Hatter, Pabric of the Heavens, and expecially The Discovery of Time in anticipation of the prajece vas both provocacive and unsettling 1a teres of specific ideas and concept ions in "Science" and also in the investigator's om conceptions of social science ag 4 related to CSSE. In the preface €o a Later book Toulmin (1971) expressed. ie thia way The central thesis of the present volume... can be swmed wp ina single, deeply held conviction: that, in eoience cnd-phiu sopry alike, a exolusive preoeoupation vith logical aystematioicy hae teen destmuceive of both historical widerstanding and rational critietom. Men demonstrate their rationality, not by ordering their aoneapte aid belies in td, formal ctrweturate, but by their prepareduece to reapond to novel situations ~~~ ith open minds--acknovledging the chortaonings of their former procedure aud moving beyond then. Here again, the key notions are adaption” wid "demand" vather thar "form and "oaitdity". .. The philosophical agenda proposed here sete acide all buch assumptions in favor of pactema oF malysts which are at once nore historiaal, move enpiriodl and nore pragmatic. . (1971, pp vit and vilis point of view 4s large agenda, indsed. It leaves one feeling nore than 8 bit presunfeuous. ‘The zoning of parts of ALTE into 1 1/2-3 acre lote sixty yours ago te a chronteled: fact. The Interpretations that this led to “executive city” of to the current upper middle clase quality of the comunity and the emphasis on educational excellence is overly imple and open to question. The relevance of this thought to policy groups such as NSF or NIE and to sore local innediate "change agents” however, does seen very great. One reason for using an outside reference is to assist the reader to make his/her oun comparisons. The Literature 1s utilized as a backdrop for both the field observer and the reader to react to description in the case study. It should help explain how the research- er sade his/her analysis. Judgment, During Obssrvation. Field sbservers doing case studies are faced with a Atlenina a5 fo the degree to which their field notes should be composed pf judgnent-suspended observations. According to the "code" ethnographers are said to follow, raw observations Should be eaphasized because they permit the observer and others to go over the data with alternative questions, potential interpretations, and different franes of reference. Tt 4s apparent however that the Judgnent-suspended mode of observation is itself frane of reference, inereasing the number of certain entries in the log, decressing others. A transformation from tngrmal” observation occurs. Readers are denied sone of the most direct vicarious experience, It may be said that they are reading a report of "laundered" data, data that no one sees directly. The{r normal style of observing, of course, is a nore’ Judgsental style. Davia Bohm made the point chat, for the purposes of science, perception and communica: ton should be-vas nearly as possible--one and the sane thing. This identity would, it de presuned, argue against judgnent-suspended observations, for the scientist, as the lay an, de more accustomed to interpretation-laden observations than interpretation-free observations.* : Selection of Ficld observers Each observer's report 1! clon in tg habitat. Te includes @ essentially = description of the behavior of science educa ‘of the context in hich seience education ie conceived. Tt ds conventionally " Gn the sense that it is for the aost part 2 shared perception--one that the research.r, site visitors end the participants recognized in commons It As “subjective” in that it waa the field observer who decided vhich issues vere pressing and vhich relevant to NSF needs. More agreenent, of course, was found on Ghat ie wag that was happening than on what wae worth further study. Ae the outset, we wanted to select field observers who had experience with both the objective and subjective responsibilities. “David Bohm, "Science as Perception-Comminicatic>," in The Structure of Scientific *Theuries, ed. F. 'Suppe (Urbana: University of Hiinots Press, 1974).ca ‘The {eld observers vere to be the main CSSE dats gatherers. They were to operate with @ great deal of freedom to discover those noues important to people at the alte. They vere to be observers who had desonstrated their ability to profuce insightful field studies and, {f possibie, already to have had sone fanf{liarity witn the ite. The selection of {teld observers was aade with the intent of capitalizing on the ube of experiencel,* highly competent researchers who would broaden the view and nininize the subordination of the perspective to any one theoretical or setholological view, The necd for inter -éiseiplin- ary purviews was argued by Soved:t# ‘The training of urban ethnographers requires a reach across disciplines and departaental politics that few universities now sees able to sccosno~ date. A well-trained student needs to combine the knowledge of a half dozen fields with the skills of che classical anthropologists and those Of the best Journalists and reforner~investigators (such as Beat "ice Webb, Henry Hayhew and Jack Londen). He pointed out that, students with backgrounds in Mnguisties, folklore, history, English, sociology and Anerican civilization as well a¢ anthropology have studied bars, schoolrooms, geriatric aursing centers, apartment buildings, play- grounds and the streete . .. to build up a portrait of contenporary Anerican life. However, according to Saved: se still Yenains to show how thie research can best ise used and inter preted by those who choose to use it~ We selected*#* field observers with backgrounds in the £4elds of anthropology, soct= ology, educational psychology and various sub-specializatione, individuals with the "half dozen’ fields" experience and training auggested by Szved, are not, to our knowledge, yet in supply. So our interdisciplinary and interuniversity netds were addressed by utilizing sany people with different skills and training and hopefully with a high regard, ineerest ‘and commitment to ptoduce an interdiaciplinary franework for the CSSE project: ATE was with gone dismay that ve firet realized that we were designing the study without Lending to the eupport-—finencially and experientially--of graduate studenta. Later we found {t possible, actually necessary, to enlist several co assist with the assiailation tind final report preparations. *AJohn F. Seved, “Anthropology Now Looks to the Cities for Field Teo 22 February 1976. MATE we had had complete freedoa to design this study ve would have sade observations fn pechaps six field sites for a year. Field observers of the talent ve wanted (and later, obtained) then would have cost us some $300,000 just for salarses, iucluding university overhead. With §250,000 available for all expenses and a RFP requirement for at leaat 10 sites, ve had to shorten the observation period. We budgeted about $100,000 for obsesver + and went out to gee.vhat chat would buy. The people we wanted jerage of ‘about $1250 per week, co:ting overhead. We picked out four ites (ALTE, FALL"RIVER, GREATER BOSTON, and BRT) an” scdgeted for 12 weeks there. Me budgeted for 4 weeks study at the resaining places. ith these funda and good luck we were able to get ali the longer observations and four of the shorter ones ataffed with the field researchers ve most vanted. The remaining tuo sites vere staffed from within the CSSE head~ ‘quarters Sean (by Denny and Woke). Even with chis large budget for field observer salaries these people were underpaid in that sost renained at the sites longer chan the winteun period and none vere paid for the Lengthy pervod of writiay after observations were conpleted.