p

F
,
A

p=, F=, A=

1atm

1,013 105
m n M,

N
m2

m= , n=moles , =

Boyle ( ) pV

p

T

Charles ( )

V

T

Gay-Lussac ( )

pV

T

pV nRT , pV

m
RT
RT , p
M
M

R 8,314

J
L atm
0,082
mol K
mol K

pV NkT

1 Nm2

,
3
V

1 2

2 1

m2 ,

3k 2

N= , =

k= Boltzmann= 1,38 1023

J
K

3
kT
2

3kT

3RT
M

W F x pA x p V

Q mc T ncM T nC T ,

c= ,
cM=C=
U

3
nR T
2

1 Q U W

pA VA pB VB

U 0 ,

W nRT ln

V
,
V

W 0,

pA pB

TA
TB

Qv nCv T ,

Qp nCp T ,
C
Q
p ,
U CV

QW

Q U nCv T

VA
V
B
TA
TB

W p V nR T ,

Q Cp

,
W
R

U nCv T

W
R

U CV

CV

1 QV

n T

Cp

1 Qp

n T

Cp CV R ,
CV

3
J
R 12, 47
,
2
mol K

Cp

5
J
R 20,78
2
mol K

Q 0,

Cp
CV

pV

W U

(W>0) (U<0)
(W<0) (U>0)



e

Q
W
1 c
Qh
Qh

2
Kelvin-Plank:
.
Clausius:

.
Carnot
A B : ,

B :
:

A :

Carnot

WB WA WB WA 0

e 1

Tc
Th

U kc

k c 9 109

q1q2
,
r

N m2
C2

F Eq,

V
,
d

F Eq Vq

m
m
dm

1 2
t t1
2 1

2d
,

2d
2d

y1

1 V q L2

2 d m 20
2

V qL
1
d m
0

2
0

F B q

Lorentz

m
Bq

2m
Bq

2m

Bq

V qL
d m 20

1 Wb 1 T m2

B A ,

( Faraday)
Lenz

N=

( Neumann)

q i t, i N

R t

qN

Q W

1
BL2
2

1
Br2
2

E B L

B22L2
t
R

B A ,

B A t
E NBA t
V t
V NBA

I
2
V
2

2
2f
T

V t

I t
R
R

 Joule

Q I2R t

p i i2R

2
R

p VI2 t

2
V
W
2
P
VI IR
T
R

E. M

= ,

i1
t

1 H Henry 1

Vs
A

M 0 A

N1
N 0 An1N2 ,
l1 2

0 ,

N1
N2

l1
=
E L

i
t

L =

N2 A
L 0
l

UB

1 2
Li
2