IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March

2013

Present Status of Solar Still: A Critical Review

*Bhavsinh Zala, **Kuldip Dodia, ***Hitesh N Panchal
*M.E. (Thermal Engineering) Scholar, Gandhinangar Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
**Asst. Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Gandhingar Institute of Technology, Gandhingar, Gujarat, India
***Asst. Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Gujarat Power Engineering & Research Institute, Mehsana, Gujarat, India

Abstract People can survive for day, weeks or

months without food, but cannot live for more
than a week without water. The body use water
for digestion, absorption, circulation, transporting
nutrients, building tissues, carrying away waste
and maintaining body temperature. The average
adult consumes about 2.5 to 3 litters of water per
day to drink. Solar still is a device, which can
produce water more than 2.5 Liter to 3 Liter of
water by improvement in it. Hence, this review
paper shows researches done by many scientists
on solar still to enhance productivity.

1. INTRODUCTION
Adequate quality and reliability of drinking water
supply is fundamentally needed of all people. Without
potable or fresh water, there is no human life.
Industries and agricultural need fresh water without
which they cannot function or thrive. Water is
therefore, the key to mans prosperity; it is intimately
associated with the evolution of civilization from
rivers, lakes and ponds in plenty are becoming scarce
because of industrialization and population explosion.

2. SOLAR DISTILLATION
2.1. About Distillation
The solar distillation method is an easy, small-scale
and cost effective technique for providing safe water
at homes or in small communities. Distillation is one
of many processes that can be used for water
purification. This requires an energy input as heat and
the solar radiation can be the source of energy. In this
process, water is evaporated, thus, separating water
vapor from dissolved matter. The vapors get
condensed as pure water. A conceptual diagram
showing the process of solar still is shown in Figure
1. Most of the conventional water distillation plants
discussed earlier are energy-intensive and require
scarce electric power or fossil fuel for operation. But
solar energy, despite being much lower grade energy,
is ideally suited. The technology involved in
distillation of saline or brackish water using solar

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energy is relatively simple and semiskilled/unskilled

operators can carry out its operation and
maintenance.

Fig. 1. Conceptual diagram explaining the process

of solar distillation.
Thus, for a small scale decentralized production of
potable water by using the brackish or saline water of
salinity level < 10,000 ppm or mg/l (10 ppm = 10
mg/l = 0.01 g/l). Solar distillation which is capable of
removing bacteria also, is best suited.Nature itself
provides most of the required fresh water, through a
similar hydrological cycle in which a very large-scale
process of solar distillation produces fresh water
naturally. The essential features of the hydrological
cycle can be summarized as the production of vapors
above the surface of the liquids, followed by
transport of vapors by winds, then cooling of airvapor mixture, condensation and precipitation. This
natural process is copied on a small scale in basintype solar stills shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2. Basin-type single slope passive solar still.

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

2.2. Basic Principle of double slope solar still

A solar still operates using the basic principles of
evaporation and condensation. The impure saline
feed water goes into the solar still and the sun's rays
penetrate a glass surface causing the water to heat up
through the greenhouse effect and, consequently,
evaporate. When the water evaporates inside the solar
still, it leaves all contaminants and microbes behind
in the basin. The evaporated and now purified water
condenses on the underside of the glass and runs into
a collection trough and then into an enclosed
container. In this method the salts and microbes that
were present in the original feed water to the solar
still, are left behind. Additional water fed into the
solar still flushes out concentrated waste from the
basin of solar still to avoid excessive salt deposition
in the basin. A solar still effectively eliminates all
water-borne pathogens, salts and heavy metals that
other huge methods cannot do. Solar still
technologies bring immediate benefits to users by
reducing health problems associated with waterborne diseases. For solar still users, there is also a
sense of satisfaction in having their own trusted and
easy to use water treatment plant on-site at home. As
a thumb rule, solar still production is a function of
solar energy (insolation) and ambient temperature.
Figure 3 diagrammatically shows the principal
energy exchange mechanisms in a basin-type double
slope solar still. Solar radiation is absorbed on the
black bottom of the basin generally known as basin
liner. However, there are several reflection losses
from the cover surfaces, the water surface, and the
bottom itself. There may also be some absorption of
solar energy in the cover of the solar still.

conduction and convection. A small fraction of the

absorbed heat may be lost by conduction into the
ground. At the water surface, energy is transferred to
the cover by three mechanisms. The principal means
is by vaporization of water from the liquid surface.
By diffusion and convection, the vapor is transferred
to the cover, where its latent heat is liberated by
condensation. Some heat is also transferred to the
cover by free convection of the air in the distiller.
Thirdly, heat is radiated from the water surface to the
condensing cover. Figure 4 shows a single slope
basin-type solar still.

Fig. 4. Single basin- Single slope solar still.

2.4. Progress of solar still for enhancement of
distillate output
2.4.1

Free Surface Area of Water

The evaporation rate of the water in the solar still is

directly proportional to the exposure area of the
water. Thus the productivity of the solar still
increases with the free surface area of the water in the
basin. To increase the free surface area of the water,
sponges are used at the basin water.

Fig. 3. Double slope Basin type solar still with

energy flow.
2.3. Working Principle of single slope solar still
Energy absorbed on the basin bottom (basin liner) is
then largely transferred to the saline water by

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Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the solar still with

sponge cubes.

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

Bassam et al. (2003) used sponges to increase the

free surface area of the water in the solar still as
shown in Fig. 5. Due to capillary action, water is
sucked by the sponges. The sponge cubes increase
the surface area over which water evaporation occurs.
The use of sponge cubes in the basin water resulted
in a significant improvement in still production.
Experiments were carried out with various sizes of
the sponge cubes, sponge to basin water volume ratio
and water depth. The optimal combination was:
sponge cubes with 6 cm sides, 20% sponge to basin
water volume ratio and 7 cm basin water depth. It
was found that the increase in distillate production of
the still ranged from 18% to 273% com- pared to an
identical still without sponge cubes under the same
conditions. Velmurugan et al. (2008, 2009) found
that the productivity of the solar still increased by
15.3%, when the sponges are used in single basin
solar still and stepped solar still integrated with fin.
2.4.2 WaterGlass Cover Temperature Difference
The yield of a solar still mainly depends on the
difference between water and glass cover
temperatures. The temperature difference between
water and glass are acting as a driving force of the
distillation process. Regenerative solar still, Yousef
et al. (2004), solar still with double glasses, Mink et
al. (1998) and triple-basin solar still were used to
increase the temperature difference between glass and
the water.

vapor condensing on the glass of the first effect to

produce more fresh water in the second effect. The
performance of the regenerative solar still is
evaluated by comparison with the performance of the
conventional still under the same weather conditions.
The results show that the productivity of the
regenerative still is 20% higher compared to the
conventional still.
2.4.2.2 Triple-Basin Solar Still
A triple-basin solar still was fabricated by El-Sebaii
(2005). It consists of three basins namely, lower
basin, middle basin and upper basin. Water was made
available in all three basins. It was concluded that the
productivity of the lower basin is higher than the
productivities of the middle and upper basins during
the day time, and this behavior is reversed overnight.
Further, the total daily productivity of the system is
maximum for the least water masses in the lower and
middle basins without dry spots over the base of the
each effect.
2.4.3

Area of The Absorber Plate

2.4.2.1 Regenerative Solar Still with Double Glass

Fig. 7. Solar still integrated with fins.

Fig. 6. Schematics of the regenerative solar still.

The regenerative solar still consists of two basins,
with provision for cooling water to flow in and out of
the second effect as shown in Fig. 6 This
arrangement has the advantages of increasing the
temperature difference between water and glass cover
in the first effect and utilizes the latent heat of water

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Productivity of the solar still increases with increase

in absorber area. Fins are integrated with solar still to
increase the absorber plate area. Five rectangular
solid fins Velmurugan et al. (2008) are integrated at
the basin of the solar still as shown in Fig. 7. The
area of the basin increases considerably.
Experimental results showed that the average daily
production of distilled water in solar still increases by
30%, when fins are integrated in basin of the solar
still.
2.4.4

Inlet Temperature of Water

The evaporation rate of saline water increases with

the temperature of the saline water. Flat plate
collector, storage tank, mini solar pond, multi-source,

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

multi-use environment, greenhouse and, multisource, multi-use environment heat pipe are
integrated with the solar still to increase the
temperature of the solar still water. Higher energy
may be required to increase the temperature of the
entire solar still water. The evaporation rate is
proportional with the temperature of the free surface
area of the water only. So, baffle suspended absorber
plates are used to increase the free surface area of the
water.

factors influencing the productivity of a multipleeffect diffusion-type solar still coupled with a flat
plate collector and the effect of inclination of external
flat plate collector of basin type still in winter were
studied by Tanaka and Nakatake (2005, 2007)

2.4.4.1 Flat Plate Collector

Fig. 10. Solar still coupled with tank and collector.

Fig. 8. Solar still coupled with collector.

A single-stage basin-type solar still, a storage tank

and a conventional flat-plate collector were
connected together in order to study the effect of
augmentation on the still as shown in Fig. 10. The
still inlet was connected to a locally made, fin-type
collector such that its outlet was fed to the still basin
instead of the common storage tank. It was found that
the mass of distilled water production using
augmentation was increased by 231% in the case of
tap water as feed and by 52% in the case of salt water
as a feed.
2.4.4.2 Storage Tank

Fig. 9. Solar still coupled with flat plate collector.

A flat plate collector is integrated by Voropoulos et
al. (2001) with the solar still, to increase the
temperature of the basin water. The preheated water
from the solar collector was circulated by a tube
through the basin water. The tube is acting as a heat
exchanger and exchanging heat from the preheated
water to the basin water as shown in Fig. 8. Thus the
basin water gets heated. In an another arrangement,
as shown in Fig. 9, the basin water is directly
circulated through the flat plate collector. The various

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Fig. 11. Solar still coupled with a hot water

storage tank.
An experimental evaluation of the behavior of a solar
still is presented by Voropoulos et al. (2003) in which
a thermal storage tank with hot water is integrated as
shown in Fig. 11. The integration of the storage tank
is done in such a way that a compact solar distillation
system is formed. This design leads to higher distilled

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

water output due to higher basin water temperatures

as a result hot storage tank water.
2.4.4.3 Mini Solar Pond

Fig. 12. Solar still integrated with a mini solar

pond.
Velmurugan et al. (2007, 2008) integrated a mini
solar pond with single basin solar still as shown in
Fig. 12. The mini solar pond supplied hot water to the
solar still. Thus evaporation rate of the saline water in
the solar still was augmented. The productivity of the
solar still increases by 27.6% than the conventional
solar still.
2.4.4.4 Baffle Suspended Absorber

Fig. 13. Solar still with baffle suspended absorber.

As shown in Fig. 13, a single slope single basin solar
still with baffle suspended absorber El-Sebaii et al.
(2000) was designed and fabricated, to decrease the
preheating time of the basin water. The effect of vent
area and water depth of upper and lower water
column on the daily productivity of the solar still was
studied. It was found that, the daily productivity of
the solar still is about 20% higher than that of
conventional solar still when it is used with baffle
suspended absorber.

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2.4.4.5 Floating Perforated Plate

Productivity of the solar still increases with the
saturation pressure of the water. The saturation
pressure is determined by the temperature of the
basin water. To increase temperature of the free
surface area of the water, initially porous wick
material was used. During the long run of
experiments, the porous wick material would be
clogged by accumulated salt. Therefore, floating
perforated plates are used to maintain film
evaporation the still. The effect of using floating
perforated black plate on the productivity process is
investigated theoretically and experimentally at
different brine depth under the same operating
condition. It was found that using floating perforated
aluminum plate in the solar still increase the solar
still productivity by 15% for a brine depth of 3 cm
and 40% for a brine depth of 6 cm.
2.4.5

Glass Angle

Singh and Tiwari (2004) found that the annual yield

of the solar still was maximum when the condensing
glass cover inclination is equal to the latitude of the
place.
2.4.6

Depth of Water

It has been reported that the yield is maximum for the

least water depth. While maintaining minimum depth
in the solar still, dry spot may occur. So, it is very
difficult to maintain minimum depth in the solar still.
Wick type solar stills, a plastic water purifier and
stepped solar still were developed. The effect of
various depth of water in the solar still is verified by
Khalifa et al. (1990) Extreme operating condition in
shallow solar stills was studied by Porta et al. (1997).
Murugavel et al.
(2007, 2010) studied an
experimental study on single basin double slope
simulation solar still with thin layer of water in the
basin.
2.4.6.1 Wick Type

Fig. 14. Wick type solar still.

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

Fig. 15. Multi-wick type solar still.

Minasian and Al-Karaghouli (1995) connected a
wick type solar still with a conventional basin-type
solar still. The hot waste brine leaving the wick-type
would feed the basin type in order to extract the
energy contained in the lost hot drainage water and
thus increase the productivity of the wick-type solar
still. Fig. 15 shows the schematic diagram of the
experimental set-up. Two types of solar stills were
investigated. These were: a conventional basin type
and wick-basin type solar still. The total yearly
amounts of distilled water indicate that the wickbasin type could produce 85% more than the basin
type and 43% more than the wick type solar still. In
multi-wick solar still, jute cloths with different
lengths are used. One end of a wet jute cloth pieces
(porous fiber) are dipped into a water reservoir while
the other ends are spread over the absorber basin as
shown in Fig 15. The jute cloth pieces are blackened
and placed one upon the other, separated by
polythene sheets. Here the wet piece of jute cloth
forms the water surface in the still. It could attain a
higher temperature due to its negligible heat capacity.
This leads to rapid evaporation of water. Surfaces
used for evaporation and condensation phenomena
play important roles in the performance of basin type
solar still.

As shown in Fig. 16, a concave wick surface by

Kabeel AE (2009) was used for evaporation, whereas
four sides of a pyramid shaped still were used for
condensation. Use of jute wick increased the amount
of absorbed solar radiation and enhanced the
evaporation surface area. A concave shaped wick
surface increases the evaporation area due to the
capillary effect. Results show that average distillate
productivity in day time was 4.1 l/m2 and a
maximum instantaneous system efficiency of 45%
and average daily efficiency of 30% were recorded.
The maximum hourly yield was 0.5 l/hm2 after solar
noon. An estimated cost of 1 l of distillate was
0.065$ for the presented solar still.
2.4.6.2 Plastic Solar Water Purifier
Ward (2003) designed a solar water purifier, which
consists of a plastic sheet and a glass window. The
author formed the plastic into an array of
interconnected square cells which contain impure
water. In their experimental set-up there were no
filters, no electronics, no moving parts and cleaning
was also rarely needed. It was light weight, cheap
strong, durable and cheap. It can be used in any
sunny location on earth.
2.4.6.3 Stepped Solar Still

Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of a stepped solar

still.

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of concave wick solar

still.

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While maintaining minimum depth in the solar still

dry spots are formed. So, maintaining minimum
depth in the solar still is very difficult. To overcome
this problem, a solar still with stepped structured
absorber plate was designed and fabricated by
Velmurugan et al. (2009, 2008) As shown in Fig. 17,
there are 50 trays in the solar still. The sizes of the
trays are 99mm99mm cross-section with different
depth. Experiments were carried out with fins and

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

sponges in the stepped solar still to enhance its

productivity.
2.4.7

Other Methods

Reflectors, condenser, vacuum technology, combined

stills, asphalt basin liner and sprinkler and sun
tracking systems are used to maximize the yield of
the solar still. Also energy storage materials like
black rubber, gravel and metallic wiry sponges are
used for enhancing the productivity of the solar still.
The effect of using different designs of solar stills on
water distillation was studied by Al-Hayek and
Badran (2004).

An external condenser Tiwari et al. (2003) is attached

with a solar still as shown in Fig. 19 to enhance the
productivity of the solar still. The condensation
occurs due to the temperature difference not only on
the glass surface but also on the four sidewalls, which
can be cooled by water circulation through tubes
attached on the wall surface for efficiency
enhancement. Such an arrangement Khalifa et al.
(1999)is made to enhance the productivity of the
solar still as shown in Fig. 20.

2.4.7.1 Reflectors

Fig. 20. Solar still with internal condenser.

Tanaka and Nakatake (2006) proposed a geometrical

method to calculate the solar radiation reflected by
the internal and external reflectors and then absorbed
on the basin liner. The schematic diagram for the set
is shown in Fig. 18. They found that the internal and
external reflectors remarkably increase the distillate
productivity by 48%.

The maximum daily production of the solar still was

about 1.4 l/m2/day, and its efficiency was about 30%
with corresponding average solar insolation of 28
MJ/day. The condensate water quality was analysed
and was found to be comparable with water quality
standards and against rainwater and mineral water.
Increased cooling on the wall surface was observed
enhancing the condensation process. To comprise in
a nutshell, conclusions can be drawn that the
utilization of solar energy in purifying water offers a
good recommendation not only on the environmental
aspect but also on the sanitation. Per- formance study
on solar still with enhanced condensation was studied
by Kumar and Bai (2008).

2.4.7.2 Condenser

2.4.7.3 Energy Storing Materials

Fig. 18. Solar still with reflectors.

To store the thermal energy in solar still, some

energy storing materials are used. Black rubber,
gravel, metallic wiry sponges and surfactant additives
are some of the energy storing materials used in solar
still.
2.4.7.3.1 Black rubber

Fig. 19. Solar still with external condenser.

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The influence of the variation of the rubber sheet

thickness on the still productivity is investigated by
Nafey et al. (2001). The experimental results showed
that black rubber of 10mm thick improves the
productivity by 20% at the conditions of 60 l/m2
brine volume and 15o glass cover angle.

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

2.4.7.3.2 Gravel

(SLS) in relatively small dosages of concentration

with a small size unit of solar water distillation
process is investigated.
2.4.7.4 Vacuum Technology

Fig. 21. Solar still with gravel.

Nafey et al. (2001) studied the influence of black
gravel on the productivity of the solar still. The solar
still with gravel is as shown in Fig. 21. Using black
gravel of 2030mm size improves the productivity by
19% at the condition of 20 l/m2 brine volume and 15
glass cover angle. Also Velmurugan et al. (2001)
added pebbles in the solar still and found that the
productivity increased by 20% than the conventional
solar still.

The effect of vacuum inside the still is to avoid any

heat transfer due to convection in the still. The heat
loss from the water in an insulated still is due to
evaporation and radiation only. In the presence of
vacuum, the effect of the non-condensable gas, which
reduces the rate of condensation, was also avoided.
Hussaini and Smith (1995) studied the effect of
applying vacuum inside the solar still. It was found
that the solar stills water productivity increased by
100% when vacuum was applied.
2.4.7.5 Combined Stills

2.4.7.3.3 Metallic Wiry Sponges

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of combined stills.

Fig. 22. Solar still with metallic wiry sponges.
Different types of absorbing materials like metallic
wiry sponges (coated and uncoated) and black
volcanic rocks are used to study their effect on the
yield of solar stills as shown in Fig. 22. The results
showed that the uncoated sponge has the highest
water collection during day time, followed by the
black rocks and then coated metallic wiry sponges.
On the other hand, the overall average gain in the
collected distilled water taking into the consideration
the overnight water collections were 28%, 43% and
60% for coated and uncoated metallic wiry sponges
and black rocks, respectively.
2.4.7.3.4 Surfactant Additives
The presence of surfactant additives in water is found
to enhance the boiling heat transfer significantly. The
effect of using a surfactant as sodium lauryl sulfate

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Velmurugan et al. (2009) integrated amini solar pond,

a stepped solar still and a single basin solar still as
shown in Fig. 23. They were used this experimental
set-up for effluent desalination process. Initially,
water from the effluent settling tank is allowed to
pass through the mini solar pond. While passing
through the mini solar pond, it is getting heated. The
hot effluent water enters into stepped solar still and
the distilled water is produced. The excess water
from the stepped solar still enters into the single basin
solar still. Thus, distilled water is produced in both
single basin solar still and stepped solar still.

3. SUMMARY
The orientation of glass cover is very important for
increase in productivity. Hence, north latitude places
south facing glass cover should be used and south

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

latitude places north facing glass cover should be

used.
Lower latitude places double slope solar still and
higher latitude places single slope solar still should
be used.
Lower thickness glass cover is preferred compared
with higher thickness glass cover due to its higher
absorptions.
Glass is most suitable material for the solar still
cover because of higher transmittance and higher
thermal conductivity.
Day time as well as night time productivity of solar
still is greatly depends on the heat capacity and water
capacity inside the basin.
To improve the higher absorption of the water,
black die is most preferable compared with another
dies.
For higher radiation intensity places deep basin
solar still should be prefer for nocturnal production
and lower radiation intensity places shallow basin
solar still should be prefer.
Rubber, gravel, saw dust and sponge cubes are good
material to store the solar energy and increase the
productivity.

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