\& | naw demonstrate the frame fof the System of the Weld SIR SAAC NEWTON THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS ‘The analytic geometry of three-dimensional space is important not only in its own, right, but also because it will be needed in the next chapter to study the calculus of Functions of several variables. We use vectors in our treatment of three-dimensional ie geometry because vectors give particularly simple descriptions of lines, planes, and curves in space. We also see that vector functions can be used to describe the mo- tion of objects through space. In particular, we use them to derive Kepler's laws of Planetary motion, ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS ra ‘To locate point in a plane, two numbers are necessary. We know that any point in the Plane ean be represented as an ordered pair (a,b) of real numbers, where ais the x-co- ‘ordinate and b is the y-coordinate. For this reason, a plane is called two-dimensional ‘To locate point in space, three nunrbers are required, We represent any point in space by an ordered triple (a,b,c) of real numbers. In order to represent points in space, we first choose a fixed point 0 (the origin) and three directed lines through O that are perpendicular to each other, called the eoordi- nate axes and labeled the x-axis, y-axis, and 2-axis. Usually we think of the x- and y= axes as being horizontal and the 2-axis as being vertical, andl we draw the orientation of the axes as in Figute 1 a ra FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 Coordinate axes ‘Right-hand rote In looking at Figure 2 you can think of the y- and =-axes as Iying in the plane of the paper and the x-axis as coming out ofthe paper toward you. The direction of the =-axis is determined by the right-hand rule: If you curl the fingers of your right hand 652; 2 CENGAGE : aroun the =n nthe divetion of 90° Sanco Gi od epi o svaxist0 the positive y-axis, then your thumb points in the positive Pith oft ‘The three coordinate axes determine the three coordinate planes illustrated in Figure 3a). The sy-plane is the plane that contains the x and y-axes: the ye-plane eon- tains the y= and z-axes: the x=plane contains the x andl =-axes. These three coordinate planes divide space into eight parts called octants. The first getant, in the fone- round, is determined by the positive axes, Because many people have some difficulty visualizing diagrams of three-dimen- PP sional figures, you may find it helpful to do the following {see Figure 3(b). Look at any bottom corner of a toom and call the corner the origin. The wall on your left is in the (2) Coordinate planes -x=plane, the wall on your right isin the y=-plane, and the floor is in the xy-plane. The "axis runs along the intersection of the floor and the left wall. The y-axis runs along the intersetion ofthe floor and the right wall. The =axis runs up from the floor to- ‘ward the ceiling along the intersection of the two walls. You are situated in the first ‘cant, and you ean now imagine seven other rooms situated inthe other seven octants (thee on the same floor and four on the floor below), all conaected by the common corner point 0. Now if P is any point in space, let « be the directed) distance from the y=-plane to , lt be the distance from the #2-plane to P, and let ¢ be the distance from the x)= plane to P. We represent the point P by the ordered triple (a,,e) of real numbers and ‘we calla, b, and c the coordinates of P; a isthe x-coondinate, bis the y-coondinate, And c is the =-coondinate. Thus, to locate the point (a,b,c) we can start at the origin O and move a units along the x-axis, then b units parallel to the y-axis, and then ¢ units parallel to the =axis as in Figure 4 ‘The point P(a, b,c) determines a rectangular box as in Figure 5. 1f we drop a per= pendicular from P to the xy-plane, we get a point Q with coordinates (a, 0) called the projection of P on the xy-plane., Similarly, R(0, b,c) and S(a,0,c) are the projections cof Pon the yz-plane and x2-plane, respectively. ‘Ay numerical illustrations, the points (—4,3,—5) and (3.~2,—6) are plotted in Figue 6. ‘The Cartesian product RX RX R= {(x,952) | x,y, 2 R} is the set of all oF dered triples of real numbers and is denoted by B. We have given a one-to-one corre- spondence between points P in space and ordered triples (a,b,c) in Bt is called a FicuRe 2 rare) Pat) as) 1.00) FIGURES FiguRE 6658 3.a plane in FIGURE ® The plane 11 THREE-DMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS {three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system. Notice tad ipterinsfot copa nates, the first octant can be described as the set of points whose coordinates are all Positive In two-dimensional analy’ a curve in R?. tn three-dimens sents a surface in B geometry, the graph of an equation involving x and y is nalytic geometry, an equation in x,y, and = repre~ EXAMPLE 1 What surfaces in "are represented by the following equations? @r=3 y= SoLUTION (a) The equation = = 3 represents the set {9 3), which isthe set ofall points in 2 whose =-coordinate is 1. This is the horizontal plane that is parallel to the xyplane and three units above it as in Figure Ta). (yy 5.4 plane in in in (b) The equation y = 5 represents the set of all points in B whese y-coordinate is 5 ‘This isthe vertical plane that is parallel to the x=-plane and five units to the right of it as in Figure 7(b). . NOTE: When an equation is given, it must be understood from the context whether it represents a curve in R or a surface in R, In Example I, y = S represents a plane in RR, but of course y = 5 can also represent a line in Rif we are dealing with two «dimensional analytic geometry. See Figure %(b) and (c). In genera, If € Is 4 constant, hen x= & represents a plane paraet to the y=-plane, y= Kis plane parallel to the x=-plane, and = ~ k isa plane parallel to the xy-plane In Figure 5, the faces of the rectangular box are formed by the three coordinate planes 0 (the y=-plane), y = 0 (the x=plane), and z= 0 (the xy-plane), and the planes ay = b, and = EXAMPLE 2 Describe and sketch the surface in B represented by the equation SOLUTION The equation represents the set ofall points in BS whose and y-coordinates are equal, that is, {x42} |x © B,= & BW. This isa vertical plane that intersects the xy-plane in the lie y = x2 = 0. The portion ofthis plane that lis inthe fist oetant is sketched in Figure 8 . ‘The familiar formula for the distance between two points in & plane is easily ex- tended to the following three-dimensional formulawmommnemnnng” 's CENGAGE DISTANCE FORMULA IN THREE DIMENSIONS TH between the points Pi(x),y).21) and Pylx>,y.20) Is [P= Vie m P+ Or PGP ite ver- 1) and D PROOF Construct a rectangularbox as in Figure 9, where P, and P: are opp tices and the faces of the box are parallel to the coordinate planes. IF AU. 1.2 Blx.ys.2\) are the vertices of the box indicated in the figure, then Pasasd [Pal = [a2 ~ ai] |B) yom [Bes| Because triangles P; BP, and P, ABare both right-angled, two applications ofthe Pythag~ ‘orean Theorem give [PAP = [ABE + [BAP and [P.Bl = [RAL + [ABP Combining these equations, we gst riaune 8 : [PP = [RAP + [ABP + [APP [ema + ly Pt lem AP = (a: =) # (= + = 2)" ‘Therefore [PP = V0e— nF FP Fe a a EXAMPLE 3 ‘The distance from the point P(2,—1,7) to the point Q{1, —3.8) is \Po| = VO=2P #3 PFO -ViFaea os . 5 EXAMPLE 4 Find an equation of a sphere with radius r and center C(h,&, 1) Pis.s2) SOLUTION By definition, a sphere is the set of all points P(x, 2) whose distance from C is r Gee Figure 10). Thus, P is on the sphere if and only if | PC| = ‘Squaring both sides, we have | PC = r* or (ew Ry EE ‘This result is worth remembering: EQUATION OF A SPHERE An equation of a sphere with center C(, 1) and FIGURE 10 radius ris (om t-te =r In particular ifthe center is the origin O, then an equation ofthe sphere is656 11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS 46) EXAMPLES Show that x? + y? +2? + 484 6y + ‘of a sphere, and find its center and radius ig the datos SOLUTION. Ween rewrite the given equation in the form of an equation ofa sphere if we complete squares: (Har 4) OT Gy FOF HED HEEFT (+2 ey 3F ‘Comparing this equation with the standarel form, we see that itis the equation of a ‘sphere with center (—2,3,—1) and midius y® = 2 y2. . EXERCISES 11.1 1-4 m Draw a wetangular box that has P and Q as opposite vertices and has its faces parallel to the coondinate planes. ‘Then find (a) the coordinates of the other six vertices ofthe hox and (b) the length of the diagonal ofthe bax. 1. P00.0.0), 02.3.5) 2 POO.0.0), Q-4,-1.2) 3. PUD 8.4.5) 4. P30), Q11.6.-4) 5-8 m Find the legis of the sides ofthe triangle ABC and determine whether the triangle is isosceles, right triangle, both, neither 5.42.10), B34), C1543) 6A... 8B.32), CUL44) 7.A-2.6.0), BS.4.-3), (2,-6.4) 8.AG,—4.0, BIS, 3,0), (6,-7.4) 9-10 & Determine whether the given points are collineas, 9. P23), (0.3.7) RBS) 10. K(O.3.—4), L(L.2,-2), MB,0.1) {1514 Find the equation of the sphere with center € and radius 7 11.60.10, r= 13. 0-6-1, 7 RCH, VF 14. CU.2,-3, 15-20 m Show that the given equation represents a sphere, and find is center and radius 42s + By = Or + Ay + 1 were t 2s wees wade ye ba + ay weet wet te Eb He 0. where 21, Prove that the midpoint ofthe line segment from Pyle 8.21110 Pats Yo) is (opeage 22, Find an equation of a phere if one ofits diameters has endpains (2,1,4) and (43,10) 24, Find an equation of the sphere that has center 25, Find equations of the spheres with ceater (2,~ touch 4) the xsplane, (b) the y=plane, () the 6) that plane 26, Consiler the points P such that the distance from P to A(-15,3) is tive the distance from P to B16, 2,2), ‘Show that the set ofall such points isa sphere, and find its enter and rads, 27, Find an equation ofthe sot ofall points equidistant from, the points A(I, 5,3) and B(6,2,~2). Describe the set 28-42 w Describe in wonls the region of Represented by the ‘equation or inequality mr=0 2-9 30-8 ay? 250 vered wn 4 34 2. mised yee 2. @,y2=0 2, {44-47 « Write inequalities to describe the given region 44, The solid rectangular box in the first octant bounded by the phnes x =I, y = 2.and==3{1.2 VECTORS AND THE DOT PRODUCTIN THREBDIMENSIONS sn 45, The half-space consi seplane 46, The solid upper hemisphere ofthe sphere of radius 2 centered at the origin 47, The region consisting ofall points between (but not on) the spheres of radius rand R centered atthe origin, where rer {BE 48, Use a computer with hve-dimensional graphing software tw graphthe sphere with center the origina ats 1 {o graph the upper and lower emiaphstes (You may n separately.) 49, The figue shows a line Ly in space and a second ine Z:. Which isthe projection of Lon the xy-plne. (In other words, the points on Ls are directly beneath, or above, the {a) Find the coordinates of the point P. ing of all points tothe let of the (6) Locate on the diagram the points A,B, and C, where 50, Find the volume of the intersection of the spheres the line Ly imtersets the xy-plane the y=plane, and the Koby tad 2y bdr + $= Oand spline, respectively. Rey trad, FIGURE 1 position Nectar of P Plata) Aol o Butanytanstay) FiguRE 2 Representations of a= (25.45) VECTORS AND THE DOT PRODUCT IN THREE DIMENSIONS In Section 1.1 we defined the idea of a two-dimensional vector. In this section we ex tend this concept to three dimensions. Geometrically, a three-dimensional vector can be considered as an arrow with both 4 length and a direction, An arrow is a directed line segment with a starting point and an ending point. Algebraically, a three-dimensional vector is an ordered triple of ‘numbers (1) DEFINITION A three-dimi (ay, 42,43) of real numbers. The numbers a, components of a, sional veetor is an ordered triple ind a, are called the For example, the vector a — (1.3.2) is the vector with components 1, 3, and 2. 1f the starting point of this vector is he origin (0,0,0), then the vector a = (13,2) is the arrow that stretches from the origin t0 the point (1.3.2), as shown in Figure | ‘The starting point of a vector does not have 10 be the origin, If the vector as) Starts at the point A(x,¥.2), then this vector can be identified as the directed Line segment from A(x, ),2) t0 the point B(x + dy. + day + as), a illus trated in Figure 2. This line segment is called a representation of the vector a. A par ticular representation of a is the directed line segment OP fram the origin O to the point Pa -as.as). In this ease (a,,a3,a)) is called the position veetor of the point Play, ds,as) (see Figure 2) For example. the position vectar ofthe point (1.3.2) isthe vector (1.3.2). which is viewed as the directed line segment from (0,0,0) to the point (13,2). If the starting point of the vector a = (1,3,2)is (=1,2,4), then this veetor is the directed line seg: 4) 10 (0.5.6) - Fa = (ay,dac:) i a vector that has the representation AB, where the initial point is A(x,,y),2)) and the terminal point is B(x). ,29) then we must have11_THAEE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS nyt a= 3 yt as = ys and 2) + as =F and 99 a) E and @ ‘Thus, we have the following @)_ Given the points A(x. y1.2). and Bossy tation AB is (ey aye EXAMPLE 1 Find the vector represented by’ the directed line segment with initial point A(2, ~3,4) and terminal point B(~2.1, 0). SOLUTION. By Q), the vector corresponding 0 Al is a= (2-21 “The magnitude of length of the vector vis the length of any of is representations and is denoted by the symbol |v or [¥.By using the distance formula to compute the length ofa segment OP, we obtain the flowing: (8). The length of the three-dimensional veetor a = (ay,02.4) is lal = Val eal a ‘The only vector with length 0 is the zero vector 0 = (0,0,0). This vector is also the only vector with no specific ditection, According to the following definition, we add vectors by adding the corresponding ‘companents of two vectors (by, Basbs), then the (VECTOR ADDITION. If a ={a,.as,as) and vector a + b is defined by a+ b= (ayassas) + (yo bacbs (a, + Divas + Baas + bs) Vector addition is illustrated geometrically in Figure 3, As with vector addition in too dimensions, the vector a + b can be constructed either as the third side of a tri- angle with sides a and b (if b starts where a ends) or as the diaganal of the parallelo- ‘gram formed by the vectors @ and b (if @ and b have the same sterting point (a) Triangle Law (b)Paalelogra Law Scalar multiplication is defined as follows.Figure « Sealarmulpes of a Figure 5 112 VECTORS AND THE DOT PRODUCTIN THREBDIMENSIONS 8 (8) MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR® Ie'is'a Sedlar ahd = (aysas.as), then the vector ca is defined by elay.s.a3) = (ea ca, eas) As with the two-dimensional case scalar multiplication of the vector a by a sealar has the geometric effect of stretching the vector aby the factor | Ife > 0, then the vectors a and ca point in the same direction. If ¢ <0, then a and ca point in opposite ditions. Figure 4 illustrates @ vector multiplied by the sealars 2, $, —1, and —1.5 ‘Two vectors a and b ate said to be parallel if b = ca for some sealar c “The difference, a ~ b, of two vectors is defined as a-b=a+(-b) {ay,,a3) and b = (bj,Bs-bs), then ab (ay ~ bysas ~ boyas ~ Bs) As with the two-dimensional case, the vector a ~ b can be geometrically described by the directed line segment starting at the endpoint of b and ending at the endpoint of a illustrated in Figure 5, EXAMPLE2 Ifa = (4,0,3) ant b = (—2, a —b, 3b, and 2a + Sb, SOLUTION. 5), find |a| and the vectors a + b, VEREEF = 5-5 4.0.3) + (-2,1,5) = 2,041.3 #5)= 2,18) 4,0,3) — (21,5) (4 = (-2),0 = 1,3 = 5) = 6 -1,-2) 3b = 3(-2,1,5) = (3(—2).3(1) 5) = (6.3.15) 2a + Sb = 244,0,3) + X-2,1,5) (8.0.6) + (=10,5,25) = (2.5.31) . We denote by V; the set ofall two-dimensional vectors and by Vs the set ofall three- dimensional vectors. More generally, we will later need to coasider the set V, of all inedimensional vectors. An n-dimensional vector is an ordered a-tuple: Bm (ay, ay 5 a) Where a, dy ++ are real numbers that are called the components ofa. Addition and scalar multiplication are defined in terms of components just as for the cases m= 2 and n = 3, All the properties of vectors in Section 1.1 apply to vectors in Vj,11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS 60 ‘Thive vectors in Vy play a special role, Let (0.1.0) 0.0.1) k (1,0,0) 1nd k ate vectors that have length 1 and point in the directions ofthe positive Then x, yssand 2-axes (see Figure 6), Ta = (ay,4:,as), then we can write (41, 0,0) + (0.42.0) + (0,045) = a\(1,0,0) + a40,1,0) + (0.0.1) we a Figure 6 Standard basis veto in Vs © araitaj tak ‘Thus, any vector in Vi can be expressed in terms of the standard basis veetors jj. and k. For instance, —2j + 6k (1,-2.6) ‘See Figure 7 for the geometric interpretation of Equation 6 and compare with Figure 6. ‘A unit veetor is a vector whose length is 1. For instance, i, j.and k are all unit vec= tors. In general if a # 0, then the unit vector that has the saime direction as a is ” ue lal lal lal. Then w = ca and ¢ is a positive sealar, sou FiguRE 7 Jit aj tak In order to verity this, we let c has the same direction as a. Also jaar |ul = |eal= fella) = 2k. EXAMPLE 3 Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2 SOLUTION. The given veet = 2k|=vF 4 CR FC has length 0, by Equation 7, the unit vector with the same direction is, In Section 1.2 we defined the dot product for wo-dimensional vedtors. This defi THE DOT PRODUCT naturally generalizes to three dimensions as follows, (®) DEFINITION The dot product of two nonzero vectors a and b is the number a-b=|al|blcose where 0 is the angle between the vectors a and b, 0< 0S x. Ieither a orb 0. is O, then we define a= b112. VECTORS AND THE DOT PRODUCT IN THREE DIMENSIONS oo ‘The component formula for the dot product, given in Seetidm) Z-algo denbratizel three dimensions. Its derivation, based on the Law of Cosines, Gurries over to three dic ‘mensions without change (9) The dot product of a = (a,.4s.as) and B= (by,bo.s) is, as b= abi + abs + abs EXAMPLE 4 1.7.4) (6,2, =1)(6) + 72) + 4 G+ 2] — 3k) 2} W) = NO) + 22) + (3-1) =7 . [As a special ease, the length of the vector a = (a, 4s.a) ean be computed by the component formula for the dot product: lal = Val ¥ aia = vara Al the other properties of the dot product listed in Section 1.2 are valid in three dimensions ‘As an immediate consequence of the definition of the dot product, we lowing formula, which is used to compute the angle between two vectors the fol (10) IF is the angle between two nonzero vectors a and b, then ach cos = [alib) EXAMPLES Find the angle between the vectors a = (2,2, -I) and b = (3,~3,2) SOLUTION Since lal=v P+ and |b) = V5° + (53) and since a b= 215) + 2-3) +O) =2 sve have, from (10), ab 2 ce Talib) ave So the angle between a and b is 8 = cos 46 (or 84°) 2 ae ‘Two nonzero vectors a and b are called perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between them is @ = 7/2. Then Definition 8 gives a> b= |al|b|cos(x/2)62 11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS DIRECTION ANGLES AND DIRECTION COSINES Figure 6 and conversely if a « b = 0, then cox@ = 0, $0. = 2/2. The And yeddr OfisleGnbid cred ta be perpendicular to all vectors, Therefore (11), Two vectors a and b are onthogonal if and only if a> b = 0, EXAMPLE 6 Show that 21+ 2) k is perpendicular to $i —4j + 2k. SOLUTION Since (24 + 25 — K)- (Si — 4 + 2k) = 215) + 21-4) + (-Q)=0 these weetors are perpendicular by (1). . The direction angles of a nonzero vector a are the angles a, B, and yin the interval [0.2] that a makes with the positive x, y-, and =-axes (see Figure 8) ‘The cosines of these direction angles, cosa, cos, and cos y, are called the diree= tion cosines of the vector a. Using (10) with b replaced by i, we obtain 12 - a jal (This can also be seen directly from Figure 8.) Similarly, we also have 03) cos = cosy = Tay, By squaring the expressions in Equations 12 and 13 and adding, we see that “9 cosa + cos'B + cosy We can also use Equations 12 and 13 10 write a = (ay,a3,4)) ~ (/a| cosa, |alcosB.|a| cosy) = |alfcosa, cos, cosy) Theretove os a ia] Geoxer cos p.cos7) \hich says that the direction cosines of a are the components of the unit vector in the ditection of EXAMPLE 7 Find the direction angles of the vector a = (1 SOLUTION Since Ja] = VP +27 +3 ). = V4, Equations 12 and 13 give{112_VECTORS AND THE DOT PRODUCTIN THREBDIMENSIONS 3 PROJECTIONS Figure 9 shows representations PG and PR OF wo vectors ¢ ai wih fe fii pot P, If Sis the foot of the perpendicular fom Rto the lie containing PQ. then the ‘ctr with representation PS is called the vector projection of b onto a and is de ota by projsb. The scalar projection of b onto (als called the component of bbatong 9) fs detined to be the member | bcos whore # isthe angle between wae (sce Fiure 10). This is dented by comps b. Observe that itis neptive if =/2< 8 = Polos a rgb FiguRe 9 FIGURE 10 Vector projections Scalar projection ‘The equation a- b= |al/b|cos# = |a|(|b|cos4) shows that the dot product of a and b can be interpreted as the length of a times the scalar projection of b onto a. Since [pjcoso = 2-P 8p the component of b along a can be computed by taking the dot product of b with the tunit vector in the diteetion of a, To summarize: ac Scalar projection of b onto a: comp. 0) ah senemscinatvoion mit (8:8) 2 8 EXAMPLE 8 Find the scalar pmjection and vector projection of b 31). SOLUTION. Since [al = Vi=3PF IFT = VIA, the scalar projection of b onto 1,1,2) onto, b_ (2) +30) +12) fal via via comp, b ‘The vector projection is this scalar projection times the unit vector in the direction ofa sa 3 393 Pris Ty Tal — fa-( 352) .68 11_THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEONETRY AND VECTORS FIGURE 11 EXERCISES 11.2 One use of projections occurs in physics i ealcuating ork The pang Hy b constant force Fin moving an objet through a distanced is W = Fd. but this applies ‘only when the force is directed alone the line of motion of the alec. Suppose, how ‘ve, that the constant force isa vector F = PR pointing in some other direction as in Figure 11 I the force moves the oct from Pte Q. then the displacement vetor is D-= PO. As inthe two-dimensional ese, the work done by this free is defined 0 be the product of the component of the force along D and the distance moved: w [Fl cos0)|D| By Definition 8, we have (16) W=|F||D|coso = FD “Thus the work done by a constant force F is the dot product F + D, where D is the dis placement vector EXAMPLE A force is given by a vector F = 34 + 4] + Sk and moves a particle from the point P(2, 1,0) to the point O(4,6,2). Find the work done. SOLUTION The displacement vector is D = PQ = (2, work done is 2), so by Equation 16, the W=F-D=G.4,5)-(2 6+ 20+ = 36 2) 1 the anit of longth ix meters and the magnitude of the forse ix measured in newtons, then the work dane is 36 joules. . 1. Find the vestor represented hy the directed line segment ‘1-14 w Find a unit vector that has the same direction asthe ‘with initial point PC, 3,2) and terminal point 066, 5,0) aiven vector 2 Find the vector represented hy the directed line segment (2.4.3) (1-48) that starts a the point (2, 1,6) and ends a (4,1, —8) tied jal aj 0k aan 5-6 @ Find the sum of the vectors and illustrate geometrically 5. (1.0.0, 7-10 Find |al,a + ba ~ b, 2a, and 3a + 4, beans) b= 0.6.7) ba2i-j+ak bai-2j+7k (b) Show that i nae, Ba (2, 9a=itiek, to a= ind a vector a with representation giv directed line segment AB. Draw AB and the eq representation darting a the origin, 15. |a| 3.A10.3.1), 812.31) 15-20 © Find ab, 2 |b|= the angle herween a and b is 2/3 4A, =2.0) BUI, =2.3) 16. a6, |b] J, theangle between a and b is m4 masat-n b 6. (0.3.2) (1.0.3) Was C1-2-3), & asd + 3p—4k, aia; ek Warink bossa 2h Ha = (ay.4s.as), show that a ack=a, 22. (a) Stow thatt112_VECTORS AND THE DOT PRODUCT IN THREE DIENSIONS es 23-26 @ Find the angle between the vectors. (Fist find an {exact expression and then approximate to the nearest degree) 122), b 28 a= (6,02), b= 2a 27-28 w Find, correct tothe nearest degree, the three angles of the triangle with the given vertices, 27 A(L2.3), BIBS). CL=1.=2.0) 28. PIO.=1.8), O21.—3). RIS.4.2) 28-32 © Determine whether the piven vectors are orthogonal parallel, or ther 23. a= 28-3, b= (12.5) 30. a= (1.5.2), b= 4.2.-3) Basis j-k bai-j+2k 2 a= 214 6j— 4k, b= 31-9) + OK 33-34 w Find the values of x such tha the given vectors are orthogonal aR (2k Ga) 3A (=D, (16) 35, Find ust vector that is orthogonal to both 4+ j and ik 136. For what values oF ¢ isthe angle between the vectors (1.2.1) and (1,0,e) equal to 60°? 437-41 w Find the direction cosines and direction angles of the vector. (Give the direction angles correct 10 the nearest degree.) 37. (1.2.2) 38. (4,-1.2) 38. 81+ Hk 40. 344 5-4 44, (2,1.2.08) 42, Ife vector has divcetion angles ee — w/4 and m3, fa the third direction angle y 443-48 w Find the scalar and vector projgetons of B onto a 43.4 =02,9, b= G1) MH a-B-D, b= 23) 45. a= 4.20. b= LD 46. a= (1,-2.2), B= G34) aanitk b fea 2b- atk bot oj 49, Show tha the vector forth = b ~ projsb is orthogonal to a (Its called an orthogonal projection oh) so 5. 2 56. 7. 60, o For the vectofsin Exercise 44, fGebopt Wan Hdd hy drawing the vectors a,b, pj, B, and thy b. 164 = (3.0.1) find vector b such that comp, Suppose that a and b are nonzero sectors. (a) Under what circumstances is camp,b — compya? () Under what ciroumstanees is poi = projva? {A constant force with vector representation F = 101 + 18} — 6k moves an objct along a straight line from the point (2.3.0) to the point (4,9, 15). Find the work ‘done ifthe distance is measaed in meters andthe magni tude of the force is measured in newton Find the work done by a force of 20 Ib acting inthe direction NSO°W in moving an object 4 ft due west. [A voman exerts a horizontal force of 25 Ib on a rate as ‘he pushes iv up amp that is 10 f long and inlined at an angle of 20° above the horizontal. Find the work dane on the box. [A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along @ horizontal path by a constant force of 0 N. The handle of the wagon fs aan angle of 30° above the horizontal, How much work is donc? Ihr = (y.2) and ey = (a points (2) such tha [FF Ir = (x2). = larts.ay), and bh = (bj. bsb3), shove thatthe vector equation (F — a) (¢ — b} ~ O represents a sphere and find its center a radia, eseribe the set ofall Find the angle between 4 diagonal of @ cube and one ofits edges. Fi the angle between a diagonal of cube and a diagonal of one of is faces A molecule of methane, CH,, is structured withthe four hydrogen atoms at the vertices ofa regular tetrahedron and the carbon atom at the centeokl, The bond angle is the angle formed by the H—C—H combination: itis the tangle between the lines that join the carbon atom to two of the hydrogen atoms, Show thatthe bond angle is about 108.5". [Mints Take the vertices ofthe tetredron to be the points (10,0), (0, 1.0), (0.0, 1), and (1, 1.1) 38 shown in the figure, Then the centroid is (3.3111 THREE-DMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS 62. Suppose the three coordinate planes are all mirrored and a (as) fist ‘plane, as shown in the igure. Use the fact thatthe angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection to show ay is given by b= (ay, ~41,a3) Deduce that, after being flected by all three mutuilly perpendicular mirrors, the resulting ray is parallel tothe intial ray. (American space scientists used ple, together with laser beams and an array of comer mirrors on the Maon, to calculate very precisely the Tight ray given by the vector a the thatthe direction ofthe reflected this pein distance fram Earth to the Moon.) kes THE CROSS PRODUCT a TORQUE AND THE CROSS PRODUCT ue a FiguRE + [Piso Figure 2 ‘The eross product a X b of to vectors a and b, unlike the dot product, is a vector. For this reason itis also called the veetor product. We will see that a % b is useful in _geometry because itis perpendicular to both a and b. But we intreduce this product by looking ata situation where it arises in physics and engineering, If we tighten a bolt by applying a force to a wrench as in Figure 1, we produce a turn- ing effect called a rorque + that acts along the axis of the bolt to move it forward, The magnitude of the torque depends on rwo things |= The distance from the axis of the bolt to the point where the force is applied. This is |r|, the length of the position vector F. © The scalar component of the force F in the direction perpendicular to #. This, is the only component that can cause a rotation and, from Figure 2, we see that itis |F|sino where 0 isthe angle between the vectors F and F We define the magnitude of the torque vector to be the product of these two Factors: |r If m isa unit vector that points in the direction in which a right4hreaded bolt moves (see Figure 1), we define the torque to be the vector F||F [sino o a (le ||F|sind)n We denote this torque vector by 7 = FX F and we eall i product of r and F. The type of expression in Equation 1 occurs so frequently inthe study of fluid flow, Planetary motion, and other areas of physics and engineering. that we define andl study ‘the cross product of any pair of three-dimensional vectors a and b. the crass product or vector113. THE CROSS PRODUCT er DEFINITION If a and b are nonzero three-dimensioniat veetdrs, the ¢rass product of a and b is the vector ax b= (\a||b|sino)n where @ is the angle between a and b and n is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b and whose direction is given by the right-hand rule: 1 the Fingets of your right hand curl through the angle 6 from a to b, then your thumb points in the direction of n. (See Figure 3.) Figure 3 The right-han rule gives I cither a or bis 0, then we define a b to be 0. the direction of > Because a Xb is a scalar multiple of m, it has the same direction as mand so ‘4X b is orthogonal to both a and b, Notice that wo nonzero vectors a and b are parallel ifand only if the angle between them is 0 or 7. In either case, sin@ = Oand soa x b In particular any vector mis parallel to itself, so Tivo nonzero vectors @ and b are parallel if and only if aX b axano ‘This makes sense in the torque interpretation: If we pull or push the wrench in the direction of its handle (so F is parallel to r), we produce no tomue EXAMPLE 1 A boltis tightened by applying a 40-N force to 4 0.25-m wrench as shovn in Figure 4, Find the magaitude of the torque about the center of the bolt SOLUTION The magnitude of the torque vector is wen “on |r] = |e F] =[r]] Flsin 75%] = (0.25) (40) sin 75° = 10sin 75° = 9,66 Nm = 9:66 4 1 the bolts rightthreaded, then the torque vector itself ix Figure « = |r|n = 9.660 whore is a unit vector directed down into the page . EXAMPLE 2 Find) x jandj x i SOLUTION The standard basis weetors i and j both have length 1 and the angle between them is 7/2. By the right-hand rule, the unit vector perpendicular to and jis m= k (see Figure 5), so begs Lisisince2yk = But if we apply the right-hand rule to the vectors j and i (in that order), we see that hoje 1 paints downward and so n = ~k, Thus FicuRe s668 FIGURE 6 THE CROSS PRODUCT IN COMPONENT FORM 11 THHEE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS From Example 2 we see that Ixpeaxi so the cross product is not commutative, Similar reasoning shows that ixk= kxje kx io ixkk In general, the right-hand rule shows that bxas-axb Another algebraic law that fails for the eross product is the associative law for multi- plication; that i, in general, fa x b) x ¢# aX (bX 6) For instance, ifa = 1, b= i, ande = j, then Gxax whereas PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT Ifa, b, and ¢ are vectors and c is a scalar, then Lax 2. (ea) X b= fa X b) = a X (eb) Bax(bte)=axbraxe 4 (a+b) Xe=axesbxe bxa Property 2 is proved by applying the definition of a cross product to each of the three expressions, Properties 3 and 4 (the Vector Distributive Laws) are more difficult, to establish: we won't do so here. ‘A geometric interpretation of the length of the eross product can be seen by looking at Figure 6. Ifa and b are represented by directed fine segments with the sane initial Point, then they determine a paralldogram with base [al, altitude |b sind, an A= [al(|b| sind) ax bl “The length of the cross product aX b is equal to the area of the parallelo- gram determined by a and b. Suppose a and b are given in component form: araitajtak — d= bit bjt bk113._THE cnoss prooUCT 0 We can express aX b in component form by using the Vector Dideibutied Hawshide gether with the results from Example 2: axh (ayt + aj + ask) x (yi + baj + Bk) = aid x E+ aid X J + absk xR + abi Xi + aabaj X § + aabrj Xe $F aybik X 1+ abik Xj + ak xk Note that, ixiao 0 Kxk=0 Sabi + abM—P + ab(-K) + abst + aybyj + as) (a:bs ~ asbi + (ayb, ~ abi + (aids ~ ab) @) Ha = (a,,a:.as) and b = (by then BX b= Carbs ~ ass, asd) ~ abs, aibs ~ aby) In order to make this expresion for a Xb easier to remember, we use the notation of determinants. A determinant of order 2 is defined by ab For example, = 214) - 1-6 = 4 st (Observe that each term on the right side of Equation 3 involves » number a, in the first ow of the determinant, and a, is multiplied by the second-order determinant obtained From the left side by deleting the row and column in which a, appears. Notice also the _minus sign in the second term. For example, so ifn sa] 3 34 542 “ 10 = 4) ~ 26 + 5) + (“012 ~ 0) = -38 If we now rewrite @) using second-order determinants and the standard basis vectrs i, j, and k, we see that the cross product of a= ai + asj + ask and d= bi + hj + kis o axb= ml!670 {1_TWREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS. In view of the similarity between Equations 3 and 4, we often fwite ik o axbe fa aa a) Although the first row of the symbalic determinant in Equation 5 consists of vectors, if we expand it as if it were an ordinary determinant using the rule in Equation 3, we ‘obtain Equation 4. The symbolic formula in Equation 5 is probably the easiest way of remembering and computing cross product EXAMPLE3 Ifa 4) and b = (2,7, —5), then = (O15 = 28) = (5 8G HT -OK=—4 + BPH K EXAMPLE 4 Find a vector perpeadicular to the plane that pases through the points P(1, 4,6), Q(~-2,5,~1),and RCL, ~1, 0). SOLUTION ‘The vector PO * FR is perpendicular to both PQ and PR and is therefore pespendicular to the plane rough P, Q. and R. We know from (2) in Section 112 that PO (-2 = Di (5 > Aj + (HL OK = ~31 + 5 7k PR + 1-1 = 4)j + (1 = 6) = ~55 ~ 5k ‘We compute the cross product of these vectors: iy ok roxp-|-3 1 7 0-3 5 =(-5 ~ 35)1— US — 0) § + US ~ OK = 404 — 155 + 15K So the vector (—40, ~15, 15) is perpendicular to the given plane. Any nonzero scalar ‘multiple of this vector, such as (—8,—3,3), would also work. . EXAMPLES Find the atea of the triangle with vertices P(I.4.6). O(~: and R(L,=1, 0). SOLUTION In Example 4 we computed that PQ X PR = (—40,—15,15). The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides PQ ane! PR Is the length of this cross product: |PO x PR ‘The area A of triangle POR is half the area of this parallelogram,TRIPLE PRODUCTS, Figure 7 113. THE CROSS PRODUCT on ‘The product a « (b X ¢) is called the sealar triple produet dhe vediors a B, nd & Its geometric significance can be seen by considering the parallelepiped determined by” the vectors a, b, and ¢ (Figure 7). The area of the base parallelogram is A = |b X ¢|. If @ is the angle between a and b Xe, then the height f of the parallelepiped is hs = || |eose | (We must use [eove| insted of cos in case > 2/2.) Thus, the vol ‘ume of the parallelepiped is v h bX e|laleosa| = la (b xe) ‘Therefore, we have proved the following: ‘The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a, b, and e is the ‘magnitude of their scalar triple product: ab x6)] Instead of thinking of the parallelepiped as having its base parallelogram deter: ‘mined by b and e, we can think oft with base parallelogram determined by a and b. In this way, we see that a-(b Xe) e-(a xb) But the dot product is commutative, so we ean write o a Suppose that a, b, and € ate given in component form ‘This shows that we can write the scalar triple product of a, b, und € as the determinant ‘whose rows are the components of these vectors: o a(bxe=]b, by by EXAMPLE 6 Use the scalar triple product to show that the vectors a = (1.4, ~7), b= (2,-1.4), and ¢ = (0,9, 18) are coplanar; that is, they lie in the same plane.on 11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS SOLUTION. We use Equation 7 10 compute their scalar triple fralyet ath Xe) La =p 4 09 4 ~|5 al 108) ~ 4136) ~ 7(-18) = 0 ‘Therefore, the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b, and ¢ is 0. This means that a, b, and € are coplanar . The product a * (be) is called the vector triple product of a,b. proof of the following formula for the vector triple product inde. The left as Exercise 28 @ aX (b Xe) = (a eb ~ (ae bye Formula 8 will be used to derive Kepler's First Law of planctary motion in See- tion 118, EXERCISES 11.3, 1. State whether each expression is meaningful. If not ‘explain why, If s0, state whether iti a vector or a scala, (a) a6) (ax bee fo) ax (x6) () fab) xe [e) fab) Kea) (1) fax Ife a) 2-3 w Find [wy] and determine whether w % ¥ is directed imo the page or out ofthe page 4. The figure shows a vector a in the xy-plane and a vector b inthe direaion of k, Their lengths sre || =2. (a) Find Jax bl, hand rule to decide whether the compo: nents of a bare postive, negative, or 0, 5. A bicycle pedal is pushed by a foot with a 60-N force as shown. The shaft ofthe pedal is I8 en long. Find the ‘magnitude of the torque about P ‘ ‘0113. THE CROSS PRODUCT 6, Find the magnitude ofthe torque about if a 36th force is applied as shown, 48 » 7-9 « Find the cross product a Xb, Raa (-23.8), B= (0.0) Bas (,2-3, b= (5-1-2) Banitjek beitjok 10, Ifa =i — 2h and b = j +k, find a Xb, Skoteh a, and a > bas vectors starting at the origin, 11, Find two unit vectors orthogonal to both (1, ~1,1) and (0.4.4), 12, Find two unit vectors orthogonal to both + j and im atk 13, Find the area of the parallelogram with vertices A(0, 1) (3,0), €13,~2), and DO, 1 ind the area ofthe parallelogram with vertices P(0.0,0). (015.0.01, R(2,6.6), and S(7.6,6) 4 15-16 # (a) Find a vector orthogonal othe plane through the points P, Q. and R, and (b) find the area of tangle POR, 15. PA1,0.0), (0.2.0), R(0.0,3) 16. PUULO.=1). Q(2 4.5), RIB.1.7) 17. A wrench 30 em long les along the positive y-axis and rips a tot atthe origin. A force Is appied in the arecton (0,3, ~4) atthe end of the wrench, Find the magnitude of the force needed to supply 100 J of torque tothe bol. 18. Let y = 5) and loc be a vector with length 3 that starts atthe origin and rotates in the x}plane, Find the ‘maximun and minimum values ofthe length ofthe vector uv. fa what direction does w % ¥ pat? 19-20 w Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a band € 1.06). +3)- 2k D wa 23-8. € 85.6) 208 c= 43k 21-22 a Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent edges PO. PR, and PS. PULL, 02.0.3, RL), SB, -2 2, 23 2. 2. 2». 2. 2s 20. a 22. on PO,1.2), QRA,S). RC Use the scalar triple product to verify that the vectors a= 23) +K Dai jande= Ti+ 3) + kare ‘colanar 1.62 $8) fA Use the scalar triple product to determine whether the points PU, 0, 1), (2,46), R(3, 1.2), and S16, 2,8) le in the same plane. {a) Let P be a point not on te line that passes through the points Q and R. Show thatthe distanced from the Point P tothe line Lis lax b) Tal where a ~ OR and b = OP. () Use the formula in part (a) to find the distance from the point PAI, 1,1) 10 the ine through 010, 6,8) and RU-1.4,7) {a) Let P be & point not on the plate that passes through the points, R, and S. Show tha the distance from P to the plane is athe) Tax where a = OR. = 8, and e~ OP. (b) Use the formula in part (a) to find the distance from the point PO, 1,4) to the plane theough the points (011,0,0), R10, 2,0), and S10,0.3) Prove that fa ~ b) Xf + b) = 2 Xb) Prove the following formula for the vector triple product: ath Xe) = Gb ~ la die {Use Exercise 28 10 prove that AXXO) +DK(E XA) HEX (aX D)=0 Prove that we be la xb) ey ad bed lex) Suppose that a» 0. (a) Ira ba 6, does it follow that b ~ e? () Ifa % b= a X ¢, does it follow that B = e? (6) Ifas b= ar eand a x b= ax ¢, does i follow that bee Thy, ¥s.and ¥5 are noncoplanar vertor, let ww vs XW)on 11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS wee Similarly in term of ky, ks, and k {F@np the Fedprbeht| ky vee lattice) (@) Stow that k, is perpendicular to wii # j. (These vectors occur in the study of erytallography. () Stow that k)>¥ = Lor = 1,2,3. ‘Vectors ofthe form mvs + mays + i, whore each mis tow that ky tks = key i ger S74 Figure 1 Figure 2 ‘fatice for a crystal, Vecors writen EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES Aline in the xy-plane is determined when a point on the line and the direction of the line (ts slope or angle of inclination) are given. The equation of the line can then be written using the point-slope form Likewise, a fne Z in thtee-dimensional space Is determined when we know a point Py(so.3p.20) On L and the direction of L. Our discussion here parallels the discussion of parametric equations of lines in the plane given in Section 1.3. In three dimensions the direction ofa line is conveniently described by a vector, so we let v be a vector parallel to L, Let P(x,y, 2) be an arbitrary point on L and let ry and r be the position vectors of ? and P (that is, they have representations OF, and OP), Ifa is the vector with repre= sentation PP, as shown in Figure 1, then the Triangle Law for vector addition gives f= ro a. But, since a and v are purallel vectors, there isa scalar such that a = 1v Thus o erty Which is vector equation of Z. Each value of the parameter 1 gies the position vec- tor Fof a point on L. As Figure 2 indicates, positive values ofr comespond to points on that lie on one side of P), whereas negative values of correspond to points that lie on the other side of Py. If the vector v that gives the direction of Lis written in component form as fa.bye), then we have 1¥ = fta,tb,te), We can also write r= (ty ‘Yo. z9) $0 the Vector equation (1) becomes (ey.2) = Gy + ta, v0 + they + 10) ‘Two vectors are equal if and only if corresponding components are equal. Therefore, ‘we have the three sealar equations: @ rea tar vet be where 1 € B. These equations ate called parametric equations of the line L through the point (xy, si, 0) and parallel tothe vector v 1). Bach value of the param= eter gives a point (x.».2) on L. EXAMPLE 1 (a) Find a veetor equation and parametric equations for the line that passes through the point (5, 1,3) and is parallel to the vector 1 + 4j = 2k. (b) Find two other points on the line{1.4 EQUATIONS OF UES AND PLANES os Figure 3 shows the ine Lin Example 1 and its elation tothe given point and to the vector that pives is direction, Figure 3 SOLUTION (a) Here ry = (5.1.3) = Sit § + 3k and v= i+ 4j — 2K so the vector equation (1) becomes 2k) Hep Haw He a (S++ (1 + 40) +B - 2k Parametric equations are yoStr yatta ra3-3 (b) Choosing the parameter value = I gives x = 6, y = 5, and = = 1, s0 (6.5.1) is a point on the Line. Similarly, ¢ = ~1 gives the point (4, ~3,5), . ‘The vector equation and parametric equations ofa fine are not unigue. If we change the point or the parameter or choose a different parallel vector, then the equations change. For instance, if, instead of (5.1, 3), we ehoose the point (6,5, 1) in Example | then the parametric equations of the line become x=6+8 Star 1m Or, if we stay with the point (5,1,3) but choose the parallel vector 21 + 8] — 4k, we arrive at the equations Stay Les au In general, ifa vector v = (a,b, cis used to describe the direction ofa Line L, then the numbers a, b, and © are called direction numbers of ©. Since any vector parallel to ¥ could also be used, we see that any three numbers proportional w a,b, andl ¢ could also bbe used as a set of direction numbers for L. Another way of describing a lie Li to eliminate the paramdter # from Equations 2 Inne of a, b, oF ¢ is 0, we can solve each of these equations fort, equate the results, and obtain o a be ‘These equations are called symmetric equations of L. Notice that the numbers a, b, and ¢ that appear in the denominators of Equations 3 are direction numbers of L, that is, components of a vector parallel to L. fone of a, b or ¢ is 0, we can still eliminate 1. Far instance, if a = 0, we could write the equations of Las ‘This means that L lies in the vertical plane x = 4 EXAMPLE 2 (a) Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line that passes through the points AQ, 4,3) and B(3, =I.) (b) At what point does this line intersect the xy-plane?76 11_TWREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEONETRY AND VECTORS Figure 4 shows the fine Lin Example 2 and the point P where i intersects the arpa, Figure 4 The lines Ly ands in Example 3, shown in Figure are skew lies Figure 5 SOLUTION (a) We are not explicitly given a vector parallel to the line, Bat dbserve that the vector ¥ with representation Adt is parallel to the Tine and 15.4) ‘Thus, direction numbers are « = 1, b = —S, and ¢ = 4, Taking the point (2.4 as Pi, we see that parametric equations (2) are +r ysa-5r 344 and symmetric equations (3) are (b) The line intersects the xy-plane when z = 0, so we put > = in the symmetric equations and obcain 3 7 ‘This gives x = ¥f and y = 4, so the line intersects the xy-plane atthe point (4 4,0). In general, the procedure of Example 2 shows that direction numbers of the line L through the points Plo Yo) and yl, Y19 54) AFE-X, — oe. %} — Yao amd 2) ~ Zp and so symmetrie equations of L are EXAMPLE 3 Show that the lines L, and L with parametric equations ralth ye-24u rede 345 sas 344 are skew lines; that is, they do not intersect and are not parallel (and therefore do not fie in the same plane) SOLUTION The lines ate not parallel because the corresponding vectors (1.3, ~1) and (2,1,4) are not parallel. (Their components are not proporticnal.) If Ly and Ly had a point of intersection, there would be values of ¢ and s such that 345 ba 344s But if we solve the first two equations, we get r= and s = §, and these values do rot satisfy the third equation. Therefore, there are no values of rand s that satisfy the three equations. Thus, Ly and ZL; do not imersect. Hence L, and Ly are skew lines. =114 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES nm PLANES i FicuRE 6 oy FIGURE 7 Pio te 0.4.0 [A plane in space is determined by a point Pi(xy,yo.20) in the plineand a Webtdr Wht is omthogonal to the plane, This orthogonal vector m is called a iormal vector. Let P(x,y,2) be an arbitrary point in the plane and let ry ancl r be the position vectors of Py and P. Then the vector F = ry is presented by P,P (see Figure 6). The normal vector fis orthogonal t0 every vector it the given plane. In pasticular, a is orthoses fF —Fy and so we have o ner ry which can be rewritten as o nersaeny Either Equation 4 or Equation 5 is called a vector equation of the plane. ‘To obtain a scalar equation forthe plane, we write m= (a,b,c), r= (t.y: ry (to... Then the vector equation (4) becomes (a,b) (= yy = Ye = 2) =O 0 ale =) BLY = yw) Fee = Equation 6 is the sealar equi vector n = (a,b,c). fon of the plane through Py(x;.y),7») with normal =1) with EXAMPLE 4 Find an equation of the plane through the point (2 normal vector n= (2.3.4). Find the intercepts and sketch the plane SOLUTION Putting a = 2, b Act = 2m = 4, and 6, we see that an equation of the plane is =1 in Equation Ar= 2+ 3p 4) +4 +) or Qe tay ‘To find the s-imtercept we set y 0 in this equation and obtain x = 6. Simi- larly the y-intercept is 4 and the s-intercept is 3, This enables us to sketch the portion of the plane that lies in the first octant (See Figure 7) . By collecting terms in Equation 6 as we did in Example 4, we ean rewrite the equa- tion ofa plane as o wr thy bern where d = axy + byo + co. Equition 7 is called a linear equation in x, y, and = Conversely, it can be shown that if a, b, and c are not all O, then the linear equation (7) represents a plane with normal vector (a,b,c). (See Exercise 71)on Figure 8 shows the portion ofthe plane in Example 5 that is enclosed by twiangle POR, oe Figure 6 Figure 9 Figure 10 shows the planes in Example 7 and thei Hine of intersection L r-2y4% FIGURE 10 ‘1_THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS EXAMPLES Find an equation ofthe plane that passes throughthe polar PC,3.2), QB, —1,6), and ROS, 2,0), SOLUTION The vectors a and b corresponding to PO and PR ae a= (2,-4.4) a, Since both a and b fie in the plane, their cross product aX by is orthogonal to the Plane and can be taken as the normal vector. Thus ijk n=axb=]2 -4 4) = 121420) +14K 4-1-2 ‘and an equation of the plane is 1 = 1) + Wy - 3) + HE - 2) =0 or 6x + Oy + 7 = 50 . EXAMPLE 6 Find the point at which the line with parametric equations X= 2+ By = —dr, 2 = 5 + rimerseets the plane 4x + Sy 18 SOLUTION. We substitute the expressions for x,y, and = from the parametric equations into the equation of the plane: 42 + 3) + 5(-41) - 25 + = 18 This simplifies to ~10r = 20, so r = ~2. Therefore, the point of intersection ‘occurs when the parameter value is = —2. Then.x = 2 + 3-2) = ~4, ym =M=2) = 8,2 = 5 = 2 3, and so the point of intersection is (=4,8,3). = ‘Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel, For instance, the planes x 2y — 3 = Sand 2x + dy ~ 6: = 3 are parallel because their normal veetors are ny = (1,2, =3) and a, = (2,4, ~6)and my = 2m). IF two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a straight Fine and the angle between the two planes is defined as the acute angle between their normal vectors (see Figure 9). EXAMPLE? (s) Find the angle betwen he plans x + y+ = Landx ~ 27 +321 (©) Find symmeti equations fr te ie of intsectionL of tee two plas sowution (3) The norma vectors ofthese plates are m= (LAL) ny = (1,-2.3) and soi 0s the angle Betwsen the plans, (11.210 gives nem ay es) 2 e280 Talim]114 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES on (b) We first need to find a point on L, For instance, we can fit the Boidit Were thé line intersects the xy-plane by setting = ~ 0 in the equations of both planes. This ives the equations. x + y = Land x — 2y = 1, whose solution is x = 1, y = 0. So the point (1,0,0) lies om L avomer saying he tne of nner Now we observe that, since & fies in both planes, itis perpendicular to both of the section isto swive ie equations oF he normal vectors. Thus, a vector V parallel to Lis given by the cross product planes for 10 ofthe variables in tems fof the thin, which eam he taken 38 the parameter, mms = ~ 2) -3k ii Lo 1-2 and so the symmetric equations of £ can be written as NOTE: Since a Tinear equation in x,y, and > epresents a plane and two nonparallel planes intersect ina line, it follows that two linear equations can represent a line. The points (x,y,=) that satisfy both aye + byy + ¢\2 = dy and ax + boy + 622 = ds lie fon both of these planes and so the pair of linear equations represents the line of inter: section ofthe planes (if they are not parallel) For instance, in Example 7 the Tine L was given as the line of intersection of the planes x + y + z= Land x= 2y +32 = 1 ‘The symmetric equations that we found for L could be written as and ‘which is again a pair of linear equations. They exhibit Las the line of intersection of FiguRE 11 the planes (x ~ 1)/5 = y/(—2) and y/(-2) = 2/(~3). (See Figure 11.) In general, when we write the equations of line in the symmetric form Figure 11 shows how the line Lin Example 7 can also be eparded as the xm _ yr line of intersection of planes derived eee rom its symmetcie equations. @ b ‘we ean regard the Line as the line of intersection of the two planes EXAMPLE 8 Find a formula for the distance D from a point P(x), 1.21) to the plane ax + by +e +d = 0, SOLUTION Let Pa(ty.so. 0) be any point in the given plane and let b be the vect corresponding to PsP. Then b= Oy ~ toy — yours — 20) From Figure 12 you can see thatthe distance D from P, to the plane is equal to the FIGURE 12 absclute value of the sealar projection of b onto the normal vector n = (a,b,c), (See80 11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS Section 11.2.) Thus B= compa = PL Jala = 80) + Bo = 9) + el - 20l Ver re (ax, + by, = (axe + by + czu)) Since Plies in the plane, its coordinates satisfy the equation of the plane and so we have axo + byy + zy + d = 0, Thus, the formula for D can be written as ans + by + ers + dl = ? Verre EXAMPLE Find the distance between the parallel planes 10x + 2y and Sx y= 1 SOLUTION First we note that the planes are parallel because their normal vectors (10,2,-2) and (5,1,=1) are parallel. To find the distance D between the planes, we ‘choose any point on one plane and calculate its distance to the other plane. In particular, if we put y ( in the equation of the first plane, we get 10x = $ and so($,0,0) is a point in this plane. By Formuta 8, the distance between (0.0) fand the plane Sx + y ~~ = is So the distance between the planes is V3 /6. EXAMPLE 10 In Example 3 we showed that the lines be x -24+3 ‘are skew, Find the distance between them. SOLUTION Since the two lines Ly and L> are skew, they can be viewed as lying on two parallel planes P, and P:. The distance between Land L> isthe same as the distance between P; and Ps, which can be computed as in Example 9, ‘The common normal veetor to both planes must be orthogonal to both vy = (1,3.—1) (the direction of £)) and v> = (2,1,4) (the ditection of £,). So a nornral vector jiok nowxee fis at 21 4 65-5 If we put s = 0 in the equations of Ls, we get the point (0,3, ~3) on Ly and so an ‘equation for Ps Le — 0) — 6(y — 3) —SE43)=0 or ae ~ By ~ +30{1.4 EQUATIONS OF UES AND PLANES If we now set Ibe 6y — 5243) EXERCISES 11.4 0 in the equations for Ly. we get the paint (te 72) 4) of 2, |S the distance between Ly and L> isthe same as the distance from (I. 0. By Formula 8, this distance is 4) 10 1-4 « Find the vector equation and parametic equations for the fine passing vhrough the given point and parallel to the 1 BHL8, a= (2.3.5) 4.5, a= GB.-1.6) an 6i+3)42k 2), a= 21-7k 5-10 # Find parametric equations and symmetric equations for the line passing through the given points. 5.2.1.8), (6.0.3) 6. (1.0.9, 4,-3.3) 7.B.L-N G26) BB.) CLD (Seth OS-8) 10,279, (4.2.5) 11, Show that the line through the points (2,1, ~5) and (8.8.7) is parallel tothe Tine though the points (8, 2,6) and (8.8.2), 12 Show that the line through the points (0,11) and (1,~1,6) is perpendicular tothe Line through the pints (=, 2,1) and (=1.6,2. 13. (a) Find symmetric equations forthe Line that passes ‘through the point (0.2,—1) and is parallel tothe line with parametric eq “thy = 3 and Sth (b) Find the points in which the required line im part (a) interiets the coordinate planes, 14, (a) Find parametric equation forthe line through (5.1.0) that perpendicular to the plane 2x y +2 = 1 (©) In what points does this line intersect the coordinate planes? 15-18 w Determine whether the lines Land Ly are parallel, skew, or intersceting. IF they intersect, ind the point of 19-22 # Find an equation of the plane through the given point and withthe specified normal vector. 19. (14.5) m= (7.14) 20. (8.1.2, m= 3,-5.2) 24. (1.2.3, m= 18149) Dk a si 6-4), 9 23-26 w Find an equation ofthe plane passing through the ‘given point and parallel tothe indicated plane 23. (6.5, ° 2A (3.0.8), 2+ Sy 4 Be 25. (13-8), B= dy —62=9 26. (2.4.5) = 2x + 3p 27-30 # Find an equation of the plane passing through the three given points 27. (0.0.0), Uste1), (1.2.3) 2B (ML=D. (L=12, 4,0.3) 29.(10,-3, 0,-2.4), (4.1.6) 30.0, 3, ha, (2.4) 431-34 # Find an equation of the plane that passes through the ‘given point and contains the indicated line 31 (LB -4 32. (=. 3.2} aor 33. (0.1.2) © 34 (10.0: x 35-38 # Find the point at which the given line intersects the speciied plane Bem ey Mem Bre Sy dan <2 den pee Bree le dnyn Brel nyns ni deteoe 11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS 39. Find die lanes x + y + tion numbers forthe line of intentection of the and x + 2 = 0, 40, Find the cosine of the angle between the planes st yt ee Gands + dy 41-46 = Determine whether the planes are parallel perpendicular, o¢ neither I nether, Find the ange between them, ante 42, “Be ~ 6y HE = 4st dy—& ody 3p tet Oy + T= 0 4426 + ay ox ar 45. 26 + ay wie 6y + 46 447-48 (a) Find symmetric equations forthe Tine of inter- section ofthe planes and (b) find the angle betveen the planes Ansty 222 dena te =6 Mx tr=h Bt yte {49-50 w Find parametric equations for the Line of intersection of the planes. 49, 50.26 45:43 xty We Syo zed 0 x-ayt242 51. Find an equation forthe plane consisting ofall points that are equidistant from the points (1, 1.0) and (01,1 52. Find an equation forthe plane consisting ofall points that are equidistant from the points (4,2 1) and (2, 4,3) 53, Find an equation of the plane that passes through the Tine of intersection of the planes x + y = 2 — 2and 2x = yor He 1 and passes through the point (1,2, 1) 54, Find an equation of the plane that passes through the fine of intersection of the planes x z= Tandy + 22 = 3 tnd is perpendicular tothe plane x + » 55. Find an equation of the plane with x-intercept y-interceptb, and 2-imerceptc 56. (a) Find the point at which the lines F= (1.1.0) + (1, =1,2)and e = (2.0.2) + (1.1.0) (b) Find an equation of the plane that contains these lines 57. Find parametric equations for the line through the point (0.1.2) thatis paralle to the plane x + y + perpendicubi tothe line s= IP y =~ z= 2 58, Find parametric equations for the line through the point (0.1.2) that is perpendicular tothe line x = 1 + Sto: = 2¢and intersects this line 59, Which ofthe following four plapes(ar perallt?(A2 fay ob them identical? Ps dx 2y — Pde ~ 2 +62 Pe -Ox tiv 9% =5 Pe 60, Which ofthe following four tines are parallel? Are any of them dential? w-y-3 bix=ttn yan Lis tlay- bereits Lae = 1-3) + 102,2.-10) yoste 61-62 w Use the formu in Exercise 25 ia Section 11.3 10 find the distance from the point ro the given line 61 (23; 2+ Ky H2—a es Sr 62. (0-1) x= S— Ky = 3H ear 62-64 m Find the distance from the point the 63. (2.8.8). x= 2y — 64.27, de = 6p tz = 5 -1 65-66 @ Find the distance betwcen the given parallel planes. 6s. 66. 3r+6y—92=4, x4 2y—% Sxtyth atoy—ea4 1 67, Show thatthe distance betweon the parallel planes ax + by +e: = dyand ax + by + c= dhs la = dsl Varies 68, Find equations of the planes that are parle othe plane x+y 22 = 1 and two units away rom i 69, Show thatthe lines with symmetric equations and.x + |= y/2 = 2/3 ave skew lines, and find the distance beoween these lines. 70, Find the distance between the skew lines with parametric equations s = 1+ y= 1+ 642 =2andx = 1+ 2s, S++ IS: = —2 + 6 71. Ia, band ¢ are not all 0, show that the equation fay + by + e2 = d represents a plane and (o,b,0) i & normal vector to the plane. Hint: Syppose a O and reveite the equation inthe form fet) ou -on 72. Give a geometric description ofeach family of planes 2-0) =0‘15 _QUADHIC SURFACES co QUADRIC SURFACES 1.0.0) FiguRE 1 The elipsoid A quadrie surface isthe graph of a second-degree equation in three variables x,y, and =. The most general such equation is Ax + By! + C22 + Day + Bye + etGrt Hythe +I=0 whete A, B, C,...,J ate constants but by translation and rotation it can be brought into fone of the two standard forms: AV +BY FCP +I=0 or Av + By + Quatre surfaces are the analogues in three dimensions of the conic sections in the plane. (See Appendix I for a review of conic sections.) In order to sketch the graph of a quadric surface (or any surface), it is useful to de termine the curves of intersection of the surface with planes parallel to the coordinate planes. These curves are called traces (or cross-sections) of the surface, ELLIPSOIDS ‘The quadeie surface with equation o : is called an ellipsoid because its traces are ellipses. For instance, the horizontal plane = k (where ~¢ < k < e) intersects the surface in the ellipse zek And in particular, the trace inthe xypane is jut the ellipse xa + "Jb 0. Similarly, the traces in the other coordinate planes are the ellipses with equations y'/b + fet = Lx = O,and ja" + 2"/e" = 1.y = 0. Figure | shows how drawing ‘some traces indicates the shape of the ellipsoid. ‘The six intercepts of the elipoid are (£0,040), (0,0), and (0,0, ellipsoid les inthe box 5) and the |< |ylsb [2]se ‘Since the equation involves only even powers of x, y; and With respect to each coordinate plne, Ifo of the three semiaxes a, b, and ¢ are equal, then the ellipsoid is a surface of revalution. For instance, if ¢ = a, then the ellipsoid could be obtained by revolving the ellipse x" fa + y'/b" 0, around the y-axis. If a ~ the ellipsoid is a sphere. the ellipsoid is symmetric HYPERBOLOIDS ‘The quadric surface o c+ lpH is ako symmetric with respect to the coordinate planes, The trace in any horizontaloo 1 na rmeon murcooemapncass © ENGAGE sine bites Learning but the traces in the x2- and Furthermore, in contrast to the next example, this surface consists of just one piece, so itis called a hyperboloid of one sheet (see Figure 2). The =-axisis called the axis of this hyperboloid. (IF the minus sign in Equation 2 occurs in front of the first or second term instead of the third term, then the axis is the «- or y-axis, respectively.) ficune 2 Ita bin Equation 2, he surface is a hyperbole of evolution ands otained by Hyperion set rotating hyperbola south ae 1 Now conse he surface ° the sur face consists of two parts, one above the plane z = c and one below the plane = and iscalled a hyperboloid of two sheets whose axis is the 2-axis, (See Figure 3.) FIGURE 3 Hyperbolod of two sets Notice, in comparing Equations 2 and 3, thatthe number of mins signs in the equ tion indicates the number of sheets of the hyperbolid CONES. If we replace the right side of Equation 2 or 3 by 0, we get the surface o1s cures =» CENGAGE whi i ome. This surface has the pop that it P Aner EEE the line OP lies entirely on the cone. You can verify that traces in horizontal planes = = { are ellipses and traces in verti- cal planes x = K or y = kare hyperbolas if k # 0 but are pairs of Lines if k = 0. ‘The cone given by Equation 4 is asymptotic 0 both of the hyperbotoida given by Equations 2 and 3. (Compare Figures 2, 3, and 4.) PARAGOLOIDS The surface o i called an elliptic paraboloid because its traces in horizontal planes = = & are el lipses, whereas its traces in vertical planes.x = Kor y = kare parabolas. For instance, its trace in the y=-plane is the parabola ‘Theaxis ofthe paraboloid given by Equation 5 isthe :-axis and its vertex isthe origin, ‘The case where ¢ > 0 is illustrated in Figure 5. If a= B, the surface is a cireul paraboloid, also called a paraboloid of revolution, ‘The hyperbolic paraboloid o also has parabolas as its vertical aces, but it has hyperbolas a its horizontal traces ‘The case where c < 0 is illustrated in Figure 6, Notice that the shape of the surface ricure 5 near the origin resembles that ofa saddle. This surface wil be investigated further in Section 12.7 when we discuss saddle points Elliptic parabtoid Figure 6 Hyperbole paraboloid Lh e 2 are the ellipses ‘These traces are used to make the sketch in Figure 9. .ws ene secs = 4 CENGAGE . EXAMPLE? Chasity the qudrie urtacdle Me? — be @ SdH) | g SOLUTION By completing the square we rewrite the equation as oh yl p+ 2s? “F Comparing this equation with Equation 5, we see that it represents an elliptic paraboloid. Here, however, the axis of the paraboloid is parallel tothe y-axis and its vertex is the point (3, 1,0). The traces in the plane y = k (k > 1) are the ellipses i) (= 3) #22 = k "Ty = ke The trace in the xy-plane is the parabola with equation y = 1 + (x ~ 3)',2 =. The paraboloid is sketched in Figure 10. . ricune 10 EXAMPLES emi and hth he ses W422 Ory +00 sowriON (a) Since 2 is missing and the eqsations x* + y* = 1, 2 = ks representa circle with radius 1 in the plane = =X, the surface x + y* = 1 isa citcular eylinder whose axis isthe =-axis (see Figure 1), (b) In this case y is missing and the surface is circular eylinder whose axis is the y-axis (see Figure 12). Itis obtained by taking the cirelex° + :* = 1, y = 0, in the “xeplane and moving it parallel to the y-axis. FIGURE 11 Figure 12 wore When you are dealing with surices, iis importa to recognize that an equation lke 12+ y* = Treprevents a elinderand nota cick, The trace ofthe cstin- der 7+ y= 1 inthe xyplane ithe circle with equations x#-+ y?= 1.2 = 0 EXERCISES 11.5, Find the races ofthe given surface ia the planes x = ‘Then iemy the surface and seth it. 367 « menmetannanengioes CENGAGE 17-24» Msi atin with ts raph teed VHD, 25-34 Rese nbn oo of fob) g Give easons fer your choices classify the surface, and sketch i We eae toe wor tat tat 3. fais a'-n write 2 ty 26, 4x —9y' H+ 36-0 myeae ts 428 Minvevtt ae -# tattoo tyna Pa 2yt2=0 Bey tdy teed Mode ay parte ED o {18 35-38 = Use a computer with three-dimensional graphing software wo graph the surface 35.23 = Se mae tay? m 39, Sketch the rezion bounded by the surfaces = = Fy andy 40, Sketch the rexion bounded by the parabola ands 2 Vor l= 222. 4, Find an equation forthe surface obtained by rotating the parabola y = 4? about the yaxis, 7 ‘ 4 42, Find an equation forthe surface obtained hy rotating the line «= 3y about the axis 43, Find an equation forthe surface consisting ofall points ‘that are equidistant From the point (1,0,0) and the plane —. r= Teldentify the surface, . 4, Find an equation forthe surface consisting ofall points P| Tor which the distance from P tothe sani ie tive the distance from P tothe y=plane. Mentfy the surface wt vu 1 4. he point (a. e) His on the hyperbolic ‘then the lines with parametric $ © y e+ 2 - ar . and Kraehe yobor ree-Mbban ‘oth ie entirely on this paraboloid. (This shows tha the hnyperbotle parabotoid Is Wwhat Is calle a ruted surtace: that is, it can Be generated by the motion of a straight line In fat, this exercise shows that through each point on the hyperbolic paraboloid there are two generating lines. The only other quadric surfaces that are ruled surfaces are cylinders, cones, and hyperbolois of one sheet.) ba{16 VECTOR FUNCTIONS ANO SPACE CURVES eo 46, Show tha the curve of intersection ofthe surfaces that he projttion of this curve Gio fg pink ds ebay gt Sem and 2e? 4 ay! — 26? — Sy clipse tesa plans {FB 40, tovcstigate the family of surfaces 2 = 2 + 9? + oxy In {BE 47, Graph te surfs 2 = + yand 2 = 1- ye ona particular. you sould determin th transitional values of Soman srcen ving the domain || = 1.2 || = 12 and (or which he surface changes ram ome type of gunie ftnerve the curve of intercon of these surfaces. Show surface to anor. __ VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES ‘The Functions that we have used so far have been either real-valued Functions or vector: valued Functions in two dimensions (see Section 1.3). We now study functions whose values are three-dimensional vectors because such Functions are needed to describe curves in space and the motion of particles in space. Let r be a vector funetion whose range is set of three-dimensional vectors. This ‘means that for every number rin the domain of r there isa unique vector in Vs denoted by ri. IF/(), g(t) and f(s) are the components of the vector r(f), then fg, and fare real-valued functions called the component funetions of r and we can write FU) = 4 F091.) = fDK + gj + ‘We ase the etter 1 denote the independent variable because it represents time in most applications of veetor functions. EXAMPLE1 If Fl) = (P,1n13 = 1.) went Functions are f=" gd =tnG—) K= AF By our usual convention, the domain of r consists of all values of for which the expression for r() is defined. The expressions r, In(3 ~ ¢), an vt are all defined when 3 — 1 > O and 1 = 0, Therefore, the domain of r is the interval [0,3) . ‘The limit of a vector function F is defined by taking the limits ofits component Functions as follows: (Hel) = (F09.9(0), 10), then ti (0) = (tim im tion 10) ‘provided the Limits of the component functions exist Equivalently, we could have used an ¢, 8 definition (see Exercise 64). Limits of vec~ tor functions obey the same rules as limits of real-valued functions, (See Exercise 63.)630 11_THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS EXAMPLE 2 Find lim r() where r() (Pi + te A SOLUTION ti i= fig =P] fly ep + [tim Set k with wasn) . A vector function r is continuous at a if lim e@) = ra) In view of Definition I, we see that r is continuous at a if and only if its component funetions fg, and fare continuous at ‘There is a close connection between continuous vector Fury jons and space curves ‘Suppose that fg, and h are continuous real-valued functions on an interval J. Then the set C af all points (x,y, 2) in space, where ® =f) yaa z=) and 1 varies throughout the interval J is called a space curve. The equations in 2) are called parametrie equations of C and ris called a parameter. We can think of C as noua nop being traced out by a moving particle whose position at time 1 is (f(t), alt) h(t). IF we i now cunsider the vector function r(1) = (ft). (0). then r() isthe postion vector Figure 1 of the point PI f(2),g() (7) on C, Thus, any continuous vector function F defines Cistriced out by the ipof a moving space curve C that is traced out by the tip of the moving vectar Fit), as shown in postion ectora Figure |. EXAMPLE 3 Describe the curve defined by the vector function rl) (1 2+ Su m1 + 61) SOLUTION. The corresponding parametric equations are bry des “1+ 6 which we recognize from Equations 11.4.2 as parametric equations of a line passing through the point (1,2, ~1) and parallel to the vector (1, 5,6). Alternatively, we could dobserve that the function can be written as r= rp + r¥, where ry = (1,2,—1) and 1,5,6), and this is the vector equation of a line as given by Equation 11.4.1. = EXAMPLE 4 — Sketch the curve whose vector equation is F(a) = Jeosti + sine] + rk SOLUTION. ‘The parametric equations for this curve are Since (x/2)' + y" = cos’ + sin’r = 1, the curve must lie on the elliptical eylinder x'/4 + y° = 1. Since 2 = 1, the curve spirals upward around the eylinder as ¢ FIGURE 2 increases. The curve, shown in Figure 2, is called a helix. .FIGURE 3 GyUSING compuTeRS ‘TO DRAW SPACE CURVES {16_VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES m ‘The corkscrew shape of the hax in Example 4 is familidetrom i dechrtebcd coiled springs. It also occurs in the model of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic ‘material of living cells), In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the structure of the DNA molecule is that of two linked, parallel helices that are inter twined as in Figuee 3 [As shown in Section 1.3, plane curves can also be represented in vee For instance, the curve given by the parametric equations x = sin, also be described by the vector equation sin't could re) Sint, sin’s) = sini + sine where 1 = (1,0) and j = (0,1). Space curves are inherently more difficult to draw by hand than plane curves; for an accurate representation we need to use technology. Although mest graphing calculators are presently unable to graph space curves, computer graphing programs with this ea- pability are now widely available, For instance, Figure 4 shows a computer-tenerated graph of the curve with parametric equations (4+ sin20) cost y= (4 + sin 20/)sine 08207 It is called a toroidal spiral because it lies on a torus. Another il knot, with equations resting curve, the 2 + eostsieost y= (2+ cosl.Ssin¢ == sin St is graphed in Figure 5. It would not be easy to plot either of these curves by hand. FIGURE 4 FiguRE 5 A toroidal spiral A tefl knot ven when a computer is used fo draw a space curve, optical illusions make it diff cult to get a good impression of what the curve really looks like. (This is especially ‘rue in Figure 5.) The next example shows how to cope with this problem. EXAMPLES Use a computer to sketch the curve with vector equation rl) = (.P.1°). This curve is called a twisted eubie SOLUTION We start by using the computer to plot the curve with parametric cquitions x = 1,9 = 2 = 1 foe -2 = 1 = 2. The resltis shown in Figure 63), ‘bu shard to see the true nature of the curve from that graph alone. Most thee dimensional computer graphing programs allow the user to cnelose a eurve or suufice ina box instead of displaying the coordinate axes. When we Took attheos 1 mecamamnmarcanem agrees ENGAGE same curve ina ox in Figure 6), we have Se eared pie fe rbd 1Q g ‘can see that it climbs from a lower eorner of the box to the uppeF corner nearest us, and it twists a it climbs, @ © 0 FIGURE 6 Vics f te twisted cubic We get an even better idea of the curve when we view it from different vantage points. Part (c) shows the result of tating the box to give another viewpoint. Parts (4), (€) and (£) show the views we get when we look directly ata face of the box. In particular, part (2) shows the view from directly above the box. It is the projection fof the curve on the xy-plane, namely, the parabola y = x", Part (@) shows the projection on the xz-plane, the cubie curve z = x’. Its now obvious why the given ‘curve is called a twisted cubic. . Another method of visualizing a space curve isto draw it on a surface. For instance, the twisted eubi in Example 5 ties on the parabolic eytinder y = 2. (Bhiminate the parameter from the fist to parametric equations, x = rand y= 1°) Figute 7 shows both the eylinder and the twisted cubic, and we see thatthe curve moves upward from the origin along the surface ofthe cylinder Figure 7{U6 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES = DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS @ FIGURE 8 2) The secant vector AA third method for visualizing the twisted cubic is to realize i algo li bn He cylinder 2 = x°, So it can be viewed as the curve of intersection of the cylinders yextand: <3 “The derivative #' of « vector funstion # is defined just as for a real-valued function: de sn BE A= FD o to = tin i if this limit exists, The geometric significance of this definition is shown in Figure 8, If P and Q have position vectors rf) and rir + /), then PQ represents the vector r+ h) ~ e(0), which can therefore be regarded as a secant vector, If ht > 0, the scalar multiple (1/4) (r(1 + fh) ~ r(2)) has the same dinection as r(7 + h) ~ rl). As 0. it appears that this vector approaches a vector that lies on the tangent line. For this reason, the vector (1) i called the tangent vector to the curve defined by rat the point P, provided that (1) exists and (2) # 0. The tangent line to C at P is defined to be the line through P parallel to the tangent vector r(7), We will also have occasion {o consider the unit tangent vector, which is ro Ir ‘The following theorem gives usa convenient method for computing the deri a vector f + just differentiate ea (6) The tangent vector THEOREM If r(A) = (i090) h10)) and /r are differentiable funetions, then (i + gl) j + HDR, where fg. FO) = (FO.90.0) Wit gin + KOK PROOF = tim fee + a0) — Ht0) ri shar fin fle + ange # AN. Ae + 30) ~ (sl0.k0. 409) ~iim (4 + An) — fl) gle + AN — git) hr + AN — ) a ar a ir vim HEF AD = fll) 4, ge HAD al) 4 le + AD ~ Ht waar ar = (sO, g'0. 0) . EXAMPLES (2) Find the derivative of ry) = + P)4 + 1e4j + sin 20k, (b) Find the unit tangent vector a the point where ¢ SOLUTION ‘Theorem 4 gives F() = 3P1 + (1 eG + Qeos 2k69a 11_THREE-DMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND, VECTORS: (b) Since r(0) = fund r(0) = j + 2k, the unit tangent vector Getbe pik (0. D)fs _F is2k 1 2 TO -Teol visa sit ys" 7 EXAMPLE 7 For the curve r(t) = vii + (2 ~ 1)j, find F'(7) and sketch the position vector (1) and the tangent vector (1). SOLUTION We have ‘The curve isa plane curve and elimination of the parameter from the equations x t gives y = 2 — 1°, x = 0. In Figure 9 we draw the position vectorr(l jj slarting atthe origin and the tangent veetor (1) starting at the FIGURE 9 corresponding point (1.1), . EXAMPLE S Find parametric equations for the tangent Tine to the helix with “The hein and the tangent line in parametric equations Example 8 are shown in Figure 10, = eos) y= sine atthe point (0, 1.7/2). SOLUTION. The veetor equation of the helix is r(t) 2 cost, sin 1). $0 F() = (-2sinteost,1) “The purameter value cortesponding to the point (0,72) ist = x2, so the tangent vector there i F(a) ~ (2.0.1). The tangent line i the line trough (0 1.2/2) parallel to the vector (~2,0,1), 0 by Equations 114.2 is parametric equations are y=-% ysl FIGURE 10 * TThe next theorem shows that the differentiation formulas for weal-valued functions have their counterparts for vector-valued functions, (THEOREM Suppose w and v are differentiable vector Functions, ¢ is a sear, and fis a real-valued funetion. Then. 4 Ha) + 1. Fluo + vo = wo + v0) d , {, Leut] = ewin 3.“ Lrinuin) = Foun + sown a tay ol = wv + wd vO) 5 2 [wi x vn] = wo x vo + 9 x vO 6 Z [afi = FOWL) rn Ko116 _VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES os, ‘This theorem can be proved either directly from Definitiof3 grby using Théokef 4 and the corresponding differentiation formulas for real-valued functions. The proofs of Formulas 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 are kt as exercises PROOF OF FORMULA 4 Let UW) =A, AD. OY MLA) = (gC. gle.) Then ule) VO) = fille) + falda) + Alga) = E Ogos so the ordinary Produet Rule gives 4 pingin = ¥ Atego d ql vol = > = =S LMoato + pio) = S pow +S rtoar H(0)- v0) + ule) = V0) a EXAMPLES Show that if [r(2)| = ¢ (a constant), then r(1) is orthogonal to r(0) for al SOLUTION. Since re) Fe) = [reo and’ isa constant, Formula 4 of Theorem 5 gives 4 (=) +) = 20) 0 = Efe() FOO] = FO HO) + HF) = 2 FO) ‘Thus, (2) r(0) = 0, whieh says that F() is orthogonal to r(0). ‘Geometrically, this result says that if a curve lies on a sphere, then the tangent vector F'() is always perpendicular to the position vector r(0) . The definite integral of a continuous vector Function F(7) can be defined in much ‘the same way as for teal-valued functions except that the integral is @ vector. But then \we can express the integral of F ia terms of the integrals ofits somponent functions f. 4g. and fas follows. (We use the notation of Chapter 6.) = im, [(Saeras)i (5 wna) (8 nivan) (eo (Cana)i+ (Reno) s+ (Lana) roan fim, rch ay and sosoos CENGAGE * 1a omc vy EMTE Aye “This means hat we can etatate sn itegr oF vector fed rly cb g ‘compenent function, ‘The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for continuous vector functions says that rondr = RO]: = RQ) ~ Ria) Where R is an antierivative of r, that indefinite imegrals (antiderivatives). RIO) = r(9. We use the notation { r(0) dt for EXAMPLE 10. If e(1) = (J2eosra)i+ (snr) + (Pazar inti —cossj tek + cost + sinj + 2PK, then rat where C is a vector constant of integration, and [PF rlovae = sin ti = cosej + PK]? . EXERCISES 11.6 1-6 m Match th parametric equations with the graphs wu 4 Alaeled 15¥D, Give reasons for your ehoies Aes cot, yan 2 a 4.x sin3veost, y= snes +» Sx cosh y= sin, == sinSe . Sm eosn yo sing = In 7-44 Shotch the curve with he given vector equation. Indicate with an arrow the direction in which 1 increases. ae 9. a1 ri 13. rid t.—t.20) B= 12) (ine,3,cos!) 10. r()= (ine anit mew) aise cos) Hj + cosrk 44, H(t) = sins + sini + VTeosrke 45, Show thatthe curve with parametric equations lies on the cone = shstch the curve 2 + and use this fact to help 16, Show thatthe curve with parametric equations is the curve of intersection of the surfises 2 = 2° and 8° + y' = 1 Use this fatto help sketch the curve116 _VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES =m {8H 17-20 = Use a computer to graph the curve with the given vector equation. Make sure you choose a parameter domain and viewpoints tht reveal the trve nature ofthe curve. 17. 0) = (sins.c081.0) 19. ri) = Wit ~ 2) 18. Fl) = WP 10) 20. rin) ‘sin sin 2tsin 3) $821. Graph the curve with parametric equations 5 = U1 + cos) cost, y= (1 + cos 6m + cos 16. Explain the appearance ofthe graph by showing that it lies na cone Bi.22. Graph the curve with parametric equations x = VI= 0.25c08 10 cost, y = V1 = 025605710 sins 0.508101. Explain the appearance of the graph by showing that it Lies on a sphere 23-26 = Ping the imi 23, im (e0%4.2) aa 25. in (VR 27-34 w Find the domain and derivative ofthe vector Function HN) = GP) 2B. rit) = (8 = 4.F= 4 VO=?) 2s. rin) = + tanej + seork to 30. ri) 0 1 ta 31. H(t) = Ind — PE + VTP tee 22. r(.) = e'cosrt + e'sinej + In| 33. ri) a+ rb + Pe 34, F(t) =a Xb + 10) 35-408 {a) Sketch the plane curve with the given vertor equation. () Find eh {6) Sketeh the positon vector re) and the tangent vector #() for the given value of 35. r() = (oostsing), = w/t 36. 10) ' arr) =U DEEL 38, r() = Dein + Seose. = WIS wre teh 10 40. e(t) = sect + tanej, = wit {41-44 # Find the nit tangent veeto€ ead the foe Feil PD szven value of the parameter ah r= 237A). 6 rine eM te) 10 43, elt) 1h + Dsintj + Jeosrk, ro m6 44 elf) = ecosst + esint | + eK, 1 2 {45-48 « Find parametric equations forthe tangent line to the curve with the given parametric equatins atthe specified point ano Mem LEM ye THER Reto e a <4 04.0) 1-0 aren yee ann 47.6 16082a1, v= Hsin, © 48, sing, y = Vi, 2 = cover: {8 49-50 w Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the ‘curve vith the given parametric equations atthe specified Point. Hlustrate by graphing both the curve and the tangent Tine on. common sere 49.5 ny VPoosns = VPsings (nid 1.1) 3) 51. The curves e(f) = (.0%.1) and wf) = Ginesin2,0) Intersect atthe origin. Find their aggle of intersection comect to the nearest dese. 50. x = conn y = 3e%% 2 = 3e 52. Atwhat point do the curves) 0) intersection correct to the nearest degree 1348) and angle of 53. Show thatthe curve with parametric equations x = 1 yet —M2= 1 +1" passes throagh the points (1.4.0) and (9, —8.28) but not the point (4, ~6) 54, (a) Find the point of intersection othe tangent lines othe curve rt) = (inh. 2sinwrcos) at the points where Pa oands 05. SE coy estrate by graphing the curve and both tangent ines Wiss. 113 10 ston y nana me curve oF erection of the Gitar eylindra¢'+ "= and the parabolic elder Then find parametric equation fo his curse ing he parameter, where x= 2eos and we these atatons and computer to pra the care iss. try to sketch by hand the curve of intersection of the pambolic cylinder y = x’ and the top half of the ellipsoid xi dy! + 42" = 16, Then find parametric equations for this curve using the parameter f, where = f and use these equations and a computer to graph the curve 57-60 # Evaluate the integral a [uirrisriod sa [flu 4rd Oe698 11_THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS x 67, Prove Formala Sof Theorem 5 58, [cos 20 + sin 214 + rsin ek) dh : 68, Prove Formula 6 of Theorem 5 caf (Wises 61. Find ef) iPr() = PE 4) — and ) ~ 70. If w and v are the vector functions in Exercise 69, find 62, Find 1) if) — sins ~ cost + 21K and Duin x vo} Eek 71, Show that ifr isa vector funetion su that F 163. Suppose u and ¥ are vector Functions that possess limits exists then 81> aad let che a constant, Prove the following a Properties a limits Zinio x eto) = et) x) {a) Lim fu) + via] = tiem we) + im 9) a ‘ ©) Lim cut = ¢ tim wo) 72. Find an expression for “7 [w(r)« (vir) x win} (i [a+ 3} = tn = 0) : (tifa vt] = i a Tin 7. Fel), show that Fel) = Fy HF 64. Show ari, 74. carve hs the propety th he poston vector 0) eee Be ete e|eeehcaer aay perpendcalr ote tngent ator Py show ta fone thecars tev on espe i seer rh 65. Prove Formula 1 of Theorem 5. 75. If wie) = (a) > [rr) & e*()], show that 66, Prove Furmla3of There 8 wi) = He -(et0 x FO) S17. ARC LENGTH AND CURVATURE ‘We alteady know how to find the length of a two-dimensional curve with parametric equations x = f(y = g(t}, a= 1-= b, Formula 9.3.1 says that this length is given by |(ay , (ey OV (OY Va) -() ‘The length of a space curve is defined in the same way as for plane curves (see Figure 1). Suppose that the curve has the vector equation r(@) = (sd. alt) hd). a = 1= bor, equivalently, parametric equations x = fli). y= gt), 2 = Mt), where J/g’. and ff are continuous. Ifthe curve is traversed exactly once as r increases from ‘410 b, then it can be shown that its length is o t= POP FOE + OF at roune + =f Then ota gsc ste in Ly using 4 derivation similar to that given for two-dimensional curves. Notice thatthe areJength formula (1) can be put into the more Compact form} @ ” |a|ae bbecaise, for plane curves FC) = Jl + alt) [rol =| FOi + Oi) = VIFOF + Lato for space curves r(t) = flipi + git) + MK, [rl =| fei + gi + MOK| = VEPOF + LF + OF Figure 2 shows the are ofthe helix ‘shone lengths compte In EXAMPLE 1 Find the fength ofthe ate of the eiteular helix with vector equation Example (0) = costi + singj + 1k from the point (10,0) t0 the point (1,02) SOLUTION. Since #(f) = ~sinsi + cos1j +h, we have [P| = VESiMTEF cos ET = V2 ‘The are from (1,0,0) to (1.0.2) is deseribed by the parameter interval 0 = 1 = 27 and so, from Formula 2, we have [lew a= J ‘A curve given by a vector funetion r(@) on an interval Fis called smooth if ris F continuous and r'(1) 0 (except possibly at any endpoints of 1). The significance of the condition r) #0 is illusrated by the graph of the semicubical parab- cusp ola r() = (1+ FF) that is shown in Figure 3. Since rl) = Gr',21), we have (0) = 0) = 0. The point that corresponds to 1 = 0 is (1,0) and here there is a a sharp comer that is ealled a eusp. We can think of @ smooth curve as & curve with no sucheusp. A curve, such as the semicubical parabola, that is mace up ofa finite num- ber of smooth pieces is called piecewise smooth. The arc length formula (2) holds for Figure 2 piecewise-smooth curves. The curve [A single curve C can be represented by more than one vector function. For instance, is not smooth the twisted eubie o n= Geery) srs? could also be represented by the function o )=e%e") O 0 as x—+ =. This corresponds to the fact that the parabola appears to become Flatter as x—> = . Ata given point ona smooth space curve r() there are many weotors that are orthog- onal to the unit tangent vector TA). We si " wz that, since |T(] = 1 forall 1, we have T(:} T1V) = Oby Example 9 in Section 1.6, so TG) is orthogonal to T() Note that T() i itself not unit vector. But if i also smooth, we can define the prineipal unit normal veetor N() (or unit normal for short) as NO= Teor ‘The vector Blt) = Tu) x Nit) is called the binormal vector. I is perpendicular to both T and N and is also a unit veetor. (See Figure 6.) EXAMPLES Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the circular helix ra) SOLUTION (0) = —sinvi + cosej +k ro TH - sinsi + costj + ki Tew VE! en to = ceot = sins ro) NO = Ta] cost, -sin,0) cost — sin ej ‘This shows that the normal vector at @ point on the helix is horizontal and points toward the z-axis. The binormal vector is iG Be) = TH) N= —L] sin cose 1] = —Legins, cost 2] cost sine of ¥? .708 Figure 8 shows the hein and the ‘oseutating plane in Example 7 FiguRE 9 ‘The plane determined by the normal and binlormal vectors Naha Bafa point A ob ‘curve C is called the normal plane of C at P, It consists of all ines that are orthog- ‘onal ta the tangent vector'T. The plane determined by the vectors T and N is called the osculating plane of Cat P, The narge comes from the Latin oscuum, meaning “kiss.” Its the plane that comes closest to containing the part of the eurve near P. (Fora plane curve, the osculating plane is simply the plane that contains the curve.) The circle that lies in the osculating plane of C at P, has the same tangent as C at P, Ties on the concave side of C (toward which N points), and has radius p = 1/ac (the re= ciprocal of the curvature) is called the oseulating circle (or the eirele of curvature) of C al P. Ibis the circle that best describes how C behaves near P; it shares the same tangent, normal, and curvature at P EXAMPLE 7 Find the equations of the normal plane andl osculsting plane of the helix in Example 6 at the point P(0,1,7/2). SOLUTION. ‘The normal plane at Phas normal vector #'(z/2) equation is == 0+ 09-9 1(:- 2) = ‘The osculating plane at P contains the vectors T and N, so its normal vector is TN = B. From Example 6 we have ro ronean o(8)-(a-h) {A simpler normat vector Is (1. 0,1), so an or raat la fon of the oscutating plane Is ‘So the radius of the osculating circle at the origin is 1/ ~ } and its center is (0, }). We summarize here the formulas for unit tangent, unit normal and binormal vectors, and curvature re Try BO TWX ND IP@| _ leo x re) ro] [rior{1U7_ARCLENGTH AND CURVATURE 78 EXERCISES 11.7 1-4 & Find the length ofthe given curve. Arlo) = Qi 3sint 3e0s), @= r= b 2. Fly) =(e.elsinteloost), 0 1 = Ie 3 rl) 6 + BVI + IK OFF =I Arr ag eink, Leree 5. Use Simpson's Rule with = 10 0 estimate the length of the are ofthe twisted cubie.x = 1, y= 12 = 1° from the ‘origin tothe point (2.4.8) Gi 6. Use a computer to graph the curve with parametric equa- tions 4 = eos. y = sin St 2 = sin. If your computer (oF calculatr) evaluates definite integrals, use i to ind the total length of this curve correct to four decimal places Otherwise, use Simpson's Rule 7-10 Reparametrize the curve with respect are length ‘casured from the point where 1 = 0 inthe ditection of increasing 7) Bri) = (4 201+ GH) Sk 9. FN) = Ssinst 4 nj + Sos 10. He) — con'rh + sin'ej + conark, OS F< w/2 ne (9) Find the unit tangent and unit normal vectors T() and NU (b) Use Formula 10 Find the curvature 11. FO) = (indy, 608-4) 12,0) = 6,328) 13, rl) = (VFeostsinssins) 14, 0) =F. 261n) 15-19 # Use Theorem 9 to find the curvature. Britt ek Le nied nj +aek 16.) 17, FO) = 2H = BH Ok 18. FG) = + EF = aj + OK 19. ri) = sinsi + cost) + sine $20. Graph te crv with parametric guntons x= y= 402 =P, and find the curvature atthe point (4-0 21-24 w Use Formula 10 to find the curvature, ayes raya ve 23, y= sins 2 y= Ine 25, At what point does the curve y =e have maximum BH 26-27 # Use a graphing calculator oF computer to graph both ‘the euwve and is curvature function xs) onthe same screen Is the graph of x what you would expedt? 2 ye aya 28, Use Theorem 9 to show thatthe curvature ofa plane parametric curve x= f(0.y = this Liv =] ier here the dots indicate derivatives with respect to 1 28-30 » Use the formula in Exe weer yar ise 28 to Find the curvature 30. x= ring, 231-32 « Find the vectors, N, and B at the given point. arid (ge a. (gl) 32, Flt) = (ese'sin ne" eos, (0.0) 33-34 # Find equations ofthe normal plane and osculating plane of the curve atthe given point. 2eos 3s ano 185.35. Find the equations of the osculating circles of the ellipse 9¢! + 4y" = 36 atthe points (2.0) and (0.3). Use a _ophing calculator or computer to graph the ellipse and hth osculatingcitcles on the same screen 33, x= 2sinde y Ox-2) Bare nye {BE 36. Find the equations ofthe osculating circles of the parabola y= Lx atthe points (0,0) and (1, |). Geaph both ‘oseulatng etcles and the parabols. 37, At what point on the curve x = 1.y = 342 = is the ‘normal plane parallel to the plane & + 6» ~ 82 = 1? (BE 36. Is there a point on the curve in Exercise 37 where the ‘oseulatng plane is parallel 1o the plane x + y + = = 1? Wate: You will need 8 CAS for differentiating, for Simplifying, and for computing a c1ss product.) 239, Show that the curvature i is related tothe tangent and ‘normal vectors by the equstion a de 40, Show thatthe curvature ofa plane curve is « = | is, ‘whee dis the angle between T and i that is, is the angle of inclination ofthe tangent line. (This shows that the definition of curvature is consistent with the definition for plane curves.)706 {1_THHEE-DMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS: 41, (a) Show that dBi is perpendicular to B. (b) Show that dBjds is perpendicular 10 7. (¢) Deduce from parts (a) and (b) that dBjls = ~2(s)N for some number £(3} called the torsion ofthe curve. (The torsion measures the degree of twisting of a curve.) 42, Show that ra plane curve the torsion is ris) 43, Show that ac length is independent of parametrization. [dint: Suppose C is given by F(t), = 1 = B, and also by ral) r= = B. where 1 = gla) and gi) > 0.16 Ly |S |eiin|dr and Ls = [2 eae, show that tin ba 44, The following formulas, called the Frenet-Serret formulas, sre of Fundamental importance in differential geometry 1. dis = «N 2. dNils eT +o 3. dBids = —2N (Formula I comes from Exercise 39 and Formula 3 comes from Exerise 41.) Use the fact that N= Bx T to deduce Formula 2 from Formulas | and 3. 45, Use the Frenet-Serret formulas to prove each of the following. Primes denote derivatives with respect to Start as in the proof of Theorem 9.) (= 8T tH ae)EN () Fx = a B eo aC + aes? FIN + re LXer Pere 46-47 w Use the formula in Exercige 440) joint the lobia of the curse. 46, F(t) = (eostesintt) arid = SP) 48, Find the curvature and torsion ofthe curve x = sinh y= cosh. = atthe point (0.1.0) 49, The DNA molecule has the shape of a double helis (see Figure 3 on page 691) The radius of each helix is about TO angstroms (1 angstrom — 10°" cm). Each helix rises bout 34 angstroms during each complete turn and there ate about 2,9 % 10° complete turns, Estimate the length of each belis 50, Let's consider the problem of design a railroad track to make a smooth transition between sections of straight ‘tack. Existing tick along the negative wanis is to be joined smoothly to a track along the line y = 1 for x 1 (a) Find a polynomial P = P(x) of degree 5 such thatthe function F defined by 0 treo Fy =4 PU) if0 alt). Show that Li) = no) Deduve that if =() = A fora then LA) ie ‘constant. (This i the la of conservation of angular momentum.) 27. The postion Funct oF spaceship is 4 n= G+ or+e+m95+(7->2>)K andthe coordinates of a space station are (64,9). The captain wants the spaceship to coast into the space station. When should the engines be turned of? 28, A socket burning ils onboant el while moving through space hs velocity 9() and mass m@) at time 1 I the ceaust gases escape with velocity ¥, relative to the rocket, ican be deduced from Newton's Second Law of Motion that m0) mi (b) For the racket to accelerate in a sruight line from rest fraction of is initial mass wouH the racket have to burn as Fut? (4) Show that ie) = ¥(0) = In 29, Use the following steps to prove Kepler's Second Lav. The notation isthe same as in the proof of the fest law. In particular. use polar coordinates so that P= Ureosd}i + Ursin 2d dt (4) Show that h (0) Deauce hat? = p, ae () IEA ~ AQ) is the area swept ost hy the radius vector =e) ithe ime interval [tf show that, aA do te temm {1 THHEE-DMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS: (4) deduce ha 30. Le The the pel of planet ooh Bn Hi fs the time requ for to tet Seem uh ep #4 ~ 44 = constant ‘orbit. Suppose thatthe lengths of the major and minor axes ar of the ellipse are 2a and 2b, ‘This sas thatthe ate at which i sep out is (a) the Eerie 29 part (1g show that 7 = 2b. Cons an proves Kepler’ Second ae oe ee Show that 2 = = ; ss 6) Le pars a and (10 show that 7? = #7 (6) tbe parts and ts ‘This ones Kepler Thi La [Nac that he pop tinaly constant 4G) finden the planet 31. The perio of Earths tit i approxinatly 36525 dys, the tis ace an Exe 30 ond he eth the Inuoravis of Earths rb. You wil aed the mass he Suna 199 10° grant the getatinal enstant her 0 Ning FF neview KEY TOPICS « Define, sate o cuss he allowing oe 22, Stand equation of eps hypaelos arbokds, 2. Distance formuta in iandicanas S fennel omen 23, Veer anton and component fancins tvcunmn 24, LimitoFa veto funtion © Pian ceor 25, Cominity of vector funtion bona sector 26, Derive ofa vector Fntion 2. Aion of vectors 2. Spaecune 8. Motpzation ofa yetr by a salar 28, Tang vector and tangent ine eens 29. Dileentation formals for vector ations $e: Da prc ena popes 20, Incpats of vector functions 11, Ange Rewcen to ects Leng ofa cune 12. Orthogonal vectors 22 Smoatn curve 13, Parte! vesors 33, Av nth faction 14, Dirt cosines 34, Coraie 15, Vector an salar protons 35. Unit somal vector 16, Work done bya constant fase 36, Binomal vector 1, jos prods an its properties 37. Noma plane 18, Scalar pe pout 34, Oscuting plane; osuating ice 19, Vector, parametric. and symmetric equations fine 39, Velosiy and acdeaton alone a care 20. Vector an salar equations af plane 40, Tangata ad poral components fcekration 21. Distance fom a pint toa plane 41, Kepler's Lawswy review ns EXERCISES 1-14 # Determine whether the statement is tre oF false. 1. For any yectors wand vin Vas ¥ = vu 2. For any vectors wand vin Vw ¥ = ¥ > u 3 For any vectors wand vin Vs, [uv] 4 For any yeotors wand v in Vs and any scalar & Aue) = uy 5. For any vectors w and v in Vand any sesar Hav) = (hu) 8 6. For any vectors u,v, and w in Vi Wty ewan ewe yw, 7. For any vectors w, ¥,and win Vis we ew) = (wa) ow 8. For any vectors w,¥, and w in Vi WW) = TH 9) 98. For any vectors wand v in V, (wy) = 0. 10. For any vectors w and V in Vi (4 9) XV = WY, 11. The cros product of two unit vectors is unit veetor. 12. A linearequation Ax + By + Ce + D =O represents a Tine in sje. 13. The set of points {(r,y.2) |x? + y* = IPisa eile, 14. The curse with vector equation rl) = 5 + 20) + 35% isa ine 415, Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle with vertices (2,6, ~4), BU=1,2,8), and C(O, 1,2), 16. Find an eqtion of the sphere with center (1,~1,2) and radius 3 17, Fin the center and radius of the sphere Sy HEE ae toy =H 18-30 Calculate the given quantity if asitj-2k bas-2jtk e=j-5k 18.204 3b 19. 64 ~ Se 20. [b| dab ax 23. |b xe) 24, tb Xe) 3.x 26. x (b x6) 27. The ang between a and b (cornet to the nearest degre) 28, The drcstion cosines of b 29, The scale projection of b onto a 30. The vector projection of b onto a a 33. 35. ” 38, 23, 40, a. Find the value of sch th 2x.3.—7) are orthogonal the vectors (2.4.4) and Find two unit vectors orthogonal 40 both (1, 0,1) and 2.3.4). Suppose that w= (vx w) = 2. Find (a) wx yew i) www) (yw w) W@uxyyry Show that i a,b, and e are in V, then fab) [0b 6) fe X al] fae tx Describe method for determining whether three points P.O, and R lie on the same line Describe a method for dettmining whether four points P.O, R. aod lie in the same plane in the acute angle between two diagonals of 3 cube. Given the points At1.0,1), B2,3,0), C(I. 1.4), and Di. 3.2) find the volume ofthe parallelepiped with ascent edges AB, AC, and AD. (a) Find a vector perpendicular tthe plane through the Points A(L,0.0), (2.0.1), and CU. 4.3) (b) Find the area of triangle ABC A constant force F = 34 + 54 + 10k moves an object along the line segment From (1,0.2}10 (5.3.8). Find the ‘work done if the distance is measured in meters and the force in newtons, A oat is pulled onto shore using two ropes. as shown in the diagram. If force of 255 N ismceded to pull the boa, find the magnitude ofthe force in each rope. Finl the magnitude of the torque about P if a $O-N foree is applied as shown, oem76 {1_THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND VECTORS 143-45 w Find parametric equations for the line that satisfies the given conditions, 43, Passing theough (, vedi je ak “44, Passing theough (~6, 1,0) and (2,-3.5) 4) and inthe direction of 45, Passing thebugh (1,0, 1) and parallel 10 te fine with parametric equations v = 41, y= 1 = 3, 2= 24+ 50 46-48 # Find an equation ofthe plane that satisfies the given conditions. 46, Passing through (4,—1,=1) and with normal vector 2.6,-3) 47, Passing through (4.1.2) and parallel to the plane rt+e=3 48, Passing through (~1,2.0), (2,041), and (-5,3,0) parametric equations 41 intersects the plane 50, Find the dinance from the origin to te line x new 1+ 2 S51. Determine whether the lines given by the symmetric equations and are parallel, skew, oF intersecting 52, (a) Show thatthe planes x 4 y = = = 1 ant 2x ~ By + de S are neither parallel nor perpendicular. () Find, creect tothe nearest degree, the angle between these pines, '53. Find the distance between the planes 3+ y ~ Bet yn de = 24 2 and ‘54-62 @ Idemtly and sketch the graph of each surlace. 54x 55a: 56. 6x + dy 4312 sryer te 58, 2250 sary oye tar te 61 na ey yn 63. An llipsoil is created by rotating the ellipse 4x2 + y= 16 about the wanis, Find an equation of the ellipsoid 64, A surface consists ofall points P such thatthe distance from P to the plane y = I is twice the distance from P to n. n. 2. 7 1%. ti. the point (0, ~1,0). Find an equator asl subfade hol! identity i. (@) Stetch the curve with veetor function ro) () Find (0) and #0). 2E+ sine] + cour Find parametric equations forthe tangent line tothe curve raty 1 at the point (1.1.1). Graph the curve and the tangeat line on a common screen. Wry = + + HYG +H, evaluate [ela Let Che the curve with equations x 2 = P.y = r= = Int Find (a) the point where C inersets the shane (parametric equations of the fangeat Hine a (1,10), and (6) anequation of the normal plane 10 Cat (1,0) ‘Use Simpson's Rue with » = 4 to estimate the length of the a of the curve with equations x= vi,y"= 4, =P +L from (14,2) 10 21,1, Find the length of the curve (2) = osrst 2,cos.sin20, “The felix v(t) = costi + sina + rk imtersects the curve r() = (1+ 04 + Fj + hk at the point (1.0.0). Find the angle of intersection ofthese curves. Reparametrize the curve r() = et + sins) + e“eostk ‘with respect to are length measured from the point (1.0.1) inthe direction of increasing For the curve given by rt) = (0/3/20 find (a) the ‘unit tangent vector, (H) the unit norms! vector, and (e) the Find the curvature ofthe ellipse x = 3e0st,y = inv at ‘the psimts (3,0) and (0, Find the curvature ofthe curve y atthe point (1,1. Find an equation of the osculating cine of the curve y= x — 1 at the origin, Graph both the curve and its Sseulating eee Find an equation of the osculating plane ofthe curve = n2h, y= 1.2 = 60821 at the point (0.7.1), {A panicle moves with position funetion Fin) = 2V21i + ej + eK Find the velocity, speed and agceleration of the particle, {A patele starts atthe origin with intial velocity 14-2) + kh acceleration is al) = 14 + J 41°, Find its position Function Find the tangential and normal components of the acceleration vector ofa particle with position function rin eti t+ Pk, AA disk of radius 1 is rotating inthe counterclockwise itection ata constant angular speed aA particle starts at the center of the disk and moves toward the edge along @Fixed radi so that is postion at time #1 0, is piven by i) = ARU}, where Ri) ~ cosent + sind {a} Show that the velocity vof the partie is coset + sinwni + ey ‘where vy = RU) isthe velocity ofa point om the edge of the disk, (b) Show that the acceleration of the particle is Dey + my = 4 CENGAGE sara om deh i © Fla) =e eosurt + etsinwAPPLICATIONS PLUS FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 2 1A particle P moves with constant angular speed « around a circle whose center is atthe ‘origin and whose radius is R. The particle is sad to be in uniform circular motion. ‘Assume thatthe motion Is counteriackwise and that ie particle isa the point (RO) ‘when 1 = 0, The position veetorattime ¢ = 0s Fi) Reosork + Reino} (a) Find the velocity vector v and show that VF = 0 Conclude that ¥ is tangent to the te and points inthe direction of the motion (b) Show thatthe speed ¥| of the particle is the constant wR. The period P of the particle is the time required for one complete evolution, Conelide that ork oe 7a tek _ de (©) Find the acceleration vector a. Show that tis proportional to and that it points toward the origin. An acceleration with this property is ealled a centripetal faceleration. Show thatthe magnitude of the acceleration vectc is [a| = Rev. (Suppose that the particle has mass m. Show thatthe magnitude ofthe force F tha required t0 produce this motion, called a centripetal force, is R II = 2. Acirevlar curve of radi R on a highway is banked at an angle # w that a ear can safely traverse the curve without skidding when thre is no friction hetween the road and the tires. The loss of Tretion could oceur, for example if the road is covered with a film fof water orice, The rated speed 0 of the curve isthe maximum speed that a ear can tain without skidding. Suppose a car of mass m is traversing the curve atthe rated speed ny. Two forces are acting onthe car: the vertical force, mg, due to the weight of the car, and a force F exerted by, and normal 10 the road. (See the figure.) ‘The vertical component of F balances the weight of the car, so that|F|cos@) = mg ‘The horizontal component of F produces a centripetal force on the car so that, by [Newton's Second Law and part (df Problem 1 [F|sing = E (a) Show that of ~ Rgtand. () Find the rated speed of a circube curve with radius 400 ft thats banked at an angle of 12 (€) Suppose the design engineers vant to keep the banking at 12°, but wish to increase the rated speed by S07. What should the radius ofthe curve be?3. A projectile is fired from the origin with angle of elevation a and initial speed Assuming that air esistance is negligible and thatthe only force ating on the projectile 's gravity g, we showed in Example II in Section 5.7 that the position vector of the projectile is HE) = (vpeosecirt + [lvosinat = 4gr°]j ‘We also showed thatthe maximum horizontal distance ofthe projectile is achieved when ‘a ~ 45° and in this case the range is R = 8/9. (@) At what angle should the prgectile be fied to achieve maximum height and what is the maximum height? (b) Fix the initial speed 0 and consider the parabola. + 2Ry ~ R° = 0, whose graph is shown in the figure. Show thatthe projectile can hit any argt inside oF on the boundary ofthe region bounded by the parabola and the taxis, and that it cannot hit any target outside this region, (©) Suppose that the gun is elevated 10 an ange of inclination in order to aim at a target that is suspended ata height h directly over a point D units downrange. The target is released atthe instant the gun is Fired. Shov that the projectile alsvays hits the target, epandless ofthe value eh, provided the projectile doesnot hit the ground ‘pefore” D. FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 3 4 A projectile is fired from the origin down an inclined plane that makes an angle @ with the horizontal. The angle of elevation ofthe gun and the inital velocity of the projectile are and th, respectively. (@) Find the position vector of the projectile and the parametric equations of the path of the projectile we functions ofthe time f (Ignore ar renstance) (b) Determine the angle of elevation a that will maximize the downhill range. (©) Suppose the projectile is Fired up an inclined plane whose angle of inclination is @. ‘At what angle should the projectile be fired to maximize the (uphill) range? FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 4yarn) FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 7 5. A projectile of mass mis fied from the origin at an angle of elevation a: In addition to ravity, assume that air resistance provides a fore that i proportianal to the velocity 8nd that opposes the motion. Then, by Newton's Second Law, the total force acting on the projectile satisfies the equation ak o oa ‘hese Ris the postion vector and k > 0 isthe constant of proportionality (a) Show that Equation 1 can be integrated to obtain the equation amok Be kay ati ak where vy = 910) = SEO), () Multiply both sides of the equation in part a) by ead show thatthe left-hand Side ofthe resulting equation isthe derivative of the product e"* R(). Then Integrate to find an expression forthe postion vector R(t) 6. Based on clinical evidence, it can be assumed thatthe rate of decrease ofthe concen: tration C of a drug in the bloodstream is proportional tothe concentration itself, that is, dCjdt = ~KC, where kis a postive constant. Thus, the coneenteation at time ris ven by Clo) = Gye, where Cy i the inital dosage. Now suppose thatthe deug is 0 he administered in equal dosages Cy at equally spaced time intervals of length T. ‘Asjume that when the drug is administered iis diffused immediately throughout the bloodstream: Mssume tht there isan instantaneous rise inthe concentration at ‘each administration ofthe drug. {a) Let C, ; be the concentration ofthe drug immediately after the mth injection and let 2, be the concentration immediately before the (n + Ith injection. Thus, Cy, and ‘Ry are the concentrations atthe heginning and end, respectively, of the mh imerval, expressions for C,- and &, t Ly» Cyan Himy Ry {) Let € = C(t) denote the concestraton ofthe drug inthe bloodsteam at any time 1. Sketch the graph of C. (4) Suppose thatthe drug i ineffective below the concentration level C; and is harmful above the concentration level Cy. Find a dosage Cy and a time interval Tso that, cently CCW Cy 7. In designing transfer curves to connect sections of straight eaeoad tracks, ts important to realize that the aeceleration of the train should be Continuous so that the reactive force exerted by the train onthe tack i also continuous. Because of the formulas forthe components of acceleration in Seetion 11.8, this wil be the case if the ‘curvature varies continuously. {a) A logical candidate fora transfer curve to join existing tracks given by y= I for x = Oand y = v2 — x for x = 1/v2 might be the function fla) = VI — 3, 0-< x < 1/2, whose graph is the arc of the circle shown in the figure, It looks reasonable at fist glance. Show that the Tunetion 1 eso vine if0 1. Could this be done with a fourth-degree polynomial? Use a graphing calculator or computer to sketch the graph ofthe “connected” function and check 0 see that i looks like the one in the Figure. 8. A ball rolls offs table witha speed of 2 fy6, The table is 3.5 ft high {@) Determine the point at which the ball hits the loor and findits speed atthe instant of impact. (©) Find the angle @ between the path of the ball andthe vertical ine drawn through the point of impact. (See the figure.) (©) Suppose the ball rebounds from the floor atthe same angle with which it floor, but loses 20% of its speed due to encrey absorbed by the b ‘Where docs the ball strike the floor on the second ounce?