Introduction In engineering practice, CAD/CAM has been utilized in different ways by different people. Some utilize itto produce drawings and document designs. Others may employ it as a visual tool by generating shaded images and animated displays. A third group may perform engineering analysis of some sort on geometric models such as finite element analysis. A fourth group may use it to perform process planning and gene- rate NC part programs. In order to establish the scope and definition of CAD/CAM. in an engineering environment and identify existing and future related tools, a study of a typical product cycle is necessary, Figure 1.1 shows a flowchart of such a cycle. THE DESIGN PROCESS Production planning Design snl Procurement ‘of new tools [7 oner material Fig.1.1 Typical Product Cycle.4 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice The product begins with a need which is identified based on customers” and markets’ demands. The product goes through two main processes from the idea conceptualization to the finished product: the design process and the manufacturing process. Synthesis and analysis are the main subprocesses that constitute the design process. Synthesis is as crucial to design as analysis. The philosophy, functionality and uniqueness of the product are all determined during synthesis. The major financial commitments to turn the conceived product idea into reality are also made. Most of the information generated during the synthesis subprocess is qualitative and consequently is hard to capture in a computer system. Expert and knowledge-based systems have made a great deal of progress in this regard and the interested reader should refer to the corresponding literature. The end goal of the synthesis subprocess is a conceptual design of the prospective product. Typically, this design takes the form of a sketch or a layout drawing that shows the relationships among the various product parts, as well as any surrounding constraints. It is also employed during brainstorming discussions among various design teams and for presentation purposes. The analysis subprocess begins with an attempt to put the conceptual design in the context of the abstracted engineering sciences to evaluate the performance of the expected product. This constitutes design modeling and simulation. The quality of the results and decisions involved in the activities to follow such as design analysis, optimization and evaluation is directly related to and limited by the quality of the chosen design model. It is the responsibility of the designer to ensure the adequacy of a chosen model to a particular design. An important characteristic of the analysis subprocess is the “what if’ scenario, which is usually valuable in design situations where analytical solutions do not exist. A computer environment where various design alternatives can be investigated is ideal to make better design. decisions in shorter periods of time. Algorithms for both design analysis and optimization can be implemented and utilized. While design optimization may be embedded in design analysis, it is identified as a separate phase in Fig. 1.1 to emphasize its significance to the design process as a whole. Once the major elements. of the design have been analyzed and their nominal dimensions determined, the design evaluation phase starts. Prototypes can be built in a laboratory or acomputer to test the design. More often computer prototypes are utilized because they are less expensive and faster to generate. They also help the designer determine other dimensions of the product that are not analyzed, as well as finalize those that result from analysis by employing commonsense design rules. The designer can also generate bills of materials, specify tolerances and perform cost analyses. The last phase of the analysis subprocess is the design communication and documentation which involves preparations of drawings, reports and presentations. Drawings are utilized to produce blueprints to be passed to the manufacturing process. The main phases of the manufacturing process are shown in Fig. 1.1. It begins with the process planning and ends with the actual product. Process planning is considered the backbone of the manufacturing process since it attempts to determine the most efficient sequence to produce the product. A process planner must be aware of the various aspects of manufacturing to plan properly. The planner works typically with blueprints and may have to communicate with the design department of the company to clarify or request changes in the final design to fit manufacturingIntroduction 5 requirements. The outcome of process planning is a production plan, tools procurement, material order and machine programming. Other special manufacturing needs such as design of jigs and fixtures are planned, Process planning to the manufacturing process is analogous to synthesis to the design process; it involves considerable human experience and qualitative decisions. This makes it difficult to computerize. However, CAPP (Computer Aided Process Planning) has progressed significantly. In addition to a centralized CAD/CAM database for CAPP, geometric models that are accessed must be unambiguous. Solid models possess such a characteristic and are used in CAPP development. ‘Once the process planning phase is complete, the actual production of the product begins. The produced parts are inspected and usually must pass certain standard quality control (assurance) requirements. Parts that survive inspection are assembled, packaged, labeled and shipped to customers. Market feedbacks are usually valuable in enhancing the products. These feedbacks are usually incorporated into the design process. With the market feedback, a closed-loop product cycle results, as shown in Fig. 1.1. ‘The phases of the design and manufacturing processes shown in Fig, 1.1 serve as the basis to define the design and manufacturing contents and consequently the tools that a CAD/CAM system must provide for engineers. To identify these tools properly, a CAD process and a CAM process have been defined in relation to the other processes. The CAD process is a subset of the design process. Similarly, the CAM process is a subset of the manufacturing process. The implementation of the CAD process on current systems takes the generic flow presented in Fig. 1.2. Once conceptual design materializes in the designer's mind, the definition of a geometric model starts via the user interface provided by the relevant software. The choice of a geometric model to CAD is analogous to the choice of a mathematical model to engineering analysis. It depends directly on the type of analysis to be performed. For example, finite element analysis might require a more different model than kinematic analysis. A valid geometric model is created by the CAD/CAM system through its definition translator which converts the designer input into the proper database format. In order to apply engineering analysis to the geometric model, interface algorithms are provided by the system to extract the required data from the model database to perform the analysis. In the case of finite element analysis, these algorithms form the finite element modeling package of the system. Design testing and evaluation may require changing the geometric model before finalizing it. When the final design is achieved, the drafting and detailing of the models starts, followed by documentation and production of final drawings. Table 1.1 relates the CAD tools to the various phases of the design process. The core of the CAD tools are geometric modeling and graphics applications. Aids such as color, grids, geometric modifiers and group facilitate structuring geometric models. Manipulations include transformation of the modcl in space so that viewed properly. Visualization is achieved via shaded images and animation procedures which help design conceptualization, communication and interference detections in some cases. The tools for design modeling and simulation are well diversified and are closely related to the available analysis packages. Optimization CAD tools are also available. Some FEM (Finite Element Modeling) packages provide some form of shape and structural optimization. Even though CAD tools for design6 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice. evaluations are hard to identify, they may include the proper sizing of the model after the analysis is performed to ensure engineering practices such as gradual change in dimensioning and avoidance of stress concentrations. Adding tolerances, performing tolerance analysis, generating a bill of materials and investigating the effect of manufacturing on the design by utilizing NC packages are also valuable tools that are available to designers. Definition of geometric model ¥ Definition translator Design ‘Geometric changes model Taterface algorithms Design and analysis algorithms Documentation To CAM process Fig. 1.2 Implementation of a Typical CAD Process on a CAD/CAM System Table 1.1 CAD Tools required to Support the Design Process Design phase Required CAD tool(s) Design conceptualization Geometric modeling techniques; graphics aids, manipulations and visualization Design modeling and simulation Same as above; animation; assemblies; special modeling packages Design analysis Analysis packages; customized Be programs and packages Design optimization Customized applications; structural optimization Design evaluation Dimensioning; tolerances; bill of materials; NC Design communication and Drafting and detailing; shaded images documentationIntroduction The implementation of the CAM process on CAD/CAM systems is shown in Fig. 1.3. The geometric model developed during the CAD process forms the basis of the CAM activities. Various CAM activities may require various CAD information. Interface algorithms are usually utilized to extract such information from CAD databases. In the case of process planning, features that are utilized in manufacturing (e.g., holes, slots, etc.) must be recognized to enable efficient planning of manufacturing. NC programs, along with ordering tools and fixtures, result from process planning. Once parts are produced, CAD software can be used to inspect them. This is achieved by superposing an image of the real part with a master image stored in its model database. After passing inspection, CAM software can be utilized to instruct robot systems to assemble the parts to produce the final product. ‘Geometric model Taterface algorithms Process planning NC Programs Inspection | Assembly t Packaging To shipping and marketing Fig. 1.3 Implementation of a typical CAM Process on a CAD/CAM System Table 1.2 relates the CAM tools to the previous phases of the manufacturing process. CAPP techniques include variant, generative and hybrid approaches. Various part programming languages are supported by most CAM software. These include APT, COMPACT II, SPLIT, etc. Inspection software utilizes CMMs (Coordinate Measuring Machines) which compares the coordinates of the actual parts with those of the master database. The robotics software supports robot simulation, offline programming and image processing and vision applications.8 © CAD/CAM Theory and Practice Table 1.2 CAM Tools required to Support the Manufacturing Process Manufacturing phase Required CAM tolls) Process planning CAPP techniques; cost analysis, material and tooling specification Part programming NC programming Inspection Inspection software Assembly Robotics simulation and programming = HISTORY OF CAD/CAM The roots of today’s CAD/CAM go back to the beginning of civilization when graphics communication was acknowledged by engineers of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. Some of the existing drawings on Egyptian tombs can be considered as technical drawings. Available work and notes of Leonardo da Vinci show the use of today’s graphics conventions such as isometric views and cross-hatching. Orthographic projection which we practice today was invented by the French mathematician Gaspard Monge (1746-1818) who was employed as a designer by his government. This method of projection was made available for public engineers at the beginning of the nineteenth century after the military kept it as a secret for thirty years. The inventions of computers and xerography later in that century have given graphics and consequently CAD/CAM, their current dimensions and power. CAD/CAM has gone through four major phases of developments in the past four decades. The first phase spanned the decade of the 1950s and can be characterized as the era of conceiving interactive computer graphics. Developments during the first half of the decade were slowed down by the expense:and inadequacy of computers of that period for interactive use. MIT was able to produce simple pictures by interfacing a television-like CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) with a Whirlwind computer in 1950. In 1952, MIT’s Servo Mechanisms Laboratory demonstrated the concept of Numerical Control (NC) on a three-axis milling machine. Passive graphics, displayed on CRTs, were used in the mid 1950s to solve military command and control problems. The second half of the 1950s had witnessed the conception of the lightpen. Such a conception was related to the project SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) Air Defense System developed out of MIT’s Lincoln Lab. During the late 1950s, APT (Automatically Programmed Tools) was developed and in 1959, GM began to explore the potential of interactive graphics. The decade of the 1960s represents the most critical research period for interactive computer graphics. The fact that the computer came out of research laboratories helped spark the development in this decade. The milestone of research achievements was the development of the Sketchpad system by Ivan Sutherland, which was published in 1962 as his thesis. The Sketchpad system was a dramatic event because it demonstrated that it was possible to create drawings and alterations of objects interactively on a CRT. By the mid 1960s, large computer graphics research was initiated by various groups. The term “computer aided design,” or CAD, started to appear and was used. The term implied computer graphics with the word “design”‘Introduction 9 extending it beyond basic drafting concepts. General Motors announced their DAC-1 system (Design Augmented by Computers) in 1964. In 1965, Lockheed Aircraft initiated CADAM and Bell Telephone Laboratories announced their GRAPHIC 1 remote display system, In the late 1960s direct view storage tubes became available commercially and storage tube-based “tumkey” systems began to evolve. During the decade of the 1970s, the research efforts of the 1960s in computer graphics had begun to be fruitful and the important potential of interactive computer graphics in improving productivity was realized by industry, government and academia. Various lectures and courses were organized by interested groups. In 1974, the first national SIGGRAPH Conference was held in Boulder, Colorado and a few years later the National Computer Graphics Association (NCGA) was formed and held its first meeting in 1980 in Washington D.C, Other important developments include the initiation of IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) in 1979. The decade of the 1970s can also be characterized as the golden era for computer drafting and the beginning of ad hoc instrumental design applications. Turnkey systems supplied draftsmen and/or designers with three-dimensional centralized databases primarily for modeling and drafting purposes. Some of these systems were slow 16-bit machines and the majority of them supported wireframe modeling in large and, on a limited basis, some surface modeling. Due to limitations and restrictions of modeling, only basic design applications were available. Such applications were mostly manual and far from being able to handle real industrial design problems. Mass property calculations, finite element modeling, NC tape generation and verification and integrated circuits were and still are, the most well-developed applications available. The management in various industries began to realize the impact of the then new CAD/CAM technology on improving productivity in the late 1970s. Engineers have been stretching the technology beyond drafting since then. They have demanded various design and manufacturing applications from CAD/CAM vendors who have been responding successfully within the existing limits of hardware, software and the basic theories underlying the field. Consequently, the decade of the 1980s can be identified as the CAD/CAM heady years of research. New theories and algorithms have evolved. An essential goal for this decade is to integrate and/or automate the various elements of design and manufacturing to achieve the factory of the future. The major research focus is to expand CAD/CAM systems beyond three-dimensional geometric design and provide more engineering applications. Accurate representations of sculptured surfaces based on Coons, Bezier and Gordon as well as B-spline surfaces have advanced the mass property calculations, the NC milling and the finite element applications that had existed a decade ago, Other applications such as mechanisms and robotics analysis and simulation, injection molding design and analysis, front-end tools to automate conceptual design and many others are examples of the breadth of the CAD/CAM field and its development. Another significant achievement is the acceptance and growing credibility of the solid modeling theory. The fundamental potential of solid modeling lies in the10 i CAD/CAM Theory and Practice fact that it provides unique and unambiguous geometric representations of solids which, in turn, help automate and/or support design and manufacturing applications. Major solid modeling systems now exist such as GMSolid (General Motors), Romulus (ShapeData), PADL-2 (University of Rochester), SynthaVision-based (Applicon) and Solidesign (Computervision). The hardware has kept pace with the software and applications developments. In addition to developments of special computer hardware, improved displays, almost real-time simulation hardware and microcomputer-based and workstation-based CAD/CAM systems have been emerging rapidly into the market. Most recent systems are as capable as most of the mainframe-based systems that appeared a decade ago. While the CAD/CAM field has come a long way in four decades thus far, its future certainly holds many challenges. Extrapolating this existing history reveals that the decade of the 1990s and beyond will represent the age where the fruits of the current research efforts in integrating and automating design and manufacturing applications will mature. It is anticipated that new design and manufacturing algorithms and capabilities will become available. These applications will be supported by better and faster computing hardware and efficient networking and communication software. [3/2 CAD/CAM MARKET TRENDS? ad The CAD/CAM market has always been in a state of flux since it began. New hardware configurations and software concepts are continuously developed. Chapters 2 and 3 cover the details and definitions of existing concepts. It is most likely that the market will continue to change rapidly over the next decade. The emergence of microcomputers and engineering workstations have contributed to the decline in price which make CAD/CAM systems more affordable by small businesses. In constant 1985 dollars, the U.S. market for CAD/CAM systems is expected to grow from about $3 billion in 1985 to $8 billion by 1992. In current dollar units, the 1992 sales figures may approach $12 billion, assuming an average inflation rate of 5.2 percent per year for the period 1985-1992. The average yearly growth rate in real (constant dollar) terms is expected to be 15 percent per year for the period; that is, the real growth is to slow down from an initial 21 percent per year in 1985 to about 10 percent per year in 1992. In current dollars, the average yearly growth is 21 percent per year. Growth is expected to decline over the seven-year span, 1985-1992, from 27 percent per year in 1985 to 17 percent per year in 1992. In the next few years, it is expected that purchases of large numbers of personal computers and workstations will be made. Traditional turnkey systems will continue to be sold but not at the rate seen in the past. These will be aimed at the project group which works together, at the drafting and drawing archival environment and 1 ‘This section includes excerpts from the Frost and Sullivan Report 1564.Introduction 3 11 at others where sharing a system does not seriously impede the productivity of co-workers. Turnkey systems will continue to offer high levels of software and peripheral capability and can be equipped with the same types of software tools and graphics terminals as their stand-alone workstation counter-parts. Chapter 2 discusses the various types of CAD/CAM systems. Forecasts by end-user industry are shown in Table 1.3 and Fig. 1.4. The largest users of CAD/CAM are the electronics, aerospace and automotive industries. The relative rankings of the top three industries are expected to be preserved until 1992. The growth rates of industries’ purchases of CAD/CAM systems vary. The fastest growth is seen in the construction, electronics and chemicals market segments. The rapid growth in construction is due to the combination of a relatively small installed base and the development of CAD/CAM technology toa point where constructions can productively use it on a large scale. The electronics segment is forecast to grow rapidly due to the rapid growth of the use of CAD/CAM within it, as well as continued overall rapid growth of the industry. Table 1.3 CAD/CAM Market, United states—sales by End-user Industry Sales by industry, $ million 4p oe Industry 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1985-1992, %} Aerospace 361 634 764 876 11.0 Automotive 312 596 737 860 12.6 Chemicals. 65 144 196 254 17.9 Construction M1 290 444 649 24.5 Electrical machinery 321 398 462 13.1 Electronics 012 1869 19.4 Food 80 113 11.1 Glass, stone 41 61 12.3 General machinery 391 Fabricated metals 371 Petroleum, gas 591 Paper 65 Rubber and plastics 111 Primary metals 25 Teatile, apparel 15 Other manufacturing 284 Architecture and engineering 110 282 Research 52 158 Other services 121 455 Total “other” 369 971 1180 6460 7951 Source: Frost and Sullivan Report 15112. 2 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice CADICAM market, United States Sales by end-user industry HERGRE ALES 09 (thousands) Sales of industry “1984 1986 1988) 1990 1992 x Electronics 1 Aerospace + Automotive ‘4 Electrical machinery 4 Construction 1986 1992 Aerospace Aerospace 18.6%) (24.19%) Electronic (33.2%; Electronics / 39.6%) ‘Automotive ‘Automotive em) (18.2%) Electrical Electric Construction machinery Construction machinery (13.80) (1L.8%) (8.9%) (9.8%) Fig. 1.4 CAD/CAM Market by End-user Industry The expected growth of the CAD/CAM industry is shown segmented by application type in Table 1.4 and Fig. 1.5. The largest application area is mechanical. This includes mechanical numerical control and robot programming also. This segment is about $1.2 billion in size in 1985 and is forecast to grow to 2.9 billion in 1985 dollars by 1992. The corresponding average annual growth rate in that period is 13.3 percent. The future of CAD/CAM is bright. The price of hardware is continually decreasing while its speed and performance is increasing. Thus, the price- performance ratio of hardware is always decreasing. CAD/CAM is rewarding itself. Designing better chips in less time and cost (via the existing CAD/CAM technology)Introduction 13 enables better graphics hardware to be produced and more extensive graphics algorithms to be embedded (in these chips). The resulting firmware will dramatically improve the response time. Consequently, real-time simulations and interactions will bea reality. A key factor to the future success of CAD/CAM is the development of versatile tools for design and manufacturing applications. While progress has been made, CAD/CAM still needs further development to achieve full design and manvfacturing automation. The concept of the “factory of the future” hinges on the successful integration and automation of various CAD/CAM functions. CAD/CAM market, United States Sales by application type Sales by application type (thousands) © Mechanical + Electronics ® AEC * Electrical x Other 1986 Other 1986 Other Mechanical (17.1%), (39.3%) Mechanical 6 AEC (17.1%) Electrical (2.8%) 3.7%) Electronics Electronics (27.1%), 22.8%) Fig. 1.5 CAD/CAM Market by Application Type14 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice Table 14 CAD/CAM Market, United States—sales by Application Type Growth per year |} 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1985-1992, %}, Sales by application type, 1985 $ millions Mechanical 1030 1426 = 1891-2390 2898 13.3 Electronics 502 827 1234: 1688-2149 18.7 Electrical 100-133 167 197 223 9.9 AEC 404 621 891 1197 1519 17.2 Mapping 160 205 246 «278 = 303 76 Technical illustration 141 207 285 369 «452 14.9 Other 146-207 275-343 407 12.9 Total 2484 3626 «64990 6460 7951 14.9 Percent shares Mechanical 415 39.3 37.9 37.0 36.5 -14 Electronics 20.2 22.8 24.7 26.1 27.0 3.3 Electrical 4.0 3.7 3.3 3.0 28 -44 AEC 16.30 17.1 17.9 185 19.1 1.9 Mapping 6.4 5.7 49 43 3.8 -64 Technical illustration 5.7 5.7 5.7 3.7 5.7 0.0 Other 5.9 5.7 5.5 5.3 5.1 -18 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 , Growth rates Mechanical 18.0 14.3 118 94 — 83 Electronics 27.7 «206 «15.9 11.6 - 122 Electrical 15.3 10.9 8.1 6.0 - 12.2 AEC 23.9 18.7) 15.1 11.6 -9.9 Mapping 130 85 57 41 - 15.7 Technical illustration 214 16.3 13.0 9.9 - 10.1 Other 19.0 14.2 10.9 82 - 117 Total 20.9 16.3 13.1 10.1 -98 Source: Frost and Sullivan Report 1564. [14 2 DEFINITION OF CAD/CAMTOOLS In Sec. 1.1 we have defined CAD and CAM as subsets of the design and manufacturing processes respectively. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 list some CAD and CAM tools. In this section, we define CAD, CAM and CAD/CAM tools. These definitions are based on practical and industrial use of the CAD/CAM technology. The definitions are broad enough to encompass many of the details that readers may wish to add, Employing their constituents, CAD tools can be defined as the intersection of three sets: geometric modeling, computer graphics and the design tools.Introduction 3 15 Figure 1.6 shows such definition. As can be perceived from this figure, the abstracted concepts of geometric modeling and computer graphics must be applied innovatively to serve the design process. Based on implementation in a design environment, CAD tools can be defined as the design tools (analysis codes, heuristic procedures, design practices, etc.) being augmented by computer hardware and software throughout its various phases to achieve the design goal efficiently and competitively as shown in Fig. 1-7. The level of augmentation determines the design capabilities of the various CAD/CAM systems and the effectiveness of the CAD tools they provide. Designers will always require tools that provide them with fast and reliable solutions to design situations that involve iterations and testings of more than one alternative. CAD tools can vary from geometric tools, such as manipulations of graphics entities and interference checking, on one extreme, to customized applications programs, such as developing analysis and optimization routines, on the other extreme. In between these two extremes, typical tools currently available include tolerance analysis, mass property calculations and finite element modeling and analysis—to name a few. Computer graphics concepts Design tools (analysis, codes, heuristics, etc.) Fig. 1.6 Definition of CAD Tools based on their Constituents Hardware (Central unit, display terminals, input/output devices) Design tools + computer =CAD tools Software (graphics, modeling, applications programs) Fig. 1.7 Definition of CAD Tools based on their Implementation ina Design Environment16 3 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice CAD tools, as defined above, resemble a guidance to the user of CAD technology. The definition should not and is not intended to, represent a restriction on utilizing itin engineering design and applications. The principal purposes of this definition are the following: 1. To extend the utilization of current CAD/CAM systems beyond just drafting and visualization. 2. Tocustomize current CAD/CAM systems to meet special design and analysis needs. 3. To influence the development of the next generation of CAD/CAM systems to better serve the design and manufacturing processes. Similar to the definition of CAD tools, CAM tools can be defined as the . intersection of three sets: CAD tools, networking concepts and the manufacturing tools as shown in Fig. 1.8. This definition enforces the link between ‘CAD and CAM as well as database centralization. The main elements to implement CAM intoa manufacturing environment are shown in Fig. 1.9. There are two main factors that determine the success of this implementation. First, the link between CAD and Networking. ‘concepts CK Manufacturi re turing tools (manufacturing processes, heuristics, etc.) Fig. 1.8 Definition of CAM Tools based on their Constituents Hardware (central unit, display terminals, input/output devices) Software Manufacturing tools + computer }- (CAD databases, NC, = CAM tools CAAP, MRP, etc.) Networking (of robots, manufacturing cells, material handling systems, ete.) Fig. 1.9 Definition of CAM Tools based on their Implementation in a Manufacturing EnvironmentIntroduction 3 17 must be a two-way route. CAD databases must reflect manufacturing requirements such as tolerances and features. Designers must think in terms of CAM requirements when finalizing their designs. On the other hand, CAD databases and their limitations must be conveyed to manufacturing engineers who plan to utilize them in process planning and other manufacturing functions. It should be pointed out that not all manufacturing processes are, or need to be, computer driven. The second factor that decides the success of CAM is the hardware and software networking of the various CAM elements to automate the manufacturing process. The factory of the future and its levels of automation are directly related to the soundness of the networking concepts. Timely synchronization among robots, vision systems, manufacturing cells, material handling systems and other shop-floor tasks is one of the most challenging networking problems that face the implementation of CAM. With the definitions of CAD and CAM tools in hand, the reader might speculate on the definition of CAD/CAM. Extending the philosophy of these former definitions, Fig. 1.10 presents the definition of CAD/CAM tools as the intersection of five sets: the design tools, the manufacturing tools, geometric modeling, computer graphics concepts and networking concepts. If one argues that the ultimate goal of an engineering task is a consumer product, CAD/CAM can be defined as a subset of the product cycle augmented by computer, as shown in Fig. 1.11, Manufacturing I Networking, integration, and automation concepts Geometric modeling Computer graphics concepts Fig. 1.10 Definition of CAD/CAM Tools based on their Constituents INDUSTRIAL LOOK AT CAD/CAM Historically, thus far, CAD/CAM is a technology (both hardware and software) and applications driven field. Aerospace, automotive and shipbuilding industries have influenced, to a great extent, the development of lofted and sculptured18 3 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice Hardware Design and manufacturing + computer [— Software = CADICAM tools tools ‘Networking Fig. 1.11 Definition of CAD/CAM Tools based on their Implementation in an Engineering Environment surfaces. Therefore, understanding the utilization and implementation of the CAD/ CAM technology in an industrial environment helps to close the gap between creating the technology, managing it, using it and more importantly learning it. Figure 1.12 shows, ina general sense, how a typical CAD/CAM system is utilized in a typical industrial environment. The figure shows the major components or packages that exist. The detailed capabilities and functions of each package as well as the various types of existing user interface are what makes these systems look entirely different. As a matter of fact, practical experience has proven that learning one system is sufficient to learn another one at a much faster pace. This faster pace is attributed to dealing with the same functions. All the user has to dois to adjust to the user interface and the management hierarchy of the new system. One might conclude that learning the generic basic concepts behind these systems does not only speed up the training curve of perspective users but it also helps them utilize the technology productively. The principal packages available consist of geometric modeling and graphics, design, manufacturing and programming software. The three available types of modeling are wireframes, surfaces and solid modeling. The underlying theories of these modeling types are presented in Chapters. 4, 5 and 6 respectively. A wide variety of geometric entities or items are accessible by the designer under each. modeling technique. Graphics encompass such functions as geometric transformations, drafting and documentation, shading, coloring and layering. The design applications package includes mass property calculations, finite element modeling and analysis, tolerance stack analysis, mechanisms modeling and interference checking. If a design or manufacturing application is encountered where the system's standard software can not be utilized, a customized software may be developed using the programming language provided. These languages are typically either system dependent or independent. Once the design is complete, drafting and documentation are performed on the model database. The model is now ready for CAM applications such as process planning, tool path generation and verification, inspection and assembly. This text is written with the above industrial look at CAD/CAM in mind. A coherent realization of the current CAD/CAM tools and their relationships to one another form an essential core to the learning process. Thus learning the basis of existing tools enhances both the utilization of current systems and the development of new design and manufacturing applications.Introduction ‘Geometric modeling of conceptual design Is design = evaluation possible Develop eustomized || with available " rihavalae programs and packages 2 Design package | Design testing and 1 evaluation modeling Is final design acceptable ? Documentation reid ‘Are there manufacturing discrepancies in CAD databases ok 1 It ' 1 \. i CAPP package 1 1 \ 1 1 ‘ NC ! | | programming | | : | NC package H Machining | | 1 t 4 Inspection and robotics package Fig. 1.12 Ulilization of Typical CAD/CAM Systems in an Industrial Environment20 2 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice 1.6 2 BOOK APPROA This book focuses primarily on covering the theory and practice of CAD/CAM concepts. The book: 1. Presents enough of the geometric modeling and computer graphics concepts to achieve two goals. First, to enable the student or engineer to utilize the existing CAD/CAM technology properly in engineering applications. There are always overestimated expectations among users of what CAD/CAM systems can do. Second, to enable the student or engineer to predict the effect of input parameters on design outputs instead of the trial-and-error approach that is widely used. Such an approach often results in user frustration and a significant decline in productivity when utilizing the new technology relative to manual procedures, The user should be able to know the characteristics of a B-spline surface, or a Bezier surface, for example, in order to control the surface behavior in a particular design application. 2. Presents enough CAM concepts to achieve two goals: first, to enable the student or engineer to recognize the influence of design on manufacturing in general and CAD on CAM in particular; second, to enable the student or engineer to appreciate the subtleties facing CAD and CAM integration and automation. 3. Relates the book topics to the current practice of the CAD/CAM technology. Each topic in the book is covered first from a theoretical point of view and then followed by its implementation, if possible, on CAD/CAM systems. This approach is extended to the “Problems” section at the end of each chapter. This section is divided into three parts. Problems of the first part will test the concepts introduced in the chapter. Problems of the second part will require a CAD/CAM system. Third-part problems will be on programming. This approach of mixing theory and applications will better prepare students and will help engineers evaluate CAD/CAM systems. It also gives instructors additional flexibility in choosing the types of problems that reflect their teaching philosophy and emphasis. Some might emphasize first and second parts, first and third parts, second and third parts, or all parts. 4. Presents the material in enough depth and breadth to help students fully utilize the various concepts in actual applications. Each chapter of the book has a bibliography for further reading and investigation in order to fulfill specialized needs of certain groups that utilize the book. These bibliographies are essential for an emerging area such as CAD/CAM. The book also attempts, as much as possible, to point out the integration among the various concepts. Thus, the student will be able to see the return on investment of spending time to perform design on CAD/CAM systems. For example, the student will be required to utilize a geometric model that is created in Part II in Parts III, IV, V and VI of the book. ‘The development of the book has taken into consideration the wide variety of hardware and software configurations that various schools utilize in conjunction with their CAD/CAM curricula. The book material is suitable for any configurationIntroduction 3 21 as long as it provides students with three basic packages: modeling and graphics, applications and programming. The difference comes in the degree of emphasizing one topic versus another and the types of problems that students can handle. For example, if a configuration does not have solid modeling in the modeling and graphics package, the instructor will adjust accordingly when solid modeling material is covered. 1.7 3 BOOK ORGANIZATION The book material is organized to reflect the definitions of CAD/CAM tools, the book approach and the current practice of CAD/CAM technology. The book presents ideas and strategies that are effective for a large class of engineering problems. It also organizes these ideas in a creative fashion. Some of the highlights of the organization are the sections on design and engineering applications, the problems and the bibliographies. These sections present generic solutions and approaches that have been developed and tested on typical CAD/CAM systems for various design problems. It is recommended that the student utilizes and adapts these solutions to a particular system. The book is organized in a logical order into six major parts. Part I presents an overview of CAD/CAM systems—both hardware and software. It sets the stage for the following parts and establishes the relative relationships between the various topics of the book. It also provides the necessary background and terminology underlying existing CAD/CAM systems. Moreover, the knowledge gained in this Part is related later on to the theoretical concepts covered in other chapters. For example, the raster scan displays and hardware resolution covered in Chapter 2 will be related to the topic of shading and coloring in Chapter 9. Similarly, Chapter. 8 will show how the homogeneous geometric transformation relates both the database and the working coordinate systems covered in Chapter 3 to each other. The motivation to include Part I in the book stems from the fact that there are many similarities among current various CAD/CAM systems which, if they are understood correctly, will make the utilization and evaluation of these systems more effective. This first chapter is an introduction which provides the rationale for learning about the CAD/CAM field and its relation to product design and manufacturing. Chapter 2 presents a generic description of available hardware. Various existing CAD/CAM systems are classified based on their hardware configurations. Advantages and disadvantages of each configuration are presented. Input and output devices are also covered in the chapter. Chapter 3. complements the material of Chapter 2 and extends its philosophy to software. The major goal of this chapter is to show that CAD/CAM systems are very similar to each other and conceptually utilize the same concepts. To achieve this goal, basic definitions most often utilized by CAD/CAM software are introduced. In addition, the major software modules available to designers and engineers are provided with their available capabilities. Details of the basic concepts governing these modules are covered in later chapters of the book. Part II deals with the subject of geometric modeling. This part presents the available three types of modeling techniques: wireframes (curves), surfaces and22 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice solids. Chapters 4, 5 and 6 cover these techniques respectively in a consistent fashion. Each chapter deals first with the various geometric entities provided by each modeling technique. This is followed by the manipulations’ functions such as displaying, trimming, intersection and projection. Examples are provided throughout the chapters. In addition, there is a design and applications section in each chapter which combines the material in each chapter into relevant engineering problems. Chapter 7 ends this part by covering the exchange of CAD/CAM databases among. various CAD/CAM systems. Part II] is a logical flow of Part IL It treats the basic graphics concepts which when applied to geometric models result in the versatile and basic visual tools CAD/CAM systems provide. Chapter 8 introduces the concepts of homogeneous transformation. Chapter 9 covers algorithms for hiding surfaces and solids, shading and coloring. ‘While the first three parts of the book deal with the fundamentals of CAD/ CAM, the last three parts harness the acquired knowledge and cover thie related CAD and CAM tools and applications: Part IV deals with the interactive tools that are typically available to designers on all today’s CAD/CAM systems. These tools facilitate the creation and management of CAD/CAM databases. Chapter 10 presents the available graphics aids. Some of these aids such as geometric modifiers and grids help minimize the amount of calculations to create a geometric model. Others such as names and groups help manage and manipulate the model. This chapter also introduces the concept of layering which is important for managing graphics of large and extensive models. Chapter 11 deals with manipulating graphics of geometric models for creation, visualization and calculation purposes. Chapter 12 covers animation procedures. Examples of how to employ animation in engineering studies are included. In many engineering problems, there is a need to customize the available tools. In the case of the CAD/ CAM subject, it is desired to customize CAD/CAM systems to meet particular needs and increase productivity. Examples and problems are covered in the chapter. Part V describes the most widely available CAD applications on CAD/CAM systems. The basic concepts of each application, its implementation into software and its utilization in design problems are covered. Chapter 13 deals with finite element modeling and analysis and discusses the issues related to interfacing modeling and analysis. Chapter 14 discusses how design projects with CAE focus can be developed to reflect the capabilities of CAD/CAM systems. Part VI discusses the issue of integrating CAD and CAM databases. Chapter 15 describes the available prominent CAM applications such as process planning and part programming. The chapter also discusses the influence of CAD on CAM. PROBLEMS Part 1: Theory Short Answer Questions/Objective Type Questions 1.1 What is CAD/CAM? 1.2. What is process planning? What is its importance in product development?Introduction 3 23 1,3 What is the basic difference between manufacturing and production? 1.4 Define CAD/CAM tools, 1.5 CAD isa subset of Computer Aided Engineering. (True/False) 1.6 What are all the situations when CAD/CAM implementation will be successful? Part 2: Theory 1.1 Most often when you talk to designers who utilize CAD/CAM systems in their design work, they mention that these systems should provide them with more design capabilities. Why? Do you have any suggestions to help them? Make a list of your favorite design capabilities which you would like to see provided by the CAD/ CAM technology. 1.2 Most often when you talk to managers of CAD/CAM systems, in industry, about the evaluation of these systems, they feel that productivity gains promised to them by using the systems are hard to achieve. Why ? Identify the various factors that influence these gains. 1.3 Make a list of some of the engineering projects you were involved with and apply the definitions of CAD, CAM and CAD/CAM covered in Sec. 1.4 to them. 1.4 Apply the design and CAD tools defined in Sec. 1.1 to some of the design projects you identified in Prob. 1.5. Draw the corresponding flowchart for each one. What are the specific CAD tools that each project requires? 1.5 Some design applications would be better with CAD than others. Why? What charac terizes an application as a good candidate for CAD? 1.6 Discuss the benefits of CAD/CAM to engineering design as compared to conventional methods. 1.7 What are the different ways by which CAD/CAM tools can be effectively utilized? 1.8 What are the advantages and limitations of CAD/CAM technology? 1.9 Enumerate the basic difference between CAD/CAM and production automation. 1.10 Whatare the fundamental reasons for implementing a CAD system and the general design process? Explain briefly. 1.11 With a block diagram, explain the different phases of design and manufacturing processes. : 2 Explain the functional areas of a basic CAD system and their applications in the design process. 1.13 Distinguish between models of the design process and models of designs. 1.14 With a simple sketch, define various CAD/CAM tools based on their constituents. 1.15 How is the CAD/CAM data related to design and manufacturing in a typical production-oriented company? 1.16 Draw a diagram showing product cycle with the implementation of CAD/CAM technology. 1.17 Explain various manufacturing systems and the role of CAD/CAM technology in each of them. 1.18 Briefly explain the various steps involved in a design process. 1.19 Whatare the various design related tasks in CAD? Explain each one of them briefly 1 Part 3: Labotatory 1.20 Familiarize yourself with the CAD/CAM system you will use to do the laboratory assignments at the end of cach chapter. Make sure you can use the user interface and documentation provided by the system.24 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice Part 4: Programming 1.21. Familiarize yourself with the programming languages available to you on the CAD/ CAM system. Make sure you can deal with files (creation, editing, deletion, etc.) and compile and execute computer programs. = BIBLIOGRAPHY Chang, T. C, and R. A. Wysk: An Introduction to Automated Process Planning Systems, Prentice-Hall, 1985. Chasen, S. H.: “Historical Highlights of Interactive Computer Graphics,” Mech. Engng, vol. 103, no. 11, 1981. Childs, J. ‘rinciples of Numerical Control, Industrial Press, New York, 1969. Dieter, G.: Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill, 1983. Everett, R. R.: “The Whirlwind I Computer,” Joint AIEE-IRE Conf., 1952, Rev. Electron. Digital Comput., February 1952. Foley, J. D. and A. van Dam: Fundamentals of Interactive Computer Graphics, Addison- Wesley, 1982. Frost and Sullivan, Inc.: “CAD/CAM Market in the United States,” Report 1564, New York, 1986. Haug, E. H. and J. S. Arora: Applied Optimal Design; Mechanical and Structural Systems, John Wiley, 1979. Jacks, E.; “A Laboratory for the Study of Man-Machine Communication,” AFIPS, FJCC 26, pt. 1, 1964. Newman, W. M. and R. F. Sproull: Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979. Ninke, W.: “GRAPHIC 1—A Remote Graphical Display Console System,” AFIPS, FICC 22, pt. 1, 1965. Pusztai, J. and M. Sava: Computer Numerical Control, Reston, A Prentice-Hall Company, Reston, Va., 1983. Requicha, A. A. G. and H. B. Voelcker: “Solid Modeling: A Historical Sammary and Contemporary Assessment,” [EEE Computer Graphics and Applic., vol. 2, no. 2, March 1982. Requicha, A. A. G. and H. B. Voelcker: “Solid Modeling: Current Status and Research Directions,” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applic, vol. 3, no. 7, October 1983. Shigley, J. E. and L. D. Mitchell, Mechanical Engineering Design, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1983. Steidel, Jr., R. and J, M. Henderson: The Graphic Language of Engineering, John Wiley, New York, 1983. Sutherland, I. E.: “SKETCHPAD: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System,” Spring Joint Computer Conf., Spartan, Baltimore, Md., 1963. Teicholz, E.: CAD/CAM Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1985. Vanderplaats, G. N.: Numerical Techniques for Engineering Design: With Applications, McGraw-Hill, 1984. Zeid, 1: “Understanding Tumkey CAD/CAM System Capabilities: Overview of the Computervision CDS 4000,” J. Engng Computing and Applic., vol. 1, no. 2, Winter 1987. Zeid, I. and T. Bardasz: “The Role of Turnkey CAD/CAM Systems in the Development of the “Graphysis’ Concept,” Proc. 1985 ASME International Computers in Engineering Conf. and Exhibit, Boston, Mass., August 4-8, 1985.CAD/CAM Hardware 2.1 2 INTRODUCTION _ ; = CAD/CAM systems are usually known for their fast interactive response and gtaph- ics display. It is a common question to ask: what are the differences between a CAD/ CAM system and a conventional computer system? The answer is related to the two basic clements of the system, that is, hardware and software. The differences in hard- ware lie, in general, in the specialized input and output devices typically required by a CAD/CAM system to handle interactive graphics inputs and displays. Input devices may include alphanumeric keyboards, programmed-function keyboards, digitizing tablets, lightpens, electronic styli, trackballs, mouse systems and touch input devices. Output devices may include conventional plotters, hardcopy printers and more importantly graphics display terminals. These terminals are quite different from the conventional video display, or video terminals, usually referred to as com- puter terminals which generally display only text. Graphics display terminals possess various local processors and controllers that can perform various graphics functions, such as transformations and graphics generation, locally at the hardware level to reduce the interactive time response between the user and the system. The unique characteristics of software that contribute to the apparent distinct look of CAD/CAM systems are the integration and user interfaces. Such software typi- cally provides the user with a full range of functions and modules that all relate to a centralized database. While the core of CAD/CAM software is written in conventional programming languages such as FORTRAN or C, various user interfaces vary distinc- tively from one system to another and quite sharply from conventional interfaces such as data files or user dialogues encountered in typical engineering software.26 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice CAD/CAM hardware has progressed steadily from slow specialized systems to fast standard ones. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the majority of commercially available CAD/CAM systems were based on 16-bit word minicomputers. It ‘was typical then to find turnkey vendors who designed and manufactured their own hardware to run their software. As a result, users of such systems were faced with the problem of dealing with nonstandard operating systems which most often resulted in system isolation. In addition, interfacing and networking these systems with other computers were not feasible. Other vendors have envisioned the importance of standard hardware and have consequently adapted it to fit the architecture and configuration of their systems. Bundled systems were common at that time. A bundled system is a packaged hardware and software that is sold and maintained by a single vendor. It is also known as a turnkey system. With the constantly increasing demand in performance and diversity of utilizations, CAD/CAM systems have migrated to 32-bit word minicomputers to provide the accuracy and support calculation intensity required by applications such as finite element analysis and solid modeling. These systems are commonly unbundled and offer users the flexibility to choose the optimum hardware and software configurations to meet their needs. The majority of today’s CAD/CAM systems utilizes open hardware architecture and standard operating systems. Open hardware architecture implies that CAD/ ‘CAM vendors no longer design and manufacture their own hardware platforms. Instead the CAD/CAM industry relies upon the giant general-purpose computer companies and smaller firms that specialize in engineering workstations. Thus users can network the CAD/CAM systems to other computer systems as well as hardwire them to various manufacturing cells and facilities. They can also run third party software to augment the analysis capabilities typically provided by CAD/CAM vendors. With the advancements in IC (Integrated Circuit), PC (Printed Circuit) and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology, current CAD/CAM systems are based on the workstation concept. Such a concept provides both single-user and timesharing environments, These advancements have resulted in reducing the developing and manufacturing costs and time of chips. It has therefore become feasible to develop firmware by embedding calculations and graphics-intensive algorithms into chips to speed up their executions instead of developing conventional software, The microcomputer (PC)-based CAD systems have been developing remarkably in the past few years. The conventional problems of memory size, processing speed and memory-accessing speed seem to be going away. Similarly, peripheral storage has been enhanced by developing high-capacity fixed (hard) disks with high access ‘speeds. User-interaction techniques have also been developing rapidly. CAD/CAM systems based on either the microcomputer or workstation concept represent a distinct philosophy or trend in hardware technology which is based on a distributed (stand-alone) but networked (linked) environment. Workstations can be linked together as well as to mainframes dedicated to numerical computations. ‘Other processors may exist in the network to control other types/ of hardware such as file and print servers. These distributed systems are able to perform major graphics functions locally at the workstations and operations that require more power are sent to the mainframe. The communication between devices in this distributed design