esckIepIm

qaM 1959 visVkr Texas Instruments )anrkeXIjkarrYmbBalKanesoKVI begtI )anCa IC

U enaHmanEt 6 Transister b:ueNaH ebIeFobCamYynwgbcb,nenH
(Integrated Circuit) Edl IC dMbg
CPU (Central Processing Unit) Intel Pentium Pro manrhUtdl;eTACag 5,5 lan
Transistor.
qaM 1969 Rkumhun Intel )anENnaMnUv IC mYyRbePTeTotEdlman Memory
GacpkTinn y )anTMhM 1 K-Bit ( RbEhl 128 Byte). edaysareCaKCyTaMgenaH Rkumhun
Busicomp rbs;Cb:un )anesIeGay Intel plit IC cMnYn 12 RbePTepSg
KaedIm,IdMrUveTAnwgTMrg;xusKanRbePTkuMBTr rbs;BYkeK. CMnYseGaykarplit IC 12
RbePTepSgKaenaH visVkrrbs;Rkumhun Intel )anbBallkNTaMgGs;rbs; IC TaMg 12
enaHeGayeTAenAkg IC EtmYyvij. Intel )anplit IC mYyEdldMeNIrkar
eRkamkarRKb;RKgrbs;kmvFi I CamYyeKaledAKWGnuvtbNaRbmaNviFTI aMgGs;enAelI IC EtmYy.
qaM 1971 : IC m:ak Intel 4004 )anekIteLIg nigvaGaceFVkI ar)anCamYyTinn y RbEvg 4
bit.
qaM 1972 : IC m:ak Intel 8008 GaceFVIkar)anCamYyTinnyRbEvg 8 bit.
qaM 1973 : PC EdleRbIR)as; IC 8008 RtUv)aneKGPivDQaneLIg. enAcug qaM 1973 Intel
)anplit IC 8080 Edlmanel,nelOnCag IC 8008 cMnYn 10 dg nigGacEbgEckGasydan
Memory )anrhUtdl;eTA 64 Kilo Byte Memory.

qaM 1975 Rkumhun IBM )anbgajelITIpSanUv PC dMbUgbMputrbs;BYkeK

CamYynwglTPaBEbgEckGasydan Memory )anrhUtdl;eTA 16 Kilo Byte.
qaM 1980 RbBnkMuBTr IBM sMrab;kariyalyRtUv)aneKpliteLIg.
kgkMLgeBl 16 qaMeRkayenaH IBM )anplit PC eLIgCamYynwgbMlas;br \tQb;Qr.
]TahrN_dUcCa IBM )anvivDBIkareRbI CPU Intel 8088 4.77 MHz eLIgeTAeRbIR)as; Intel
Pentium II 300 MHz vij Edlel,nenaHelOnCag IBM PC dMbUgrhUtdl;eTACag 2000
dg. eBlenaH IBM TTYl)anTIpSay:agFMelI BiPBelak EteRkaymk Intel nig Microsft
)ancab;dKabegItecjCasg;da
sMrab;kuMBTr
EdleFVIeGayBYkeK)anTTYlnUvcMNab;GarmN_y:ageRcInBIsMNak;
GtifiCnrhUtmkdl;sBVfenH.
I.

RbBnkMuBTr

muneBlcUleTAdl;karsikSaPasabegtI kmvFi kI MuBTr eyIgxJMsUmENnaMRtYs GMBIEpkmUldan

nigsBaaNdMbUgrbs;RbBnkMuBTr Edlbcb,nenHkMBugRtUv)aneK eRbIR)as;y:agTUlMTUlay.

rUb

1. KMnUsbMRBYjbNaEpkmUldanrbs;RbBnkuMBTr
2

I.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

eyIgGacniyay)anfa CPU CaTIcat;karTUeTArbs;kuMBTr manParkicG nuvtnUv ral;RbmaNviFI

(TaMgRbmaNviFn
I BVn
nigRbmaNviFtI k)
ehIyvakCakEngRKb;RKg
nUvral;lMnaMRbtibtirbs;bNabBaa (Command) TaMgLay.
kg CPU rYmmanbIFatusMxan;KW

FatuTI

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

CU (Control Unit)
Register
1 ALU

ALU CakEngGnuvtnUvral;bNaRbmaNviFIrbs;kuMBTr dUcCa

FatuTI

RbmaNviFInBVn (+, -, *, /, %, . . .)
RbmaNviFItk (AND, OR, NOT, XOR, . . .)
RbmaNviFIeRbobeFob ( >, <, =, !=, . . .)
2 CU

CakEngRKb;RKgral;deM NIrkarTaMgLaykgkMuBrTr
vasMerceGayEpkNamYy
nkMuBTrGnuvtkargarGVImYy
tamrykarbegItCasBaabBaa
ehIybBaneTA
kan;EpkEdlRtUvGnuvtenaH.

FatuTI

3 Register

eRkAGMBIBIrFatuEdl)anniyayxagelI enAkg CPU enAman Register mYy cMnYneTot.

Register KWCabNabnH Memory BiessmYy EdlvaRtUv)aneK pSaPab;enACamYy CPU
Etmg nigmanmuxgarCak;lak;erogxn . ]TahrN_ dUcCakg CPU esrI Intel 80x86 man
13 bnH Register RbEvg 16 bit dUcCa AX, BX, CX, DX, SP, BP, SI, DI, CS, DS,
ES, SS, IP, nig Flag Edl bnH Register nImYysuTEtmanmuxgarkMNt;epSgKa.

I.2 Memory

RtUv)aneKeRbIsMrab;rkSaTukTinny bkkmviFIepSg. CaFmta enA

kgRbBnkuMBTr Memory GacmaneRcInRbePTepSgKa dUcCa
Main Memory : b Internal Memory CaRbePT Memory EdlRtUv
)aneKPab;CamYy CPU kg eKaledArkSaTukTinn y bkmvFi I edIm,IedaHdUrTinn y CamYy CPU
kgel,nmYyx<s; kb:uEnvakmanKuNvibtimYyEdrKW TMhM (Capacity) rkSaTuk
Tinnyrbs;vaBMuGacFMeBk)aneLIy. Internal Memory bcb,nenHmanBIrRbePT dUcxageRkam
Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory)

KWCa Memory EdleBlm:asInu kMBgu dMeNIrkar

eyIgGacsresrTinn y cUl
bGanTinn y ecj)any:aggayRsYl. eBlm:asIunbiT enaHTinn y TaMgGs;Edlmankg
RAM kRtUv)an)at; (rMedaH) Gs;Edr.
+

ROM (Read Only Memory)

CaRbePT Memory EdlGnuBaateGay)anEtGanykBtmanecj

b:ueNaH
nigbNaBtmanEdl)anrkSaTukkg ROM nwg)anRtUvsti esrCanic eTaHbICaKanePIg
(crnGKIsnI)
ciBawmvakeday.
karbBalBtmaneTAkg
ROM
KWCakargarrbs;GkCMnajbeckeTsrbs;RkumGkplit ROM enaH. Memory ROM
RtUv)aneKeRbIsMrab;rkSaTukTinny
nigkmviFIefr
edIm,IRKb;
RKg
nigbBaam:asIunenAeBlEdleTIbnwgebIkeLIg.
Auxiliary
Storage
KWCabNa]bkrN_rkSaTukTinnymanTMhMFM
EdlvaGacRtUv)aneKehAma:geTotfa Mass Storage. bNaBtman (Tinny bkmvFI I)
Edl)anrkSaTukelI Auxiliary Storage nwgRtUv)ansitesrCaniceTaHbICaKanePIg
pt;pg;dl;]bkrN_enaHkeday. bNa]bkrN_enHrYmmandUcCa fasrwg (Hard Disk) fasTn;
(Diskette) kaEst (Cassette). l.

lkNBiessrbs; Auxiliary Storage KWmanTMhM Memory FM ]TahrN_

dUcCafasrwgbcb,nenHmanTMhMrhUtdl;eTACag 100 GB. CamYyKaenH vakman
KuNvibtixHdUcCa
karsresrTinnycUl
bGanykTinnyecj
manel,nyWt
y:agxaMgebIeFobeTACamYynwg karsresr bGanTinnyCamYy Main Memory.
I.3 Input/Output Device
I/O

Device

TMnak;TMngeTAmkCamYykMuBTr)an.

KWCabNa]bkrN_EdlGnuBaateGaymnusSmanlTPaBeFVIkar

CabNa]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;pt p; g T; ni n y eGaykmvFi kI MuBTr

EdlCaTUeTAeyIgEtgeRbI nigCYbRbTHjwkjab;CageKenaHmandUcCa Keyboard, Mouse,
Digitizer, Scaner CaedIm.
Output Device : Ca]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;bBanlTplEdlRtUv)ankMuBTr Process rYc
blTplRbmaNviFIepSg
bbNaBtman
ecjeTAEpkxageRkAn
kMBu Tr .
bNa]bkrN_naMykTinn y ecjEdleyIgEtgCYbCajwkjab;enaHmandUcCa Monitor, Plotter,
Printer CaedIm.
Input

I.4

Device

sBaaNGMBIEpkrwg nigEpkTn;

RKb;]bkrN_eGLicRtUnic nigemkanicTaMgGs;rbs;kuMBTr RtUv)aneKehAfa Epkrwg

(Hardware) cMENkkmviFIEdlrt;elIkMuBTrvijKWCaEpkTn; (Software).
RbBndMeNIrkar (OS - Operating System) : KWCabNMnkmviFIRbtibt
nigRKb;RKgenAeBlkuMBTrkMBugdMeNIrkar.
RbBndMeNIrkar
mantYnaTICaGgPaB
kNalsMrab;tPab;kMuBTrCamYynwgGkeRbIR)as;
EdlsBVfenHeyIgeXIjmanCa
eRcInRbePTdUcCa DOS, UNIX, WINDOWS .l.

kmviFIeRbIR)as; (Application Software) : KWCabNakmviFIkMuBTrTaMgLay

NaEdlGkeRbIR)as;)anbegIteLIgenAelIRbBndMeNIkarNamYy
edIm,IbMeBjnUv
dMrUvkarrbs;BYkeK.
II. Algorithms

elaksaRsacar WIRTH )anniyayfa

Algorithms + Data structures = Program

II.1

niymny

Bakfa Algorithms RtUv)aneKyl;kgnycegtmYyfa {KWCal,icnkar

edaHRsaybBaabcMeNaT} EtebIeyIgniyayeGay)anTUlMTUlayCagenHbnic enaH Algorithms
)annyfaCadMeNaHRsay.
EtebItamnyrbs;PasaGg;eKs
Algorithms
KWCak,nc,ab;EdlRtUvEtGnuvttamenAeBledaHRsaybBaabcMeNaT
NamYyEdlmanTMrg;dUc)ankMNt;kgk,nc,ab;CaeRscenaH.
eBlbegtI kmvFi eI daHRsaycMeNaTbBaaNamYy enaHGkKYrTMlab;eFVtI amlMnaM xageRkam
cMeNaT bBaa

sikSadMeNaHRsay

sresrkmviFI (1)

eFVItamlMnaMenH
GacCYykat;bnynUvbBaasksaj
nUvkMhusy:ageRcIn. GkminKYreFVItamlMnaMxageRkamenHeT
cMeNaT bBaa

sresrkmviFI

nigGaceCosvag)an
(2)

lMnaM (2) eFVIdUcxagelIenH EtgEtekIteLIgcMeBaHGkEdleTIbcab;epImeron

sresrkmviFIdMbUg CamYynwglMhat;tUcb:ueNaH.
6

eRbIeBlevlaKitGMBIl,icedaHRsay
bNadMeNaHRsaylepSgKa.
II.2

karsMEdgrbs;

enaHnwgeFVIeGayGkGacrkeXIjnUv

Algorithms

karsMEdgrbs; Algorithms manCaeRcInrebobdUcCa

a.

sM E dgedaykarni y ayerobrab;
]TahrN_dMeNaHRsaydaM)ayGacRtUv)ansresrerobrab;dUcxageRkam
CMhan 1 val;GgrtamcMnYnkMNt;
CMhan 2 dak;GgrcUlqaMg nigcak;TwkcUl
CMhan 3 daMrhUtdl;BuHTwk
CMhan 4 bnyePIg ehIyrkSaePIgeGayenAtic
CMhan 5 ryeBl 5 naTImg cUrBinitemIletI)ayqin benA?
RbsinebIminTan;qineT Rtlb;eTACMhanTI 5
RbsinebIqinehIy RtUvQancUlCMhanTI 6
CMhan 6 Bnt;ePIg elIkqaMgecj nigbBab;.

b.

sM E dgedayPasasresrkm v i F I

KWCaPasamYykgcMeNamPasa Algorithms )annyfa xnvasMEdgeGay Algorithms

EdlRtUvGnuvt
enaHehIyKWCaKuNsm,tirbs;
C
CYyeGayGk
sresrkmviFImanKMnitbegItdMeNaHRsay edaymincaM)ac;eRbIKMnUstagxageRkam enHk)an.
C

c.

sM E dgedayeRbI K M n U s tag
bNaKMnUstagmUldan sMrab;begItKMnUsbMRBYj Algorithms :

]TahrN_KMnUstagxageRkam
KWCakarsMEdgeGaykarKNnaplbUkrbs;
cMnYndMbUgncMnYnKt;FmCati edayBIrviFIepSgKa.
Begin

Begin

bBalcMnYn N

bBalcMnYn N

S=0

S=

N ( N + 1)
2

i=0

bgaj S
S=S+i
End
i=i+1
i>N

False

True

bgaj S
End
8

dMeNaHRsayxagelIenH RKan;EtCaBIrdMeNaHRsayrbs;cMeNaTb:ueNaH tamBitcMeNaT

xagelIGacenAmandMeNaHRsayTIbeI Tot. eyIgeXIjfa CamYybBaa mYyGacmaneRcIn
dMeNaHRsayepSgKa dUecHeyIgRtUvBinti emIlRKb;bNadMeNaH RsayTaMgGs; edIm,IeRCIserIs
ykdMeNaHRsayNamYyEdlmanlkNRbesIr bMputmkGnuvt (ryeBlGnuvtkmviFI nigTMhM
Memory EdlkmviFIRtUvkarcaM)ac;).
III.

begItkmviFIedayPasa

edIm,IbegItkmvIFImYyedayPasa C enaHGkRtUvqgkat; 4 dMNak;kalKW Editing,

Compiling, Linking nig
Executing the program.
xageRkamenHnwgman
bgajGkGMBIdMeNIrkarkgdMNak;kalnImYy
rhUtdl;begIt)anCakmviFImYyGac
dMeNIrkarelIkuMBTr)an.
III.1

Editing

enHKWCadMNak;kaldMbUgbMput KWsresrkUdrbs;kmviFI (C source code) nig

dak;eQaHeGaykmvFi rI bs;Gk . kmvFi mI CdanRbmUlpM TURBO C CaeRcIn
suTEt)anpt;pg;eGayeyIgnUvmCdansMrab;GnuvtkargarmYycMnYndUcCa

sresr
kUdedImrbs;kmviFI (Writing program source code) RKb;RKgkmviFI (Managing the
programs) GPivDkmvF
i I (Developing the programs) nigsakl,gdMeNIrkar kmviFIrbs;Gk
(Testing
your
programs).
kb:uEnGkkGaceRbImCdanepSgeRkABI enHk)an
edIm,IbegtI kUdkmvFi I dUcCa begtI edayBakbBaa copycon rbs; DOS bbegItenAkgkmviFI
NOTEPAD b MS WORD .l. rYcehIybegIt Files pkkUdedImTaMgenaHCaRbePT File
ASCII (ASCII Text Files). CaFmtaeKEtg begItkUdedImrbs;kmvF
i I C enAkgmCdanRbmUlpM
TURBO C BIeRBaHvamanlkN gayRsYlkgkarsresr erobcM mandak;BNsMKal;BakKnHw
(Key
words)
EdleFVI
eGayGksresrmankargayRsYlkgkarGan
CaBiessCYyeGayeKGacEkdMrUveLIg
vijnUvBakKnwHEdl)ansresrxus.
eRkayeBl

begItkUdedImrbs;kmviFIcb;sBV RKb;ehIy enaHCMhanbnab;KWcUldl;dMNak;kalbkERbkUdeTA

CaPasam:asIun.
III.2

Compiling

GgbkERb (Compiler) KWCakmviFImyY EdlmanmuxgarbkERb nigbMElgkUdedIm

nkmviFIrbs;GkeGayeTACaPasamYyEdlkMuBTrGacyl;)an.
Compiler
enAman
muxgarBinti emIl
nigbgajnUvbNakMhusTaMgLayEdl)anekItmanenAkgkUdedIm
nkmviFIrbs;Gk]TahrN_dUcCa kMhusTMrg;nkarsresr (Structural errors) CaedIm.
RbsinebIkarbkERbenH)ansMerc enaH Compiler nigbegIt File mYyEdlmaneQaHdUcKaCamYy
File pkkUdedIm Etman Extension Ca OBJ )anny faCa Object File. Object File KWCa File
pkbNabBaaEdl)anbkERbBIkUdedIm (pkkUdrbs;kmvFi eI RkamTMrg;CaPasarbs;kuMBTr ) Et File
enHenAminTan;GacdMeNIr kar)anenAeLIyeT edayrg;caMkartPab;m:UDulcaM)ac;mYycMnYneTotsin.
III.3

Linking

GgtPab; (Linker) )anPab;bNa File Edl)anbMElgeday Compiler (bNa Object

CamYyKa
(krNIEdlkmviFImYyRtUv)ansresrelIeRcIn
File)
bEnm
File)
m:UDulcaM)ac;mYycMnYncUleTAkgkmviFI (m:UDulTaMgenaHRtUv)anpkkg C library file
sMrab;pt;pg;enAeBlNaEdlmankaresIrBIsMNak;kmviFIEdl)anbegIt)
ehIypSa
Pab;nUvGVIEdl)anbEnmnigbBalKaenAxagelI eGayeTACa File rYmmYy Edlman
lTPaBGacdMeNIrkarkmviFITaMgmUl)an.
GgtPab;GacnwgbgajnUvkMhusmYy
cMnYnEdlbNalmkBIkarxVHsBaa , brkkg Library file mineXIjnUvm:UDulEdl
RtUvbEnmcUlkmviFI.
tamkarBit RbsinebIkmviFIrbs;GkmanTMhMFM enaHGkGackat;kmviFIenaHCa kMNat;
nigsresrkMNat;nmI yY enAelI File epSgKa rYcehIy Compile vadac;eday

10

ELkBIKabegIt)aneTACa Object
eGayeTACa File dMeNIrkarEtmYy.
III. 4

Files

erogxn bnab;mkeTIbpSaPab;vaeday

Linker

Execution

enHKWCadMNak;kalEdlGkRtUvdak;kmviFIrbs;GkeGaydMeNIrkarelIkMuBTr
eRkayeBlEdlGk)ansMercnUvdMNak;kalTaMgbIxagelI.
kgdMNak;kalenH
vak
GacbgajGMBIbNakMhusmYycMnYndUcCa kMhuslkxN kMhusbNalmkBIkar KNnaxus
blTplEdlTTYl)anmindUcnUvGVIEdlGkcg;)an.
RKb;bNalkMhus
TaMgGs;enH
(enAdMNak;kalNamYykeday)
suTE tRtUvRtlb;eLIgeTAEksMrYleLIg
vijenAdMNak;kalTImYyTaMgGs;.
rUbxageRkamenHbgajGMBI 4 dMNak;kalxagelI edIm,IbegtI )anCakmvFI mI Yy
EdlGacdMeNIrkar)anenAelIkuMBTr

11

12