AASHTO LRFD Strut-and-Tie Model Design Examples eal el Ute 8 Dre Ree Ces Sg} SN SM AUC el RCC Reece) ein Cee)Cay 2 Alison AASHTO LRFD Strut-and-Tie Model Design Examples Denis Mitchell, McGill University; Michael P. Collins, University of Toronto; and Shrinivas B. Bhide and Basile G. Rabat, Portland Cement Association PCA. Portland Cement Association 5420 Old Orchard Road Skokie, Mlinois 60077-1083, {847.966.6200 Fax 847.966.9781 ww. cement.org ‘An organization of coment companies to improve and extend the uses of poriand cement and concrete through market development, engineering, research, education, ‘and public fairs work DAR AL-HANDASAH LIBRARY AgePortland Cement Association (“PCA”) is a not-for-profit organization and provides this publication solely for the continuing education of qualified professionals. THIS PUBLICATION SHOULD ONLY BE USED BY QUALIFIED PROFESSIONALS who possess all required license(s), who are ‘competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of the information provided herein, and who accept total responsibility for the application of this information. OTHER READERS SHOULD OBTAIN ASSISTANCE FROM A QUALIFIED PROFESSIONAL BEFORE PROCEEDING. PCA AND ITS MEMBERS MAKE NO EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTY WITH RESPECT TO THIS PUBLICATION OR ANY INFORMATION CONTAINED HEREIN. IN PARTICULAR, NO WARRANTY IS MADE OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. PCA AND ITS MEMBERS DISCLAIM ANY PRODUCT LIABILITY (INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION ANY STRICT LIABILITY IN TORT) IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION OR ANY INFORMATION CONTAINED HEREIN, WARNING: Contact with wet (unhardened) concrete, mortar, cement, or cement mixtures can cause SKIN IRRITATION, SEVERE CHEMICAL BURNS (THIRD DEGREE), or SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE. Frequent exposure may be associated with irritant and/or allergic contact dermatitis. Wear waterproo! gloves, a long-sleeved shirt, ful-length trousers, and proper eye protection when working with these materials. If you have to stand in wet concrete, use waterproot boots that are high enough to keep concrete from flowing into them. Wash wet concrete, mortar, ‘cement, or cement mixtures from your skin immediately. Flush eyes with clean water immedi- ately after contact. Indirect contact through clothing can be as serious as direct contact, so promptly rinse oul wet concrete, mortar, cement, or cement mixtures from clothing. Seek imme- dale medical attention if you have persistent or severe discomfort Cover photos: T-25/1-40 “Big-1" Interchange, Albuquerque, New Mexico, ‘winner of the 2002 PCA Bridge Design Awards Competition. (IMG15512) © Portland Cement Association 2004 First edition Printed in US.A. ISBN 0-89312-241-6 Library of Congress Control Number: 200409665 Al rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in a review written for inclusion in @ magazine or newspaper, R231KEYWORDS: AASHTO LRED Specifications, anchorage, bearing stress, B-region, bridge, compressive strut, concentrated load, concrete, crack control reinforcement, dapped end, deep beam, development length, D-region, equilibrium, factored load, foot- ing, geometric discontinuity, hammerhead, limiting compressive stress, moving load, nodal region, node, pier, pile cap, post-tensioned, prestressed concrete, prestressing steel, principal tensile strain, reinforcing steel, resistance factor, shear, St. Venant’s principle, stimup, Strut-and-Tie Model, tension tie, transfer length, truss model, wall pier ABSTRACT: The strut-and-tie method (STM) prescribed in the AASHTO LRFD Specifications is explained. Disturbed regions of structures resulting from geometric or force discontinuities where STM must be used are identified. A step-by-step procedure for STM is provided. Five detailed design examples are also provided; they include: (1) Design of cap beam, (2) Design of footing, (3) Design of pile cap, (4) Design of dapped end region of gird: er, and (5) Design of hammerhead pier. REFERENCE: Denis Mitchell, Michael P. Collins, Shrinivas B. Bhide, and Basile G. Rabat, AASHTO LRED Strut-and-Tie Model Design Examples, EB231, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, USA, 2004, 58 pages: ABOUT THE AUTHORS: Denis Mitchell, PhD, PE, is a James McGill Professor and chair of the Department of Civil Engineering at McGill University in Montreal, Canada Michael P. Collins, PRD, PE, is a University Professor and Bahen-Tanenbaum Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Toronto, Canada For the last 35 years Professors Collins and Mitchell have worked together on developing jonal models for the design of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. They are coauthors of the textbook Prestressed Concrete Structures and together have developed the strut-and-tie model and the shear and torsion design provisions of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications. As active consulting engineers, they have provided expertise in the design and evaluation of bridges, offshore oil platforms, silos, towers, high-rise buildings, and nuclear ‘containment structures. They have received a number of prestigious awards for their research and contributions to structural engineering. Shrinivas B. Bhide, PhD, PE, SE, is manager of the bridge program at the Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois. He is a Fellow of ACI and serves on technical committees ofthe Transportation Research Board, the PrecastPresttessed Conercte Institute, the Post Tensioning Institute, and the American Concrete Institute, He also serves on the editorial com: mittee of the bimonthly newsletter HPC Bridge Views. Dr. Bhide is a graduate of the Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, and holds a master’s degree and doctorate in structural engi- neering from the University Toronto. He has over 18 years of experience in the design of buildings and bridges and is a registered structural and professional engineer in several states Basile G. Rabbat, PhD, SE, is manager of structural codes at the Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois. Dr. Rabbat received his B.Sc. in civil engineering from Alexandria University, Egypt, and his M.A.Sc. and doctorate in structural engineering from the University of Toronto, Canada, He is a Fellow and member of the Board of Direction of the American Concrete Institute. He is secretary of ACI Committee 318, Structural Concrete Building Code, and past chairman and member of ACI Committee 215, Fatigue of Concrete. He is a Fellow of the PrecastPrestressed Concrete Institute and serves on the PCI committees, ‘on Bridges and Research and Development. He is a registered structural engineer in the state of Iinois,Preface In an effort to advance the state of the art, the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications have introduced several new concepts and design methods. They include the use of limit states design principles, reliability-based factored load combinations and, for concrete structures, new shear design methods and the introduction of a general strut- and-tie design model. These new methods are significantly different from those included in the Standard Bridge Design Specifications. By 2007 all bridges receiving federal aid will have to be designed by the LRED Bridge Design Specifications. States have begun the transition from the Standard Specifications to the LRFD Specifications. The purpose of this publication is to assist bridge engineers in the proper application of the new strut-and-tie model for the design of disturbed regions of bridge components. The emphasis is placed on “how to use” the specifica- tions. This publication also should be a valuable aid to educators and students While every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy of the design examples pre- sented, PCA would be grateful to any reader who brings any typographical or other errors to our attention. Other suggestions for improvement are also most welcome. Shri Bhide Engineered Structures DepartmentAcknowledgement This publication was prepared for the Engineered Structures Department of the Portland Cement Association, David N. Bilow, Director. ‘The authors wish to thank the following individuals without whose help this publication would not have been possible: Jian Zhou and William Cook for preparing the drawings, Dale McFarlane, Diane Vanderlinde, Caron Johnsen, and Chery! Taylor, PCA, for the word processing, layout, and formatting of the document.Table of Contents Introduction 1. Visualize Flow of Stresses. 2. Sketch an Idealized Strut-and-Tie-Model 3. Select Area of Ties. 4, Check Nodal Zone Stresses. 5. Check Strength of Struts 6. Provide Adequate Anchorage for the Ties. References Example 1 ~ Design of Cap Beam Example 2 ~ Design of Footing Example 3 ~ Design of Pile Cap Example 4 ~ Design of Dapped End Region of Girder Example 5 ~ Design of Hammerhead Pier.Introduction ‘The purpose of this publication is to provide bridge designers with representative examples illustrating the use of strut-and-tie models in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Specifications (AASHTO 2004). Although the concept of modeling the flow of forces in structural concrete members using struts and ties was used in the early 1900's (Ritter, 1899; Morsch, 1909), design procedures using strut-and-tie models only recently have been codified (CSA, 1984; AASHTO, 1994, and ACI, 2002). In the design of reinforced and prestressed concrete elements, there are two types of regions: flexural (bending) regions (B-regions) and regions near discontinuities (D- regions) (Schlaich et al., 1987; Collins and Mitchell, 1986). Within flexural regions, it is accurate to assume that plane sections prior to loading remain plane after loading and that the shear stresses are distributed in a reasonably uniform manner over the effective web area, For the design of B-regions, a sectional design approach is used. In this approach it is not necessary to address how the forces are introduced into the member. Strut-and-tie models are used primarily to design regions near discontinuities or D-regions. These regions have a disturbed flow of stresses and hence plane sections do not remain plane and the shear stresses are not uniformly distributed over the effective shear area. For the design of these regions it is important to consider how the forces are introduced into the member. Discontinuities are caused by abrupt changes in cross-sectional dimensions (eg, the presence of openings or dapped ends) or abrupt changes in applied forces (e.g., support reactions, large concentrated loads and post-tensioned anchorage zones). For flexural regions, the AASHTO LRFD Specifications (§5.8.1.1)° permit the use of either traditional sectional models (§5.8.3) or the strut-and-tie model (§5.6.3). For regions near significant discontinuities, the use of the strut-and tie model is required (§5.8.1.2). A concentrated load which causes more than 50% of the shear at the face of the support and is closer than 2d from the support face is a situation that requires a strut-and-tie model (§58.1.1) If we consider the case of a simply supported beam of depth h, subjected to a concentrated load applied at midspan, there will be three disturbed regions, one adjacent to each support and one centered at midspan. The regions near the supports will be about h Jong while the disturbed region near midspan will be about 2h long (St. Venant’s principle). When the distance between the applied load and the suppor is less than about 2h, the disturbed regions will overlap. For typical girders (without geometric discontinuities) where the span is often about 18h, the presence of the disturbed regions has very little influence on the overall behavior of the member and hence the localized influence of these regions normally is ignored in design. However, if the span of the beam is less than 4b, all of the beam will be @ disturbed region and hence the overall * Asticle numbers of the AASHTO LRED Specifications are preceded by the symbol “§”behavior will be influenced strongly by the disturbed flow of stresses. For this case the strut-and-tie model is used for design. D-tegion B-region with fanning wth uniform, compressive compressive stresses stresses tension tie ui (a) Simply supported beam (b) Pier cap. (c) Deep beam (4) Wall pier with concentrated loads Figure 1. Examples of D-regions modeled with struts and ties. Figure 1 illustrates some examples of disturbed regions with the flow of stresses modeled with concrete compressive struts and the tension ties provided by reinforcement. The compressive struts are shown with dashed lines while the tension ties are indicated with thick solid lines. Figure 1(a) shows a simply supported B-region in which the principal compressive stress trajectories will be essentially parallel. This flow is modeled by diagonal struts. In the D-region near the support, the principal compressive stress trajectories fan out from the support. These fanning compressive stresses can berepresented by a diagonal strut along the centerline of the fan. The strut-and-tie model uses straight-line compressive struts that are assumed to act along the center of the flow of the compressive stresses. Each vertical tension tie represents the tension forces in a number of stirrups over a certain length of the member. The length of this stirrup band usually is taken as between 0.8h to about 2h, depending on the geometry and loading. Figure 1(b) shows a double-sided corbel, with the flow of the compressive stresses into the corbel modeled by concrete compressive struts. The tension tie along the top of the corbel is requited for the equilibrium of the truss formed by the strut-and-tie model. Figure 1(c) shows 2 deep beam subjected to a concentrated load at midspan. The entire beam is a D-region, in accordance with St. Venant’s principle. The flow of forces into the beam is modeled using compressive struts from the applied load into the support reaction areas. The tension tie for such beams typically consists of several layers of reinforcing bars or post-tensioned tendons. Figure 1(d) illustrates the fanning compressive stresses resulting from concentrated forces being applied to the top of a wall pier and the resulting tension ties required for equilibrium. The flow of compressive stresses can follow a curved path as shown in Figure 2(a) as the compressive struts widen between the loading and reaction plates. This curving of the compressive stresses causes tension perpendicular to the flow as shown by the inclined tension ties in Figure 2(b). Instead of using curved compressive struts, the AASHTO LRFD Specifications prescribe simple straight-line struts to model the flow of compression and additional uniformly distributed horizontal and vertical reinforcement (§5.6.3.6) to control cracking in the disturbed region (Figure 2[c]). It is noted that slabs and footings are exempt from the crack control reinforcement requirement (§5.6.3.6). For these types of members the diagonal compressive stresses are usually considerably lower jn magnitude than those for regions such as dapped ended beams, hammerhead piers, or deep beams. ‘rack contr! reinforcement! (2) Flow of compressive (0) Tensions due to flow of (6) Assumption of straight stresses compressive stresses, ‘compressive struts Figure 2. Straight-line struts and required crack control reinforcement (Schlaich et al, 1987).‘The main steps for design of a D-region can be summarized as follows: Visualize flow of stresses Sketch an idealized strut-and-tie model Select area of ties Check nodal zone stresses Check strength of struts Provide adequate anchorage for the ties ‘The steps required to design a D-region, such as the deep beam shown in Figure 3, are given below: 1. Visualize Flow of Stresses Visualize the flow of the compressive stresses in the D-region, and idealize the flow with straight-line struts. Determine the locations of tension ties required for equilibrium. In sketching the truss, made up of struts and ties, make suitable assumptions for the positions of the centroids of the ties, allowing sufficient space for placement of the required reinforcement. 2. Sketch an Idealized Strut-and-Tie Model Sketch the strut-and-tie model in the form of a truss idealization. In modeling bridge girders subjected to moving loads, it is convenient to space the nodes of the truss such that the truck axle loads can be applied directly to the nodes. Determine the forces required in the struts and ties due to the applied factored loads. For moving loads one should consider different positions of the axle loads to achieve the maximum design forces for a particular member. If the member being designed is statically indeterminate (e.g., a two-span continuous deep beam subjected to point loads in each span), a realistic strut-and-tie model also will be statically indeterminate. The support reactions for this indeterminate truss can be found from elastic analysis of the actual member, and the internal forces in the truss model then can be determined from statics. Alternatively, stiffness values can be assigned to the members of the truss and hence the forces in the members and the reactions of the truss can be determined by analyzing the statically indeterminate truss. For this analysis the stiffness of the ties can be taken as the axial stiffness of the reinforcing bars and prestressing steel (¢.g,, Eg +EyApg) that the tie represents. The stiffness of a strut may be taken as the cross-sectional area of the strut multiplied by the concrete modulus and the area of any compression steel multiplied by the steel modulus (ic., E.Ag +EyA, +E,Apy)3. Select Area of Ties Choose the required area of reinforcement in the tension ties to ensure that the factored resistance in the ties equals or exceeds the required factored force in the ties (§5.6.3.2 and §5.6.3.4.1). nodal zone 0.85 $ fe tension tie develop tension tie force over this fength (2) Strut-and-tie model t fis node ‘effective ‘anchorage {b) Truss model area Figure 3. Strut-and-tie model and idealized truss model for deep beam. 4. Check Nodal Zone Stresses Compare the nodal zone stresses with the nodal zone stress limits. Because of the dimensions of the struts and the reinforcement making up the ties, the truss joint, or node, represents a nodal zone with finite dimensions (see Figure 3). The nodal zones serve to transfer the forces between the ties, the struts, the support reaction areas, and the loaded bearing surfaces. The nodal zones occur at the intersections of the truss elements and at the loading points and support reaction areas. It is important to allow for the transfer of forces without overstressing the concrete in the nodal zones. In many practical cases itwill be necessary to spread the tie reinforcement into several layers so that the nodal zone stress limit is not exceeded in the effective anchorage area (see Figure 3[b)) The integrity of the nodal zone is checked by comparing the normal stresses applied to the boundaries of the nodal zone with the specified nodal zone stress limits. The compressive strength of the nodal zone depends on the tensile straining from intersectingtension ties and on confinement due to the presence of transverse reinforcement. The nodal zone stress limits in the AASHTO specifications (§5.6.3.5) depend on the number of ties that are being anchored in the nodal zone. Figure 4 illustrates a number of typical nodal zone conditions and their corresponding stress limits depending on the presence of compressive struts (indicated by “C") and tension ties (indicated by “T”), 5. Check Strength of Struts Compare the factored resistance of the struts with the calculated factored loads in the strut members (§5.6.3.2 and §5.6.3.3). The nominal resistance of the strut is determined by multiplying the limiting compressive stress, f,, , by the effective cross-sectional area of the strut, A,_. The limiting compressive stress depends on the angle, a, between the compressive strut and the tension tie and the tensile strain, ¢,, in the tie where it crosses: the strut. The limiting compressive stress is given as: f, c__< ost 0.8 +1702, in which the principle tensile strain in the concrete, €;, is taken as: +(c, +0.002)cor? a, where «, is the smallest angle between the compressive strut and the tension tie and &, is the average tensile strain in the concrete in the direction of the tension tie. For a tension tie consisting of reinforcing bars, &., can be taken as the tensile strain due to factored loads in the reinforcing bars. As shown in Figure 5, the limiting compressive stress, f., reduces significantly as the angle, a, becomes smaller. A strain value of & of 0.002 ‘would correspond to a tie yielding in tension at the location where it crosses the centerline of the strut. If the tension force in the tie changes as it crosses the strut, then ‘exmay be taken as the value of the strain where the tie meets the centerline of the strut For example if the tie is developed within the width of the strut, the tensile strain in the tie might change from 0.002 at the inner edge of the strut to zero at the outer edge of the strut, resulting in an €, value of 0.001. For a tension tie consisting of prestressed steel, £, can be taken as zero until the precompression in the concrete due to the prestress is, overcome. Figure 5 illustrates the influence of a, and ¢, on the limiting compressive(2) Deep beam Ve +h, cos 0 6 = = Tosn, (€) Strut anchored by bearing plate and reinforcing bars (CCT node) ‘Stress limit = 0.75 6 {2 XS sin 6 +h, cos 6 6 > »] F Josr t 4 ttt (@) Strut anchored by two tension ties (CTT node) Siress limit = 0.65 6 {2 (b) Dapped end ; q- N Ising +d, cos 0 (d) Strut anchored by bearing plate and strut (CCC node) Stress limit = 0.85 { ey x > < by reo 4 (0) Continuous beam support (CCC node) ‘Stress limit = 0.85 6 ff Figure 4. Types of nodal zones and dimensions of struts.stress, f. It can be seen that even struts at very shallow angles (e.g., 20°) cam resist significant stresses (0.297f, ) if the tie is prestressed r | feulfe Figure 5. Influence of a, and ©,0n the limiting compressive stress in a strut. Figure 6 shows two specific examples of calculating f,, for cases involving reinforcing bars as ties. For the two cases shown, if the strain €, is 0.002 at the inner edge of the strut, and it is conservatively assumed that this strain reduces to 0.001 at the centerline of the strut, then the limit on the compressive strength of the struts, £,, changes from 0.68f, for the case where a, equals 45° to 0.30f, for the case where a, equals 25° (see § 5.6.3.3.3) If the strut is anchored by a bearing area, the cross-sectional dimensions of the strut will be influenced by the length of the bearing area, the dimensions of the adjacent ties or struts, and the inclination of the strut (see Figures 4{c] and 4{d]). If the strut is anchored only ‘by reinforcement, the effective dimensions of the strut are related to the reinforcement details as shown in Figure 7. The strut bears against the longitudinal reinforcing bars which in tum are anchored by the stirrups. It is assumed that the effective Width of the strut across the thickness of the member can extend a distance of up to six times the diameter of the longitudinal bar anchored by the stirrups (ie., 6dy,) (see § $6.3.3.2),Figure 6. Examples of determining f.. 6. Provide Adequate Anchorage for the Ties Provide sufficient anchorage for the ties (§5.6.3.4.2) so that they can develop the required tie force. The tie reinforcement is anchored by appropriate development length, hooks, headed bars, or other mechanical anchorage so that it is capable of resisting the calculated tension in the reinforcement at the location where the centroid of this reinforcement crosses the edge of the adjoining strut. At support reaction areas, a conservative approach is to provide enough embedment or mechanical anchorage so that the required tension force can be developed at the inner edge of the bearing (see Figure 3{a}). Where the distance, x., available to anchor a tie consisting of straight reinforcing bars is tess than the development length, é4, (§5.11.2.1), it may be assumed that the stress developed in the reinforcement is f,(x/24). Where the tie consists of pretensioned strands and the distance, x, available to anchor the tie is less than 60 strand diameters (60d, is the assumed transfer length) (§5.11.4.1) from the free end of the strand, the stress in the strand may be taken as fre(x/(60d, )}, where f,< is the effective stress in the prestressing steel afterall losses It should be appreciated that the strut-and-tie model is a so-called “lower bound approach.” It is possible to postulate a number of different strut-and-tie models which will all provide safe paths for the loads to reach the supports. The model that can carry the loads with the least internal energy, that is, the stiffest model involving the most direct load path and minimizing the amount of tie reinforcement, will provide the most realistic and the most efficient design.Section X-X Figure 7. Influence of reinforcement details on effective cross-sectional area of strut. tion, The U.S. Customary Units are used throughout the examples given in this publi purpose of providing the design examples is to illustrate some of the features of the strut and-tie design method, rather than to provide complete final designs. Only the AASHTO LRED Strength-I limit state has been considered in the examples. For complete designs, other strength loading cases may have to be accounted for and serviceability requirements would have to be satisfied 10References AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, first edition 1994, second edition 1998, third edition 2004, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA. ACI, 2002, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-02) and Commentary (ACI 318R-02), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 443 pages. Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D., 1986, A Rational Approach to Shear Design - The 1984 Canadian Code Provisions,” ACI Journal, Vol. 83, No.6, Nov.-Dec., pages 925 to 933, CSA Standard A23.3, 1984, Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings, Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, 281 pages. Mérsch, E., 1909, Concrete-Steel Construction, McGraw Hill, New York, (English translation by E.P. Goodrich), 368 pages. Ritter, W., 1899, Die bauweise hennebique,* Schweizerische Bawzeitung,” Vol. 33, No. 7, pages. 59 0 61 Schlaich, J.; Shafer, K., and Jennewein, M., 1987, Towards a Consistent Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures,” PCI Journal, Vol. 32, No. 3, May-June, pages. 74 to 150.‘Example 1 Design of Cap Beam The cap beam shown in Figure 1.1 is 3 ft wide and spans 30 ft between the centers of the supporting columns. The precast pretensioned girders sit on neoprene pads, which in turn are resting on concrete bearing blocks having dimensions of 18 x 30 in. The loads acting (on the top surface of the beam include factored dead loads, and factored lane, and truck loading, including an allowance for impact. ‘The specified concrete compressive strength, f , is 4 ksi and the specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi. Design the cap beam using the AASHTO LRED Specifications. 10-0 P= 259% ie a ‘ v6 ® f i 3-0 wide i i rectangular i i cap beam : ons a0 i 15.0 ; yma olf be 2-6" square: ! column i ‘ i Lege 1 footing Figure 1.1. Details of cap beam.Example 1 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion For each of the outer two girder loads, the distance between the center of the applied load and the face of the supporting column is less than twice the overall height of the cap beam; hence the region between these two loads is a D-Region and will be designed using the strut- and-tie model. Step 1 - Draw Idealized Truss Model and Solve for Member Forces The idealized truss model shown in Figure 1.2 represents the flow of forces in the cap beam. The dashed lines represent compressive struts and the solid lines represent tension ties. The point loads at the locations of the bearings have been increased to account for the factored self-weight of the cap beam. For example, the tributary factored self-weight of the beam at Nodes B and D is [1.25% 0.15% (4.5x3x10)]=25.3kips, plus an allowance for the bearing block and bearing, giving about 26 kips. Similarly the factored self-weight of the beam, bearing block, and bearing at Node A is about 18 kips. For simplicity the moment in the column will be neglected for the design of the cap beam, ic., the axial stresses will be considered uniform at the top of the column pier. In order to allow for the placement of the tension reinforcement and to account for the depth of the concrete compressive struts, it has been assumed that the centroids of the top and bottom chords of the truss are located 4 in. from the top and bottom concrete surfaces. In establishing the horizontal locations of the nodes of the truss, Nodes A, B, and D are located directly below the applied loads, while node C iis located halfway between nodes B and D. Node G is located directly below node B, and Node H is located directly below Node C. Although a single node could be used to represent the column suppor, it is somewhat more accurate to represent the column support by two Nodes, E and F. Node E is responsible for supporting the 267 kip load from the cantilever, while Node F is responsible for the 434 kip load from the loads in the span (i.¢., 285 + 298/2). The positions of the two resultant compressive forces in the column (Nodes FE. and F) have been chosen such that a uniform compressive stress exists in the column, To achieve this, the width of the column has been subdivided so that the width 2% 0.48 ft is carrying the 267 kip force and the width 20.77 ft is camying the 434 kip force. ‘The resulting factored forces in the truss members are determined by satisfying equilibrium (see Figure 1.2. Specification Reference $5.6.3.1Example 1 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference Step 2 ~ Check Size of Bearings ‘The limiting concrete stresses under the bearings depend on the conditions at the nodal zone. Node D is a CCC node with a limiting §5.6.3.5 stress of 0.85$f, and Node A is a CCT node with a limiting stress of 0.756f,. Because Node B anchors the horizontal Tie A-B and the vertical Tie B-G (representing the uniformly distributed stirrups), it will be designed as a CTT node with a limiting stress of 0.656f, The critical bearing stress occurs at Node B caused by the girder load and hence the minimum bearing area can be determined as Py 259s gpin? 0.656f, 0.65% 0.70%4 bearing area required = ‘With dimensions of 18 x 30 in,, the bearing block has sufficient area (540 in?) 267k 434k allo! be 048 0.77 Figure 1.2. Truss idealization and member forces. Step 3 - Choose Tension Tie Reinforcement (a) Top reinforcement over column The required area of tension tie reinforcement, Ay , inxample 1 (cont'd) ‘Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference Age Pee 2S 19.0 = 5.46 in? §5.6.3.4.1 Use 6 No. 9 bars, A, = 6.0in.” (b) Bottom reinforcement at midspan ‘The required area of tension tie reinforcement, A. , at midspan is: Py 605 Ayg= =11.20in? a, 09x60 Use 12. No. 9 bars, A, = 12.0in? © rups ‘The vertical tension Ties, BG and CH, each must resist a factored tension force of 149 kips. This tension force can be provided by stirrups within a certain length of the beam as indicated by the stirrup bands in Figure 1.2. Using No. 5 stirrups with 2 legs, the number of stirrups, n, required in each band is: 149 Wah, 09%2x031%60 4.45 Hence, the required spacing, s, within the 5-ft band is: 60 ss =135in, 5 Try No. 5 double-legged stirrups at 12 in. Step 4 - Check Capacity of Struts Strut FB carries the highest compression force (671 kips, see Figure 1.2). Also, this strut is anchored at Joint B which also anchors tension Tie AB and Tie BG. Hence this is the most critical strut. The limiting compressive stress in the strut, f.,, , usually is controlled by the tensile strain in the tie which is at the smallest angle to the strut. From theExample 1 (cont’d) ‘Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference geometry of the truss idealization, the angle between tension Tie AB and Strut FB is 40.3°. The tensile strain in Tie AB is: B 295 A,E, 6.0% 29,000 695 «10> Note that since Member BC is in compression (see Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3), it will have a small compressive strain. Because there is a large tensile strain in Tie AB and a relatively small compressive strain (say zero strain) in Member BC, it will be assumed that at the center of Strut FB, near Node B, that , = (1.69510 +0)/2 = 0.848107 Therefore, the principal strain, ¢, can be determined as’ §9.6.3.3.3 £5, =£, +(¢, +0.002)cot? a, =0.848%10" + 0.84810" + 0,002]eor? 40.3" = 481x107 and the limiting compressive stress, fy, inthe strut is §56.3.3.3 4 = § 0.856, = ——______ = 2.47 ksi $ 0.85% 4 = 3.40 ksi 0.8 +1706, 084170 481%10 fo Note that the tension strain in Tie BG is: fo gs 1073 §5.6333 AgE, _ 2«0.31«(60/12)%29,000 Hence from this tie ¢, would need to be: e,~e,-+(, +0002)at2 a, = 16574103 «(6574107 +0.002 0249.78 = 429.107 As this is less than 4.81x10™ this tie does not govern the compressive capacity of the strut. ‘The nominal resistance of the strut is based on the limiting stress, f., , §56.3.3.1 and the strut dimensions. The strut width is computed in Figure 1.3 at 17.7 in, and the strut thickness can be conservatively taken as the bearing block dimension, namely 30 in. Hence, 1sExample 1 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference 285 kips nel t" bearing fs= 1.69910" oD aq th — ips, FB ips 403°, £5 = 0.848x10° 5 = 1.65710" 49.7" kips 18 sin 40.3° + 8 cos 40.3° air Figure 1.3. Details of strut near Node B. Py = fagAgg = 2.47 17.7 x 30 = 1312 kips §5.6.3.3.1 ‘The factored resistance of the strut is: P, =P, =0.70x1312 = 918kips > 671 kips required §5.6.3.2 ‘Therefore, the strut capacity is adequate. Step 5 — Check Anchorage of Tension ‘The top No. 9 longitudinal bars must be developed at the inner edge §5.6.3.4.1 of the bearing at Node A. An embedment length of 36 + 9 2 in. cover = 43 in. is available to develop the bars (see Figure 1.1). The gart2as basic development length for a straight No. 9 bar is 34 in., but with a top bar factor of 1.4, the required length is 48 in. Therefore, it is necessary to provide hooks at the end of the bars. It is also necessary to check if the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective anchorage area, which is 2 x 4= 8 in. in depth. The nodal zone stress to anchor the tension tie is:Example 1 (cont'd) Spet Calculations and Discussion Reference 9} = S024 ks 24x36 For this nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is: f= 0.756f; = 0.75% 0.704 = 2.1ksi §5.6.3.5 Therefore, the nodal zone stress in the anchorage area is acceptable. Step 6 ~ Provide Crack Control Reinforcement (a) D-region (region near discontinuity) Due to the presence of the concentrated loads at A and B, which are within a distance less than the member depth from the faces of the column, the zone between Nodes A and B will be considered as a D. region (St, Venant’s principle). For “disturbed regions” (D-regions) the AASHTO LRFD §5.6.3.6 Specifications require that crack control reinforcement in the form of an orthogonal grid of reinforcement on both faces be provided. The ‘minimum ratio of reinforcement to gross concrete area is 0.003 in ach direction. For a spacing of 12 in. this requires: Ay = 0.003 «12x36 = 1.30in? Therefore, use 4 No. 5 horizontal bars at 12 in. spacing and 4 legs of No. 5 stirrups at 12 in, spacing, giving A, = 4*0.31=1.24in? in the D-region (this is within 5% of the required area). (b) B-region (flexural region) ‘The region between Nodes B and D is considered to be a B-region §5.6.3.1 because the concentrated load being transmitted in this region is more geass than twice the member depth from the supporting column. As such this flexural region can be designed using the strut-and-tie model but §5.8.2 the detailing requirements of the sectional design procedures. for §5.8.2.5 flexural regions must be satisfied. Hence it is appropriate to use the minimum transverse reinforcement requirements of §5.8.2.5. Although two-legged No. $ stirrups at 12 in. spacing are required for 17‘Example 4 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion strength (Step 3{c}), it is necessary to ensure that minimum shear reinforcement is provided to control inclined cracking, Assuming a stirrup spacing of 12 in., the minimum area of stirrups shall not be less than: os16yf, PS = 0.0316% V4 x 26212 - 9. 46in? f 60 Since A, = 20.31 = 0.62 in.?, an amount greater than minimum has been provided. Use double-legged No. 5 stirrups at a spacing of 12 in. in the B-region. Step 7 ~ Sketch the Required Reinforcement The resulting reinforcement of the cap beam is shown in Figure 1.4 D-region B= region 4 legged No.5 2 legged Nos ©-NoS stirups at 12° ‘tirups at 12° = 6 -No.9 op 2-NoS top 4egs of NoS closed stierups 2NoS@12 @ie 4- No bp. 2-No5 typ. ‘each face 12-No9 bot 12-No. bot Section 1-1 Section 2-2 Figure 1.4. Reinforcement details of cap beam. Specification _ Reference. §5.8.2.5‘Example 2 — Design of Footing Design the footing supporting the column shown in Example 1 (see Figures 1.1 and 2.1), ‘The square spread footing is 9 x 9 x 3 ft. thick. The specified concrete compressive strength, fis 4 ksi and the specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi. Design the footing using the AASHTO LRED strut-and-tie method. 2-6" square column ac '-0" thick 0" a Figure 2.1. Footing dimensions. Specification Cal fere lations and Discussion Step 1 - Draw Idealized Truss Model and Solve for Member Forces Traditionally, footings are designed as flexural regions by checking the moment capacity at the face of the column and checking the one- way and two-way shear capacities at the appropriate critical sections. While this procedure leads to satisfactory designs, a more accurate model for the flow of forces in the footing results if the strut-and-tie method is used (see Figure 2.2) The idealized truss model shown in Figure 2.2 represents the flow of forces in the footing. The dashed lines represent compressive struts and the solid line represents the tension tie 2‘Example 2 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion In order to allow for the minimum 3-in, concrete cover and an assumed bar size of | in. for the tension reinforcement, the centroid of the tension tie has been taken as 4 in. from the bottom surface of the footing. It is further assumed that the centroid of the top compressive strut is located 2 in, below the top surface of the footing, In determining the loading on the footing it is necessary to account for the factored self-weight of the column. The factored dead load of the column is [1.25 x 0.15 x (2.5 x 2.5 x11)]=12.9 kips. It is noted that footings are designed for the factored net pressure due to the applied column loads only. The weight of the footing and pressure from the soil surcharge are transmitted directly through the footing thickness and are resisted by equal and opposite soils pressures. Hence they are neglected for the design of the footing. From the loading given in Figure 1.2, the factored load on the footing, including the factored self-weight of the column, is, 267 + 285 + 298/2+12.9=713.9kips. As assumed in Example 1, the moment in the column will be neglected for the design of the footing. The factored soil pressure on the bottom of the footing is assumed to be uniform. The soil pressure is applied to bottom Nodes A through I, spread at 1-ft. intervals, Nine reaction forces of 79.3 kips equilibrate an applied column toad of 713.9 kips (say 714 kips). To simulate the fanning of the compressive stresses in the footing it is necessary to choose the number and position of the nodes near the top of the footing. Three top nodes, each carrying one-third of the applied column load, have been used as shown in Figure 2.2. The positions of the three resultant compressive forces in the column (Nodes J, K, and L) have been chosen assuming that a uniform compressive stress exists in the column. To achieve this, each force of 238 kips in the column occupies a width of 2.5/3=0.833 2. Solving the statics of the truss, the member forces shown in Figure 2.2 are determined. ‘Step 2 ~ Choose Tension Tie Reinforcement Figure 2.2 illustrates the required tension tie forces in the bottom reinforcement from this strut-and-tie model. Figure 2.2 also shows the variation of tie force if itis assumed that the tie force results from flexure only, that is a tie force equal to the moment calculated at each section divided by a lever arm of 2.5. It is important to note that, Specification ReferenceExample 2(cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference except for the location directly under the column, the tie forces required by the strut-and-tie model considerably exceed those requited for flexure alone. The increased tie force is due to the fact that the inclined compression, which is carrying the shear, causes tension in the reinforcement 2.50 3.166" 3 x 238 kips = 714 kips. | — ps be 1/6%2.5 Pop Pp Pp PRP PP PP P=79.23kips tie force {from strut-and-tie model 1005, 169.2 tension force required for moment only 238 Kips. Figure 2.2. Truss idealization and member forces. 23xample 2 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference The required area of tie reinforcement, A,, , which is a maximum in Ties DE and EF, is: P, Ag = Pe = 280 af, 0.960 In components subjected to flexure, the amount of reinforcement provided must be adequate to develop a factored flexural resistance, §5.7.33.2 M, , at least 1.2 times the cracking moment unless an amount of reinforcement capable of carrying 1.33 times the factored moment is supplied. The factored flexural resistance required to resist 1.2Me, using the modulus of rupture, f, of 0.24/f, ksi, specified in §5.4.2.6 is = 441in? §5.6.3.4.1 95.4.2.6 921236 wsiam, «1d anf -126 026i =134376p-in =11208ip-A The corresponding minimum area of flexural reinforcement can be determined by dividing this factored flexural resistance by the product of flexural lever arm (2.5 ft), and the factored yield strength of the reinforcement giving Py re 0 3550.95 60 The AASHTO specifications indicate that this minimum amount need not be supplied if 1.33 times the required resistance is provided. §5.7.3.3.2 Hence, increase the tension tie reinforcement to: Ag =1.33%4.41= 5.87 in? ‘Use 8 No. 8 bottom bars in each direction (6.32 in.” provided). Step 3 Check Capacity of Struts Strut AJ carries the highest compression force (128 kips, see Figure 2.2) and has the smallest angle of inclination from the tension tie Figure 2.3 shows the details of the strut near Node A. From the geometry of the truss idealization, the angle between tension Tie AB and the Strut AJ is 38.3°, The tensile strain in Tie AB is: 24Example 2 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference 10055 _ 9 sagx10 6.32% 29,000 The strain,c,, in the tension tie crossing the strut varies from a maximum at the inside face of the strut to zero at the outside edge of the strut. Hence, it will be assumed that at the center of the strut, at Node A, €, = (0.548%107 + 0)/2 = 0274x107 ; a kips Selena hook anchorage 12" sin 38.3° =74" 100.5 kips. | few 79.33 kips. Figure 2.3. Details of strut near Node A. ‘The principal strain, ¢,, can be determined as: §5.6.3.3.3, c=, +(e, +0002)e0% a, =0274«10° fo270.107 sandr? 383° ~3 50.10" and the limiting compressive stress, fun the strut i then: $5.6.3.33 = __ cogst, = s 3 08 +1706, 08+ 170%3.92%10~ .T3ksi $0.85 <4 = 3.40 ksi Multiplying this stress by the area of the strut, the nominal resistance of the strut is thus: §5.6.3.3.1 fay A cg = 2.73% 7.49512 = 2182 kips With @ capacity reduction factor for compression in strut-and-tie $554.21 models of 0.70, the factored resistance of the strut is 25Example 2 (cont'd) ions and Discussion 70x 2182 = 1527 kips 2 128 kips required It can be seen that the factored resistance of the strut greatly exceeds the required factored force. This will often be the case in large, lightly reinforced members It is noted that Nodes J, K and L represent the CCC node where the column frames into the footing. The compressive struts in this region are not crossed by any tension ties. In addition, there will be some vertical reinforcement passing through the column-footing interface This node and the struts in this region are not critical. Step 4 ~ Check Anchorage of Tension Tie The No. 8 bars are required to develop a force of 100.5 kips at a distance of only 12 in. from the edge of the footing (see Figure 2.3). Note that the stress in the 8 No. 8 bars at this location is only: _100.5 8x0.79 S.9ksi With the provision of a 180° hook, as often used for reinforcing bars in footings, the distance from the critical section to the end of the hook is 12-3 (cover)=9 in. This detail will be sufficient to develop the relatively small stress in the bars. It is necessary to check if the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective anchorage area, which is 2 x 4 = 8 in. in depth. The nodal zone stress to anchor the tension tie is: = 1005 no zksi 2adx 9x12 For this CCT nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is: 156f, = 0.75x0.70%4 = ksi Therefore, the nodal zone stress limit in the anchorage area is considerably below the limit Specification Referen §5.6.3.4.1 $56.3.Example 2 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference Step 5 - Provide Crack Control Reinforeement It is noted that slabs and footings are exempt from the crack control §5.6.3.6 requirements of §5.6.3.6. ‘The requirements for minimum flexural reinforcement of §5.7.3.3.2 §5.7.3.3.2 have been satisfied in Step 2. Step 6 ~ Sketch the Required Reinforcement The resulting reinforcement of the footing is shown in Figure 2.4. 2-6" square column a7 3" cover: 8-No. 8 each way Figure 2.4. Reinforcement details of footing. 27Example 3 Design of Pile Cap Design the pile cap supporting the pier shown in Figure 3.1. The square pile cap is 12 x 12 x 4 ft thick. The 653 kip pier load acting on the top surface of the pile cap includes factored dead loads, factored truck and lane loadings, and an allowance for impact. The specified concrete compressive strength, f., is 4 ksi and the specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi. There is a 2-ft overburden on the pile cap with a unit weight of 110 pet. Design the pile cap using the AASHTO LRED strut-and-tie method, 653 kips square colurnn esc i q 12'-0"x4"0" thick 36" : pile cap i o ON tee precast ts pile Figure 3.1. Pile cap dimensions. 34Example 3 (cont'd) 7 Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference Step 1 - Draw Idealized Truss Model and Solve for Member Forces Traditionally, pile caps are designed as flexural regions by checking the moment capacity at the face of the pier and checking the one-way and two-way shear capacities at various critical sections. For deep pile caps special investigations typically are conducted to justify higher shear stresses on the critical sections. A more accurate model for the flow of forces in the pile cap results if the strut-and-tie method is used (see Figure 3.2) Figure 3.2 shows the idealized truss model for the pile cap. For the design of the pile cap it is important to appreciate the three- dimensional flow of forces from the pier to the piles. The load applied to the top of the pile cap includes not only the factored pier load but also the factored weight of the pile cap and the soil overburden. Hence the total factored load applied to the top of the pile cap is 653 4 1.25 (0.150) (12 x 12 x 4) + 1.3 (0.110) (12 x 12-3 x 3) 2.0= 800 ips. The total factored load at the top of the pile cap has been applied at four points (F, F, G, and H), located at distances equal to the pier dimension divided by four from the pier faces, to simulate uniform compressive stress in the pier. It is assumed that these four loads will be transferred to the support reaction areas of the four piles by four inclined compressive struts, indicated by dashed lines in Figure 3.2. ‘The inclined compressive struts, spreading from Nodes E, F, G, and H, to Nodes A, B, C, and D, respectively, just above the piles, cause tension in the Ties AB, BC, CD, and AD indicated by solid lines. To define the geometry of the truss, it is assumed that the centroid of the tension tie reinforcement is located 4 in. above the top of the piles to allow for a 3 in. concrete cover and a bar size of | in. Nodes E, F, and H are assumed to be 2 in. below the top surface of the pile cap to allow for the dimensions of Struts EF, FG, GH, and EH. Nodes A, B, C, and D are located directly above the centers of the piles. Solving the statics of the truss, the member forces shown in Figure 3.2 are determined. The elevation view is useful in determining the tension tie force required in Tie AB. The isometric view is useful in visualizing the complete three-dimensional truss and for determining the forces in the compressive struts.Example 3 (cont'd) _ ~ Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference oo Elevation View 200 kips force in strut = 406 kips 200 kips 200 ips 3-0 truss. Figure 3.2. Truss idealization and member forces.Example 3 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference Step 2 - Check Nodal Zone Stress Limits ‘The nodal zone at the pier-pile cap interface has a stress of: 800 36%36 = 0.62 ksi ‘This is considerably below the nodal zone stress limit for this CCC node of O.854f, = 0.85 x0.70x4 =2.38ksi §5.6.3.5 Furthermore, the pier vertical bars would extend some distance into the pile cap along with the pier ties. This would increase the resistance of this nodal zone. The stress in the nodal zones immediately above the piles is: 200 16x16 ; 0.78 ksi These nodal zones immediately above the pile caps have tension ties in two directions passing through the nodal zones (CTT node) and hence have a reduced nodal zone stress limit of §56.3.5 0.656f; = 0.65%0.70x4=1.82ksi. Therefore, the dimensions of these nodal zones are adequate. Step 3 - Choose Tension Tie Reinforcement All four tension ties have a factored tension force of 250 kips. Hence, the required area of tie reinforcement, A. , is: Py 250 | 2 $5.6.3.2 W000" 956.341 As In components subjected to flexure, the amount of reinforcement provided must be adequate to develop a factored flexural resistance, M, , at least 1.2 times the cracking moment unless an amount of reinforcement capable of carrying 1.33 times the factored moment is supplied. The factored flexural resistance required to resist 1.2M., §5.7.3.3.2 34Example 3 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion using the modulus of rupture, f, of 0.24y/f: ksi, specified in §5.4.2.6 12x12 48? The corresponding minimum area of flexural reinforcement can be determined by dividing this factored flexural resistance by the product of flexural lever arm (3.0 ft), and the factored yield strength of the reinforcement giving: Asin oe 30x 09x60 =164in? It should be noted that the total area of this flexural tension reinforcement, A, , will be provided by the reinforcement in the two parallel tension ties, ¢.g., Ties AB and CD (in Figure 3.2). Hence the area of tension tie reinforcement required to ensure that the factored flexural resistance is at least 1.2M., is equal to16.4/2 = 8.2in.? On the other hand, the amount of reinforcement required to resist 1.33 times the factored loads is: Ag = 1.33% 4.63 = 6.16 in? As the amount of reinforcement required to resist 1.33 times the factored loads is less than the amount required to resist .2M,,, this smaller amount will be provided. Choose 8 No.8 bottom bars for each of the Ties AB, BC, CD, and AD shown in Figure 3.2 (6.32in.? provided). Step 4 ~ Check Capacity of Struts Struts AE, BF, CG and DH each carry a compression force of 406 kips (see Fig. 3.2). In order to determine the nominal compressive resistances of the diagonal struts it is necessary to determine the effective cross-sectional area of these struts in the critical region near the intersection of the tension ties and the pile reactions (e.g., Joint A in Figure 3.2) and the limiting compressive stress that these struts can carry. In making these calculations it should be appreciated that the 35 Specification Reference §5.4.2.6 0,244 = 31,850 kip - in. = 2654 kip - ftExample 3 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion actual flow of forces from the pile cap into the bearing areas of the piles is complex and that the ability of these highly stressed struts to carry the loads is considerably enhanced by the confinement provided by the surrounding mass of concrete that has been presumed to be unstressed. Because of this confinement it is appropriate to make simplifying assumptions when estimating the cross-sectional area of the struts, As shown in Figure 3.3, it will be assumed that the compressive stresses from the head of the pile disperse into the pile cap at a 45° angle. This results in the effective bearing area at the middle plane of the tension tie reinforcement being a square with side dimensions of 24 x 24 in. (see Figure 3.3), effective bearing of 24" x 24" 24" =F 1 mite ptane NANI Ue of reinforcement t th oF 16" Figure 3.3. Dispersion of compressive stresses above pile. The vertical rise of the diagonal strut from A to E is 3.0 ff, while the horizontal distance from A to the point directly below E is 3,752 =5.30ft (see Figure 3.2). Hence, the angle between the centerline of the strut and the horizontal square bearing area is 29.5° (see Figure 3.4), 36 Specification ReferenceExample 3 (cont'd) : — Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference The cross-sectional area of the strut can be estimated by first looking at the section passing through the vertical plane (Section 1-1) shown in Figure 3.4, From geometry, it can be determined that the area of this vertical plane is 411 in.*. It will be assumed that the cross- sectional area of the strut, which is inclined at 29.5° from the vertical plane, is thus 411 cos 29.5° = 358 in,” The limiting compressive stress,f,, in the strut depends on the §5.6.3.3.3. principal tensile strain, ¢;, in the concrete surrounding the tension ties. The tensile strain in Tie AB is: Py 280 *AgE, 632%29,000 1364x107 The tensile strain in this tie will reduce from 1.364 x 10? at the inner edge of the effective bearing arca to a strain of about zero at the outer edge of the effective bearing area. Hence for investigating conditions near the centerline of the strut, the value of €, will be taken as (1.364 x 10° + 0/2 = 0.682 x 10°. This is the tensile strain in direction AB and 4 similar tensile strain exists in direction AD. Because of symmetry the same tensile strain exists in direction AC and BD. The angle between the plane of the tension ties and the diagonal strut is 29.5° and so the principal stain, e, can be determined as §5.6.3.3.3 8) =e, +(6, + 0.002}cot? aay = 0.68210 + (0.68210 + 0,002)cot? 29.59 = 9.06107 and the limiting compressive stress, f,, in the strut is then: $5.6.3.3.3 fea = pga $088, = 4 _ a r1si s0.85x4 = 3.40ksi 0.841706, 0.8+170% 9.0610 Multiplying the limiting compressive stress by the area of the strut, the nominal resistance of the strut is thus: Py = fey Agy = 1.71358 = 612 kips §5.6.3.3.1 37Example 3 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference 29.5° from horizontal plane of ties 7 i |, = diagonal of 24” square effective bearing zone = 339" 96" Ea Area = 411 in’ e 22.6 33.9) Section 1-1 Figure 3.4. Details of strut near Node A. 38‘Example 3 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion With a capacity reduction factor of 0.70, the factored resistance of the strut is: P, = @P, =0.70%612 = 429 kips As this exceeds the required factored load in the strut of 406 kips, the strut capacity is adequate. Step 5 ~Check Anchorage of Tension Tie The No. 8 bars are required to develop a force of 250 kips at the inner face of the precast piles. The inner faces of the effective bearing areas are at a distance of 18 + 12 = 30 in. from the outside face of the pile cap (see Figures 3.1 and 3.3), Hence, allowing for a concrete cover of 3 in., a distance of 27 in. is available as the embedment length. The stress in the 8 No.8 bars at the inner faces of the piles is: 250 8.079 39.6ksi The basic tension development length, £4, is 30 in. As these bars are ot required to develop their full yield stress, the development length can be reduced to (39,6/60) x 30 = 20 in, While it is possible to meet the anchorage requirement using straight bars, 180° hooks will be provided on the ends of the bars to make it possible to develop the full yield strength of the bars. This traditional practice results in pile caps that are less sensitive to misplacement of reinforcement and to factors which may reduce bond strength. Alternatively, headed bars could be used to ensure positive anchorage and direct bearing on the nodal zone. I is also necessary to check if the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective anchorage area. The standard hooks have an inside bend diameter of 6 in., giving out-to-out dimensions of 8 in, for the hooks. Considering the beneficial effects of the hooks, the effective depth of the nodal zone anchoring the ties will be taken as the distance from the bottom of the nodal zone to the centroid of the ties (4 in.) plus the book dimension (8 in.). The nodal zone stress due to anchorage of the tension tie is: ae = 0.87 ksi 12x24 39 Specification Reference §5.5.4.2.1 §5.6.3.2 §5.6.3.4.1 95.11.21 §5.11.2.1.3 §5.11.24Example 3 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion _Reference For this CTT nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is: 0.656f, = 0.65% 0.704 = 1.82 ksi Therefore, the tension ties with hooks are spread out sufficiently in the nodal zone. Step 6 — Check Minimum Reinforcement Requirements It is noted that footing-type elements are exempt from the crack $56.36 control requirements of §5.6.3.6. ‘The requirements for minimum flexural reinforcement of §5.7.3.3.2 95.7.3.3.2 have been satisfied in Step 3. Step 7 ~ Sketch the Required Reinforcement ‘The resulting reinforcement of the pile cap is shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6. 3-10Example 3 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion square column 3.030" }— a8 Pp pecification Reference t ' 1616 AL precast pile 4) Note: hooks to be placed in vertical plane Figure 3.5. Reinforcement details of pile cap using 180° hooks. square column 46 4 ae" sistas |! f 8 No. 8 bars A 8 No. 8 bars precast | pile o‘Example 4 Design of Dapped End Region of Girder ‘The dapped end region of an interior girder of a single lane ramp structure is shown in Figure 4.1. The precast, pretensioned girder has a total length of 100 ft and spans 97 fi 2in., center-to-center of bearings. The girder consists of a 54-in. deep AASHTO IV girder and an 8-in. thick deck slab. The girders are spaced at 10 The end region, $6 in. in length, is solid with a width of 26 in., that is, equal to the width of the bottom flange of the girder. As shown in Figure 4.2, the girder is pretensioned with forty-two 0.5-in, diameter low relaxation strands (36 with a straight strand profile and 6 draped strands). The harping points are located 33.33 fi from cach end of the beam. The specified concrete compressive strength, f. , is 8 ksi for the girder and 6 ksi for the deck slab, and the specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi In addition to the self-weight of the girder and deck slab, the girder must carry a 2-in concrete wearing surface, a superimposed dead load (including utilities) of 0.334 kips/f, the Design Lane load, and the Design truck load (HL93).. Design the dapped end region using the AASHTO LRED strut-and-tie method, 100. out i fe AT a ar eS 5a" ‘ or 18°18" bearing i 1 |,~____,.|._,| ora" Figure 4.1. Details of dapped end. 41‘Example 4 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference _ TOT Pa a. late ae e te be \ concrete bearing bo Block = 3k oF Seaton A 120" 5 ) 203 naped 1" oe sands } Ue1t+846 = 36 straight A" strands ors Section 8-B Figure 4.2. Details of pretensioning strand. 42Example 4 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion __ Reference Step 1 ~ Determine Factored Loading A concrete unit weight of 0.15 kef has been assumed. Table 4.1 summarizes the loading Table 4.1 Girder Loadings Component ~~ | Loading Strength- | Factored Loading | (tp Load | xin, Factor L a (§3.4.1) = Precast girder 082 1.25 1.0275 — o : 12s *{ 1.25 _ 1.463 (over solid | 1.25 1.829 (over solid block region only) block region only) Dap region (26 in. x27 | 0.731 (over dap | 1.25 0.9138 (over dap in.) region only) region only) Superimposed dead load | 0.25 1s 0375 (wearing surface) Superimposed dead load | 0.334 1s 0.501 | (utilities, etc.) ‘The Design Lane Load is 0.64 kif and the Design Truck has axle §3.6.1.2.4 loads of 32 kips, 32 kips, and 8 kips, with axle spacings of 14 ft. The 5261.22 tandem axle load consists of two axle loads of 25 kips each, spaced 4 ft apart. For this case the tandem axle load will produce a smaller $361.23 shear at the support than the design truck and hence does not control the design. For a girder spacing, S, of 10 fi, the live load distribution factor for shear in interior beams is: 036+ -0.364!2 0.76 $4.6.2.2.3 25 25 Using a load factor of 1.75 results in a factored lane loading for an. §3.4.1 interior girder of: 1.75 x 0.64 0.76 =0.8512 kif §3.6.21‘Example 4 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference Using a load factor of 1.75 and a dynamic load allowance factor, IM, of 1.33 results in factored axle loadings of: 1.75% 32% 0.76% 1.33 = 56.6 kips and 1,75 «8% 0.76% 1.33 = 14.15 kips With the truck positioned as indicated in Figure 4.3, the maximum shear (reaction) is determined to be 319 kips. 32 kips 32 kips 14° 14 8 kips Figure 4.3. Determining maximum shear. Step 2 - Draw Idealized Truss Model and Solve for Member Forces Using St. Venant’s principle, the disturbed region due the geometric discontinuity caused by the dapped end would extend about the total depth of the member, that is, 62 in. from the end of the full-depth solid block. The axle loading close to the support region also causes a disturbed region The strut-and tie model for the end region of the beam is shown in Figure 4.4. The beam already has been designed for flexure and shear in the B-region, In order to allow for the placement of the tension reinforcement, the centroid of the Ties CF and FH is assumed to be 4 in. from the bottom surface. This corresponds to the centroid of the bottom three rows of strands. The centroid of the top Struts BE and 8G is assumed to be 2 in. from the top of the deck slab. Node A is positioned at the intersection of the line of action of the reaction and the centroid of the tension tie above the support. In establishing the horizontal location of the Tie BC it is important to be aware of the reinforcement detailing requirements. It is prudent to spread out the vertical stirrups forming the tie to provide: a reasonable 44Example 4 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion _ Reference width of nodal zone at Node C and a sufficient length of this nodal zone to provide a reasonable embedment length for Tic CF. For Tie BC, try using sets of 4-legged No. 5 closed stirrups. These stirrups will be placed at a spacing of 4.0 in, with the first stirup set located 2.5 in. from the face of the dapped region. It will be assumed that 8 stirrup sets will be needed for Tie BC. Therefore, the centroid of Tie BC will be at a distance of 16.5 in. from the end of the full depth of the solid block. Node E is chosen close to the end of the thickened block, 62 in. from the end of the full-depth solid block, that is, at the end of the disturbed region. The remainder of the beam is divided into approximately square panels, 56 in. in length, to provide nodes at the locations of the axle loads (3 panel lengths equal 14 fi). Node F is located directly below Node E. Tension Tie AD is assumed to be anchored at Node D by the two diagonal compressive Struts (BD and CD). The loads applied to the node directly above A and to Nodes B and G represent the factored dead loads from the tributary areas centered on these nodes. The load at Node E represents the factored dead load plus the 56.6 kip factored axle loading caused when the rear wheel load is positioned at Node E to provide maximum tension in Tie BC. I is noted that if the truck load were closer to Node B then some of the truck loading could be transferred by direct strut action into Node A, hence reducing the force in Tie BC. The resulting factored forces in the truss members determined from equilibrium are listed in Table 4.2. Step 3 ~ Check Size of Bearings The limiting concrete stresses under the bearing depend on the conditions at the nodal zone. Node A is a CCT node with a limiting 956.35 stress of 0.759f;. While the reaction foree at A calculated for the truck rear axle located over Node E is 310 kips (see Figure 4.4), the reaction at A will be somewhat higher, namely 319 kips when the rear axle load is directly above the bearing (see Step 1 and Figure 4.3). Hence, the minimum bearing area required at Node A can be determined as: 45‘Example 4 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion nee Reference bearing area required = = = __319_76.9in? 0759 f, 0.75% 0.70x8 ‘The 18 x 18-in. bearing with assumed spreading at 45° through the 3- in, bearing block (see Figure 4.2) gives an effective bearing area of 24 x 24 in., which has sufficient area (576 in.’). sro xips 15.7 kips yy 187 kips ea tes | 2s" 35 oe oe Figure 4.4. Truss idealization. Table 4.2 Forces in Truss Members (Tension is Positive, Compression is Negative) {Member Force, kips Member Force, kips_| [ESeerAB BE “178.9 BC [cr 409.1 “AD EF 209.8 (co EG ~409.1 DE FH 6189 | an) ~ 46Example 4 (cont'd) - Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference Step 4 — Choose Tension Tie Reinforcement (a) Tension Tie BC The required area of tension tie reinforcement, Ay, , in Tie BC is: Fu, 503.8 Of, 0.960 331 §5.6.3.4.1 Using 8 sets of 4-legged No. 5 stirrups results in an area, A, =8%4%0.31=9.92in.”. Closed stirrups will be used to provide adequate anchorage of this reinforcement and to provide anchorage for the Struts AB and CE (b) Tension Tie AD The required factored tie force in AD (sce Figure 4.4 and Table 4,2) is 345.4 kips for the case where the truck rear axle load is at Node E. The tension force in Member AD will be somewhat higher if the rear axle load is placed at Node B. For this case the reaction at Node A becomes 315.5 kips. Hence the tension in Member AD becomes: 33.5 P, = BISS—-11.0)x =" =351.8kips 2 =¢ ») 9 ips This axle load position is the critical case for the force in Tie AD and the force in Strut AB The tension force in the 6 slightly inclined strands will contribute to the required tie force. Allowing for a 3-in.thick bearing block, the distance from the end of the beam to the inner edge of the bearing is 17 +943 = 29 in, The transfer length of the %-in. diameter strands 95.11.41 4s 60 strand diameters, that is, 60% 0.5 = 30in. Assuming a value of prestress after all losses of 162 ksi (0.6f,, ), the force contributed by the 6 strands in the dap region, assuming that the prestress force varies linearly from zero at the end of the beam to a maximum at the §5.8.3.2 transfer length is therefore: 29 Prrands = 22 162 6% 0.153 = 143.8 ki 30 " 47Example 4 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion Additional reinforcing bars will be required to carry the difference between the required force of 351.8 kips and the force carried by the strands, that is, 351.8-143.8= 208.0 kips. Therefore, the area of reinforcing bars to make up this difference is: 208.0 0.9% 60 85in? Therefore, use 5 No. 8 bars,A, =3.95in? anchorage of this reinforcement, provide either heads on the bars or uuse 90° bend hooks at each end, The bars must be capable of developing their yield force at the inner edge of the bearing area at Node A and must be anchored beyond Node D so that the tension force can be transferred to Stcuts DB and DC (see Figure 4.4). To provide adequate (©) Tension Tie CF The force required in Tie CF is 409.1 kips (see Table 4.2). The distance from the ends of the straight strands to the inner edge of the nodal zone at Node C is 33.5 in. (see Figure 4.5). As this distance exceeds 60 strand diameters, the strands are capable of developing a stress of 162 ksi. The bottom three rows of strands (30 strands) are capable of providing a force of: = 162 300.153 = 743.6 kips Prats Because this force exceeds the force required, n0 additional reinforcing steel is required (a) Tension Tie EF The vertical tension Tie EF must resist a factored tension force of 209.8 kips (see Table 4.2). This tension force can be provided by stirrups within a stirrup band that is assumed to start at the edge of the closed stirrups making up Tie BC and ending halfway between Nodes F and H. The distance from the last stirrup of Tie BC to Node F is 45.5-14 = 31.5in. (see Figures 4.4 and 4.5). Hence the length of the stirrup band is 31.5 + 28 = 59,5 in. Using No. 4 stirrups with 4 legs, the number of sets of stirrups, n, required in this band is: 48 Specification Reference 95.6.3.4.1 §5.6.3.4.1Example 4 (cont'd) ~~ Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference 500.8 kips ia J* ips width of strut Fh sin 8+ hycos @ = 33.5 sin ST + B cos 61° aur L— 6091 hips Figure 4.5. Details of strut near Node C. oe eee PAgly — 0.9x4x0.20x60 86 §5.6.3.4.1 Hence the required spacing, s, within the 59.5-in. band length is: 9, 8 s< 2.2in. Use 4-legged No. 4 closed stirrups at 12 in Step 5 Check Capacity of Struts Strut CD carries the highest compression force (649 kips, see Table 4.2), Also, this strut is anchored at Joint C that also anchors tension Ties BC and CF. Hence, this is the most critical strut. From the geometry of the truss, the smallest angle between the strut and the §5.6.3.3.3 adjoining tension ties is 39°. The tensile strain in Tie BC is 49Example 4 (cont'd) ‘Specification Calculations and Discussion _ _ Reference = 338 __ 1351x107 9.92 x 29,000, The principal strain, , can be determined as $563.33 6) = 0, #(6, +0.002)000? a, \asie10” +(.15t«10" +0002bor239° «7471x102 and the limiting compressive stress, fy in the strut is: $563.33, 8 - ~ <085/, = —__8__. - 3 86ksi < 0.85» 8ksi= 6.8ksi fo Veet ibe, $98! ~ Oeetrox7aTIn107 . From Figure 4.5, the cross-sectional dimension of the strut in the plane of the beam is 31.1 in, and from Figure 4.6 the effective thickness of the strut is 21.4 in. Hence, the nominal resistance of the strut is: Py = fogAey =3.86%31.1« 21.4 = 2569 kips §5.6.3.31 The factored resistance of the strut is: P, = @P, = 0.10 2569 = 1798 kips. §5.6.3.2 ‘As the factored resistance of the strut exceeds the factored load in the strut, 649 kips , the strut capacity is adequate. Step 6 — Check Anchorage of Tension Ties The details of the anchorage of the stirrups near the top of the beam must be such that they are effective in transferring their tension to the diagonal struts. At these locations the effective bearing area will be enhanced if closed stirrups rather than open stirrups are provided Closed stirrups also provide superior anchorage. The horizontal reinforcing bars which constitute Tie AD have either hooks or heads and have sufficient anchorage (see Step 4). The pretensioned strand was used for tension ties and the variation of force over the transfer length was accounted for in assessing the force capability of this reinforcement 4-10Example 4 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference 1.69" 6d, 6d, Gc, 6c 6d, Gy 1.69" bere 41 bet] ee} kote clear cover on stirrups 21318" eas eo effective thickness of strut = 2x 4.69 + 26 = 2147 §5.6.3.3.2 Figure 4.6. Effective thickness of diagonal struts, It is necessary to check that the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective anchorage area. Node C is a CTT node, which is 8 in in depth (see Figure 4.5). The nodal zone stress to anchor the tension tie force in CF of 409.1 kips is: 409. 8x214 = 2.39 ksi For this CTT nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is: 0.65% 0.70% 8 = 3.64 ksi §5.6.3.5 Se =0.656f, Therefore, the nodal zone stress limit in the anchorage area is acceptable, Step 7 - Provide Crack Control Reinforcement It is assumed that the B-region has been designed using sectional design procedures and that at least a minimum amount of stirrups hasExample 4 (cont'd) _ Calculations and Discussion been provided in the girder. The D-region is assumed to be in the solid block region, with the B-region starting 62 in. from the end of the full-depth (62-in.-deep) solid block (see Figure 4.7), For “disturbed regions” (D-regions) the AASHTO LRFD Specifications require that erack control reinforcement in the form of an orthogonal grid of reinforcement on both faces be provided. The minimum ratio of reinforcement to gross concrete area is 0.003 in each direction. For a spacing of 9 in. this requires: Ay = 0.003 x9x 26 = 0.70in.? ‘Therefore, use 4 No. 4 horizontal bars at 9 in. spacing and 4 legs of giving 4, =4%0.20=0.80in. in the No. 4 stirrups at 9 in, spacinj D-region. Step 8 ~ Sketch the Required Reinforcement ‘The resulting reinforcement of the dapped end beam is shown in Figure 47. 412 Specification Reference §5.6.3.6Example 4 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference 4-4 teggea No. 4 closed stirups er D-region | B-region A B Seen een | [ 5.Nos headed bars ———— same’ er stirrups @ 9° | een = long. bars: 4 legged No. 5 Ge closed stirrups er suse Figure 4.7. Reinforcement details of D-region of dapped end beam. 413Example 5 Design of Hammerhead Pier ‘The hammerhead pier shown in Figure 5.1 consists of a rectangular pier and a variable depth cap beam that supports 5 lines of precast, pretensioned girders. The girders sit on neoprene pads, which in turn are supported by concrete bearing blocks having dimensions of 18 x 36 in, The Strength I factored loads acting on the 5 bearing blocks include allowances for the factored self-weight of the cap beam. The specified concrete compressive strength, f, , is 4 ksi and the sp¢ of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi ified yield strength Design the hammerhead pier using the AASHTO LRED Specifications. P= 530k = 545k PL= 530k ‘cap beam 3-6" wide rectangular clam eo. Figure 5.1. Details of hammerhead pier.Example 5 (cont'd) ~~ Specification Calculations and Discussion The three central loads are located at a distance which is less than twice the member depth from the supporting reaction. Hence the central 20 ft of the hammerhead pier is a D-Region and will be designed using the strut-and-tie method. The outer portions of the hammerhead pier are flexural regions (B-Regions) which can be designed for shear using either the sectional model or the strut-and-tie model. For this example, the strut-and-tie model will be used. Step 1 - Draw Idealized Truss Model and Solve for Member Forces ‘The idealized truss model shown in Figure 5.2 represents the flow of forces in the hammerhead pier. The dashed lines coincide with the centerlines of the compressive struts that represent compressive stresses in different areas of the concrete. The solid lines coincide with the centroids of tension ties, which represent tension forces in different groups of reinforcing bars. Under the action of the girder loads the ends of the cap beam will bend down causing tension near the top face of the hammerhead pier and compression near the sloping bottom faces. To allow appropriate room for placement of the longitudinal reinforcement, it has been assumed that the centroid of the tension tie near the top face is located 6 in. below the top face. To provide an appropriate space for the concrete compression zone, it has been assumed that the centerline of the bottom compression strut is located 9 in, above the sloping bottom face and is parallel to this face. The compression force in the pier is represented by 3 vertical struts. The central strut carries the 585 kip load, while the outer two struts carry 1075 kips each, Assuming that the pier is subjected to uniform compressive stresses, the width of each outer strut must be: 1075 __sge3.an 585+ 21075 Hence the centerline of the outer _ struts willbe 0.50%3.14 = 1.57 ft from the outer faces of the pier. The distributed stirrups in the cap beam are represented by the vertical tension Ties AB, CD, BF, and GH. To solve the statics of the truss model it is convenient to know the lengths of these 4 truss members. As can be seen from Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2, the vertical distance between the top tie, ACEG, and the bottom strut, BDFH, increases by 0.2432 ft for every additional foot travelled away from 52 Reference §5.6.3 §5.8.1.1Example 5 (cont'd) Calculations and Specification iscussion Reference the free end of the cantilever. As shown in Figure 5.2, the resulting lengths of the 4 vertical ties are 3.858 ft, 5.074 fi, 6.29 ft, and 8.132 ft The member forces shown in Figure 5.2 were determined by the method of joints. Thus at Joint A, the vertical component from Member AD must push the joint upwards with 530 kips. The member must also. push the joint to the left with a force of 530% 5.00/ 5.074 = 522 kips. The square root of the sum of the squares of these two components is the force in Member AD, namely 2 compression of 744 kips, Member AC must have a tension force of 522 kips to balance the horizontal component of Member AD. Considering horizontal and vertical equilibrium for Joints D, C, F, E, H, and G enables all of the member forces to be computed. 530% 545k 585k + 3.250" - stirrup stinup stirup band ‘bang band 1 2 p =5.00 = 5.00 25.00 Figure 5.2. Truss idealization. Itis of interest to note that the vertical component of the compression force in the sloping bottom strut, BDFH, carries a significant portion of the vertical shear force. Thus if Member BDFH were horizontal, 33) ‘Specification ns and Discussion __Reference ‘Example 5 (cont’ Calcula the forces in Members CD and EF, which represent the tensions in the stirrups, would both be 530 kips, rather than 403 kips and 325 kips, respectively. Step 2 — Check Size of Bearings The concrete in the vicinity of Joint F, that is nodal region E, must anchor vertical Tie EF and horizontal Ties EC and EG. The beating, stress on such a region (CTT node) is limited 10 0.656f,. Hence the $56.3. minimum bearing area required to support the 545 kip load is: P, 545 = 299 in? 0.659f, 0.65%0.70%4 bearing area required = ‘Therefore, the bearing area chosen, 18 x 36 in., is satisfactory (648 in?). Step 3 — Design Reinforcement for Main Ten i (a) At the highest tension locations, EGL The required area of tension tie reinforcement, Ay » is: pEaeeqn (653) Hf, 09x60 = 30.61in? §5.6.3.4.1 Ag= Use 20 No. 11 bars, Ag = 20%1.56=312in? As shown in Figure 5.3, the required 20 No. I bars can be provided in 2 layers of 10 bars. If No. 5 stirrups are used the centroid of the 20 No. 11 bars will be about 4.7 in. from the top face. Hence the assumption that the centroid of the tension tie would be 6 in, below the top face was conservative (b) At lowest tension location, AC The required area of tension tie reinforcement is: §5.6.3.4.1 32? 9.67 in? SaExample 5 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussi Reference 2+ . 42" 8 16 | | ante aast —— cor ‘4 x t . ae 7 469 20-No. 11 top bars, I~ No. 5 stimups (| cen mae ene 23 125" 12.5" 125" 2.3" Figure 5.3. Layout of 20- No. 11 top bars near pier. (©) Development of bars The development length for a straight top horizontal No. 11 bar with 95.11.21 Ff, = 60 ksi and f; =4 ksiis 82 in. If 90° hooks with at least 2.5 in. of side cover are used the development length is reduced to 19 in. Hence §5.11.2.4 terminate the 10 bars in the lower layer at a location 19 in. beyond point E, Terminate the remaining 10 bars with 90° hooks at a location 27 in. beyond point A. Step 4 — Design Tension Ties Representing Stirrups Try using No. 5 stirrups with 4 legs (see Figure 5.3). 55Example 5 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference (a) Stirrup spacing required for Tie CD Vertical Tie CD has the highest tension. Hence the number of stirrups required in stirrup band 2 (see Figure 5.2), is: PB 4 =e 3 _ 6m Agi, 0.9%4x031%60 a §5.6.3.4.1 Hence, the required spacing, s, within the 5-ft band is: sx ~997n 6.02 ‘Try a spacing of 9 in In the flexural region between A and E the minimum transverse reinforcement, assuming a stirrup spacing of 9 in,, is: Pe 9.0316 a x 282 0.390? $58.25 fy oo A, = 0.031641 Since A, = 40.31 =1.24in.”, an amount greater than minimum has been provided in stirrup band 2 (see Figure 5.2). While No. 5 stirrups with 2 legs could be used in stirrup band 1, which will be governed by the minimum arca requirement, it would be more practical to continue the 4-legged No. 5 stirrups at a spacing of 9 in. throughout this region. (b) Stirrup spacing required for Tie EF Vertical Tie EF must resist a tension of 325 kips. Hence the number of stirrups required in stirrup band 3 (see Figure 5.2) is: Pe 325 OAgf, 0.9x4x031%60 Hence, the required spacing, s, within the 5-ft band is: a §5.6.3.4.1 =12.37 in 85 56Example 5 (cont'd) Calculat ions and Discussion Try a spacing of 12 in, For crack control in this disturbed region, the ratio of reinforcement area (0 cross-sectional area shall not be less than 0,003 in both the vertical and horizontal directions. Hence: As 3 0.003 bs. Therefore: Ag __4x031 ** 0.0036 — 0.003% 42 =9.84 in, Thus use No. 5 stirrups with 4 legs spaced at 9 in. throughout the length of the beam, Step 5 Check Capacity of Bottom Strut BDFH. ‘The highest compressive force in the bottom Strut BDFH is 867 kips in Member FH (see Figure 5.2. AS this strut will be crossed by vertical stirrups, the compressive capacity of this strut may need to be reduced. The area of Tic EF is(60/9)x4x0.31=8,27 in.?. Hence the strain in this stirrup under the 325 kip tension is P3235 AgE, 827% 29,000 = 136x107 e As the smallest angle between the strut and the tension tie is 90 - 13.7 = 76.3", the principal strain, ¢, , can be determined as: Specification Reference §5.6.3.6 $5.6.3.3.3 81 = 6, + (6 +0.002)}c0f? a, =1.36%107 + (136x107 + 0.002012 76:3 = 1.56%10° And, the limiting compressive stress, f.,, in the strut is: 587 $5.6.3.3.3Example 5 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference f 4 = s085f; = A __ 3,76 ksi < 0.854 ooze 0.8 +170 «1.5610 40 ksi ‘The centroid of the strut was assumed to be at 9 in. vertically from the bottom face (see Figure 5.2); hence the thickness of the strut perpendicular tothe -—sloping-—bottom =— face. is 2x9x cos 13.7° = 17.5in. The nominal resistance of the strut is’ = fay Acg = 3.40% 42% 17.5 = 2499 kips §5.6.3.3.1 The factored resistance of the strut is: P, = 0.70 2499 = 1749 kips §5.6.3.2 As the factored resistance exceeds the 867 kip compression due to factored loads, the strut capacity is adequate. While the truss geometry coutd be adjusted by reducing the thickness of the bottom strut and the member forces recalculated, the changes in forces will be rather small, resulting in perhaps the saving of only one bar in the main tension tic, ‘Thus the original conservative assumptions are acceptable. Step 6 ~ Check Capacity of Diagonal Struts of AD, CF, and EH. Of the three diagonal struts crossing the web, AD, CF, and EH, Member BH has the highest compression. The details of the member at end E, where it crosses the tension ties, are shown in Figure 5.4 The strains in Ties CE and EG due to factored loads are shown in Figure 5.3. For determining the strut capacity, the average value of 85x10 these two strains has been assumed, giving c, The principal strain, ¢, , can be determined as: §5.6.3.3.3 2, =6, +(¢, +0.002)cot? a, =1.85%10" + (1.85107 +0,002}oot? 47.0? =5.20%107 and the limiting compressive stress, f,,, in the strut is §5.6.3.3.3‘Example 5 (cont'd) Specification Calculations and Discussion Reference —_f£__ <9 2 7 85f, = + fe 0841702, We 0.8+170x5.20x107 = 2.38ksi $0.85 4 =3.40ksi ‘The cross-sectional dimension of strut EH in the plane of the pier is 19.6 in. (see Figure 5.4), while the effective thickness of the strut at ‘end E could be conservatively taken as 36 in. which is the width of §95.6.3.3.2 the bearing block. However, the good anchorage conditions provided by the No. 11 bars in the comer of the stirrups enable the effective thickness of the strut to be increased. 545k —+ 18" 9 ey eae qaieno Z a =1.83%107 . eas 10 * 1.56 = 20000 : =1.86«19°° . eon erceea ese, Figure 5.4. Details of Strut EH near Node E. As can be seen from Figure 5.3, the center-to-center distance of the vertical stirrups across the 42-in. width of the hammerhead pier is 12.5 in. As this distance is less than 2x 6dy, = 2x6x1.410 = 16.9in., the full 42-in. width of the pier cap is effective. Hence the nominal resistance of the strut is: P, = foe, = 2.38% 42% 19.6 = 1959 kips §5.6.3.3.1 39Example 5 (cont'd) Calculations and Discussion ‘The factored resistance of the strut is: P, = @P, = 0.701959 = 1357 kips 2 1189 kips required ‘Therefore, the strut capacity is adequate. Step 7 ~ Provide Crack Control Reinforcement In Step 4, the stirrup spacing was adjusted to satisfy the crack control requirements for reinforcement in the vertical direction, but crack control reinforcement also must be provided in the horizontal direction. The vertical spacing between these horizontal bars must not exceed 12 in. If this maximum spacing is used, the area of horizontal bars in each layer needs to be: Ag = 0.003bs = 0.003 «12x 42 = 1.51in.? Therefore, use 4 No. 6 horizontal bars at 12 in. spacing (4x0.44 5 76 in.? provided), arranged as shown in Figure Step 8 ~ Sketch the Required Reinforcement The resulting reinforcement for the hammerhead pier is shown in Figure 5.5. For clarity the pier reinforcement is not shown. 10-No. 11 10-No. 14 4 tegges Hos stimups at 9" ec 4 No.6 bars a2 ec 4 "No.6 bars Figure 5.5. Reinforcement details for hammerhead pier. ‘Specification “Reference $5.6.3.6PCA. Portland Cement Association ST Lod Deets An organization of cement companies to improve and extend the uses of portland a ciaee ee lian ‘cement and concrete through market development, engineering, research, edu ROC) Ce ec ieati