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Quantitative Methods PDF
Quantitative Methods PDF
Mathematics In Management
Learning Outcome
Explain functions
2.
2nd Reading with understanding: It will need 4 Hrs for reading and understanding a
unit
3.
Self Assessment: It will need 3 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit
4.
5.
Content Map
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Business Mathematics
1.2.2
Business Statistics
1.3
1.4
Functions-Concept
Quantitative Methods
1.4.1
Definition of a Function
1.4.2
Notation
1.4.3
1.5
Application of Functions
1.6
Special Functions
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4
Kinds of Functions
1.7
Summary
1.8
1.9
Further Reading
Quantitative Methods
1.1 Introduction
Quantitative methods are research techniques that are inevitably used to table
quantitative data i.e. information dealing with numbers and anything that is measurable.
Statistics, tables and graphs are the tools used to represent the results of these methods.
They must therefore be distinctly distinguished from qualitative methods.
In most physical and biological sciences, the use of either quantitative or qualitative
methods is uncontroversial and each is used when appropriate. In the social sciences,
particularly in sociology, social anthropology and psychology, the use of one or other type of
method has become a matter of controversy and even ideology, with particular schools of
thought within each discipline favouring one type of technique and rejecting the other.
Advocates of the quantitative methods are of the view that only by using such methods can
the social sciences become truly scientific, while advocates of qualitative methods argue
that quantitative methods tend to obscure the reality of the social phenomena under study
because they underestimate or neglect the non-measurable factors, which may be of utmost
importance. The modern tendency (and in reality the majority tendency throughout the
history of social science) is to use eclectic approaches. Quantitative methods might be used
with a global qualitative frame. Qualitative methods might be used to understand the
meaning of the numbers produced by quantitative methods. Using quantitative methods, it
is possible to give a precise and testable expression to qualitative ideas. This combination of
quantitative and qualitative data gathering is often referred to as mixed-methods research.
Mathematics is an essential subject and knowledge of it enhances a person's
reasoning, problem-solving skills and in general, ability to think logically. Hence it enables an
easy grasp of most subjects, whether science and technology, medicine, the economy or
business and finance. Mathematical tools and techniques such as the Theory of Chaos are
used for mapping and forecasting market trends. Statistics and probability, which are very
important branches of mathematics, are used in everyday business and economics.
Mathematics also forms an indispensible part of accounting and many accountancy
companies prefer graduates with dual degrees with mathematics, rather than just an
accountancy qualification. Financial mathematics and business mathematics are considered
two important branches of mathematics in today's world and these are examples of the
direct application of mathematics to business and economics. Examples of applied maths
such as probability theory and management science, queuing theory, time-series analysis,
linear programming all are vital for business.
In 1967, Stafford Beer characterised the field of management science as "the
business use of operations research". However, in modern times the term management
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science may also be used to refer to the separate fields of organisational studies or
corporate strategy. Like operational research itself, management science (MS) is an
interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics devoted to optimal decision planning with
strong links with economics, business, engineering and other sciences. It uses various
scientific
research-based
principles,
strategies
and
analytical
methods
including
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Fig.1.1: Graph showing BSE Sensex through the Week Sep 20 to Sep 26' 2010
Study Notes
Quantitative Methods
Assessment
Differentiate between Business Mathematics and Business Statistics.
Discussion
Discuss the history of Quantative Techniques and their application in Management.
Quantitative Methods
Micromax, Maxx, Lava, Rage and GVL has helped many understand that the Nokias of this
world can be beaten in a price-sensitive market like India.
So, the first step from being a cell service operator to a mobile phone player was
taken by none other than the telecom giant Bharti Airtel when it announced the launch of its
own range of low-priced phones. This was launched under their subsidiary phone brand
company Beetel.
The price range of these mobile phones is between Rs 1,750 and Rs 7,000. After
Bharti, others have followed the cue. Tata Indicom recently announced a QWERTY phone,
which is a co-branded product with Alcatel. The mobile phone is bundled with Yahoo
services.
This is clearly pointing towards a trend of telecom operators looking towards the
mobile phone market for revenue growth. India does about 130- odd million in new mobile
phone sales each year and, with large subscribers now coming from the semi-urban to rural
areas, low-cost handsets seem to be the order of the day. Local players like Micromax
seemed to have cracked this aspect with their competitive price (ranging between Rs 2,000
and Rs 8,000) and an excellent bundle of features that includes social networking, among
other things.
Opportunity for Telecom Operators
As telecom penetration goes rural, telecom service giants like Bharti Airtel have the
unique advantage of a retail reach that mobile phone manufacturers are unlikely to have.
The other advantage they have is the option to bundle cheap call rates and plans along with
a mobile phone sale. They can also partner with content providers for value-added services
(VAS) products and bundle the same, targeting apps for rural India.
This is also their way to offset the impending losses that they may foresee due to the
increase tariff-based competition in the mobile services business and also the ever-falling
per-second rates.
All in all, its a natural progression for a telecom player to look at the Indian mobile
phones business as the market has already been expanded by existing Indian players via
their cheap pricing and feature rich phones.
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Study Notes
Assessment
Why do business consultants and directors need to know math? Give examples.
Discussion
Discuss the scope and importance of mathematics in managerial decisions
Quantitative Methods
Both the domain and the range in the picture are the set of real numbers between -1
and 1.5.
In addition to elementary functions on numbers, functions include maps between
algebraic structures like groups and maps between geometric objects. In the abstract settheoretic approach, a function is a relation between the domain and the co-domain that
associates each element in the domain with exactly one element in the co-domain. An
example of a function with domain {A,B,C} and co-domain {1,2,3} associates A with 1, B with
2 and C with 3.
There are many ways to describe or represent functions: by a formula, by an
algorithm that computes it, by a plot or a graph. A table of values is a common way to
specify a function in statistics, physics, chemistry and other sciences. A function may also be
described through its relationship to other functions, for example, as the inverse function or
a solution of a differential equation. There are many different functions from the set of
natural numbers to itself, most of which cannot be expressed with a formula or an
algorithm.
In a setting where they have numerical outputs, functions may be added and
multiplied, yielding new functions. Collections of functions with certain properties, such as
continuous functions and differentiable functions, usually required to be closed under
certain operations are called function spaces and are studied as objects in their own right in
disciplines like real analysis and complex analysis. An important operation on functions,
which distinguishes them from numbers, is the composition of functions.
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Many traditions have sprouted around the use of functions because of their wide
usage. The symbol for the input to a function is often called the independent variable or
argument and is often represented by the letter x or if the input is a particular time by the
letter t. The symbol for the output is called the dependent variable or value and is often
represented by the letter y. The function itself is most often called f and thus the notation
y = f(x) indicates that a function named f has an input named x and an output named y.
Functions need not act on numbers: the domain and co-domain of a function may be
arbitrary sets. One example of a function that acts on non-numeric inputs takes English
words as inputs and returns the first letter of the input word as output. Furthermore,
functions need not be described by any expression, rule or algorithm: indeed, in some cases
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11
it may be impossible to define such a rule. For example, the association between inputs and
outputs in a choice function often lacks any fixed rule, although each input element is still
associated to one and only one output.
A function of two or more variables is considered in formal mathematics as having a
domain consisting of ordered pairs or triples of the argument values. For example, Sum(x,y)
= x+y operating on integers is the function- sum with a domain consisting of pairs of
integers. Sum then has a domain consisting of elements like (3, 4), a co-domain of integers
and an association between the two that can be described by a set of ordered pairs like
((3,4), 7). Evaluating Sum (3,4) then gives the value 7 associated with the pair (3,4).
A family of objects indexed by a set is equivalent to a function. For example, the
sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ..., 1/n, ... can be written as the ordered sequence <1/n> where n is a
natural number or as a function f(n) = 1/n from the set of natural numbers into the set of
rational numbers.
Dually, a subjective function partitions its domain into disjoint sets indexed by the
co-domain. This partition is known as the kernel of the function and the parts are called the
fibers or level sets of the function at each element of the co-domain. (A non-subjective
function divides its domain into disjoint and possibly-empty subsets).
+2
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is usually written as
The graph of a function is its set of ordered pairs. Such a set can be plotted on a pair
of coordinate axes. For example, (3, 9) is the point of intersection of the lines x = 3 and y = 9.
A function is a special case of a more general mathematical concept, the relation, for
which the restriction that each element of the domain appear as the first element in one
and only one ordered pair is removed (or, in other words, the restriction that each input be
associated to exactly one output). A relation is 'single-valued' or 'functional' when for each
element of the domain set the graph contains at most one ordered pair (and possibly none)
with it as a first element. A relation is called 'left-total' or simply 'total' when for each
element of the domain, the graph contains at least one ordered pair with it as a first
element (and possibly more than one). A relation that is both left-total and single-valued is a
function.
In some parts of mathematics, including Recursion Theory and functional analysis, it
is convenient to study partial functions in which some values of the domain have no
association in the graph, i.e. single-valued relations. For example, the function f such that
f(x) = 1/x does not define a value for x = 0 and thus is only a partial function from the real
line to the real line. The term total function can be used to stress the fact that every element
of the domain does appear as the first element of an ordered pair in the graph. In other
parts of mathematics, non-single-valued relations are similarly conflated with functions:
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13
these are called multi-valued functions, with the corresponding term single-valued function
for ordinary functions.
Some authors (especially in set theory) define a function as simply its graph f, with
the restriction that the graph should not contain two distinct ordered pairs with the same
first element. Indeed, given such a graph, one can construct a suitable triple by taking the
set of all first elements as the domain and the set of all second elements as the co-domain:
this automatically causes the function to be total and subjective. However, most authors in
advanced mathematics outside of set theory prefer the greater power of expression
afforded by defining a function as an ordered triple of sets.
Many operations in set theory- such as the power set- have the class of all sets as
their domain, therefore, although they are informally described as functions, they do not fit
the set-theoretical definition above outlined.
1.4.2 NOTATION
Formal description of a function typically involves the function's name, its domain, its
co-domain and a rule of correspondence. Thus, we frequently see a two-part notation, an
example being
' is a function from N to R' (one often writes informally 'Let : X Y' to mean 'Let be a
function from X to Y') or
maps to
Here, the function named '' has the natural numbers as domain, the real numbers as
co-domain and maps n to itself divided by . Less, formally, this long form might be
abbreviated
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Quantitative Methods
Where f(n) is read as 'f as function of n' or 'f of n'. There is some loss of information:
we are no longer explicitly given the domain N and co-domain R.
It is common to omit the parentheses around the argument when there is little
chance of confusion, thus: sin x; this is known as prefix notation. Writing the function after
its argument, as in x , is known as postfix notation; for example, the factorial function is
customarily written n!, even though its generalisation, the gamma function, is written (n).
Parentheses are still used to resolve ambiguities and denote precedence, though in some
formal settings the consistent use of either prefix or postfix notation eliminates the need for
any parentheses.
Study Notes
Quantitative Methods
15
Assessment
1.
2.
Explain in detail:
Discussion
Discuss, what do you understand by vertical line test.
Quantitative Methods
function of x.
Solution to Problem 2:
If x and y are the dimensions of the rectangle, using the formula of the area we
obtain
100 = x * y
The perimeter P is given by
P = 2(x + y)
Solve the equation 100 = x * y for y and substitute y in the formula for the perimeter
P(x) = 2(x + 100 / x)
Problem 3: Find the area of a square as a function of its perimeter x.
Solution to Problem 3:
The area of a square of side L is given by
A=L2
The perimeter x of a square with side L is given by
x=4L
Solve the above for L and substitute in the area formula A above
A(x) = (x/4) 2 = x 2 / 16
Problem 4: A right circular cylinder has a radius r and a height equal to twice r. Find the
volume of the cylinder as a function of r.
Solution to Problem 4:
The volume V of a right circular cylinder is given by
V = (area of base of cylinder) * (height of cylinder)
= * r 2 * (2 r)
=2r3
Problem 5: Express the length L of the chord of a circle, with given radius r = 10 cm, as a
function of the arc length s. (see figure below).
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17
Solution to Problem 5:
Using half the angle a, we can write
sin(a / 2) = (L / 2) / r
Substitute r by 10 and solve for L
L = 20 sin(a / 2)
The relationship between arc length s and central angle a is
s = r a = 10 a
Solve for a
a = s / 10
Substitute a by s / 10 in L = 20 sin(a / 2) to obtain
L = 20 sin ( (s / 10) / 2 )
= 20 sin ( s / 20)
Problem 6: Express the distance d = d1+ d2, in the figure below, as a function of x.
Solution to Problem 6:
d1 is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle of sides x and 3, hence
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Quantitative Methods
d1 = sq rt [32 + x 2 ]
d2 is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle of sides 7 - x and 5,
Hence,
d2 = sq rt [5 2 + (7 - x) 2 ]
d = d1 + d2 is given by
d = sq rt [9 + x 2 ] + sq rt [ 25 + (7 - x) 2 ]
Study Notes
Assessment
A square has an area equal to 10,000 cm2 and its side is x. Find the perimeter as a function
of x.
Discussion
Discuss Applications of Functions.
19
There is no general formal definition but the list of mathematical functions contains
functions which are commonly accepted as special. In particular, elementary functions are
also considered special functions..
; usually,
usually indicates
is typically
20
, but never
Quantitative Methods
Usually means
and not
rational functions.
1. Polynomial functions
A polynomial function is any function of the form
f (x) = a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x 2 + ....a n-1 x n-1 + a n x n
r(x) =
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21
Where f (x) and g(x) are both polynomial functions. For example,
r(x) =
is a rational function. Note that we must exclude from the domain of r(x) any value of
x that would make the denominator, g(x) equal zero since this would make r(x) undefined.
Thus, x = 0 is not in the domain of the function r(x) we just defined above.
1. Even functions
An even function, f (- x) = f (x) for all x in the domain. This sort of function is
symmetric with respect to the yaxis. In these, y axis or f(x) for any negative integer of x will
be positive.
2. Odd functions
For an odd function, f (- x) = - f (x) for all x in the domain. This sort of function is
symmetric with respect to the origin.
Odd functions, such as f (x) = x 3 , are symmetric with respect to the origin
Composite Functions
As discussed earlier, f is a function that can take an input x and transform it into an output f
(x). Similarly, f can take the output of another function such as g(x) as its input and transform
that input into f (g(x)). When two functions are combined so that the output of one function
becomes the input for the other, the resulting combined function is called a composite
function. The notation for the composite function is f (g(x)) is (f o g)(x) .
Example:
If f (x) = 3x + 4 and g(x) = 2x - 7, then how could we find (f o g)(2)?
Solved Exercises:
Question 1: Is the graph shown below that of a function?
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Quantitative Methods
Solution to Question 1:
Vertical line test: A vertcal line at x = 0 for example cuts the graph at two points. The
graph is not that of a function.
For one value of x we have two values of y and this is not a function.
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23
(f + g)(x) = 3 x - 17
Question 6: Functions f and g are defined by
f(x) = 1/x + 3x and g(x) = -1/x + 6x - 4
Find (f + g)(x) and its domain.
Solution to Question 6:
(f + g)(x) = 9 x - 4
24
g)(x)
f(x)
g(x)
(x
1)
(x
1)(x
3)
= (x - 1) / (x + 3) , x not equal to 1
The domain of f / g is the intersection of the domain of f and g excluding all values of x
that make the numerator equal to zero. The domain of f / g is given by
(-infinity, -3) U (-3, 1) U (1 , + infinity)
For function h to be real valued, the expression under the square root must be positive
or equal to 0. Hence the condition
x - 2 >= 0
For a value of the variable x to be in the domain of function g given above, two
conditions must be satisfied: The expression under the square root must not be negative
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25
- x 2 + 9 >= 0
x not equal to 1
Or in interval form
(-infinity, 1) U (1, + infinity)
Since x must satisfy both conditions, the domain of g is the intersection of the sets
(-infinity , 1) U (1 , + infinity) and [-3 , 3]
[-3, 1) U (1, +3]
| x - 2 | is an absolute value and is either positive or equal to zero as x takes real values,
hence
| x - 2 | >= 0
The expression on the left side of the above inequality is equal to f(x), hence
f(x) >= 3
Study Notes
26
Quantitative Methods
Assessment
Function f is defined by f(x) = - 2 X 2 + 6 x - 3. Find f(- 2).
Discussion
Discuss kinds of functions.
1.7 Summary
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Business mathematics is mathematics used by commercial enterprises to record and
manage business operations. Commercial organisations use mathematics in accounting,
inventory management, marketing, sales forecasting and financial analysis.
BUSINESS STATISTICS
Business statistics is the science of good decision making in the face of uncertainty
and is used in many disciplines such as financial analysis, econometrics, auditing, production
and operations including services improvement and marketing research.
SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS IN MANAGEMENT
Mathematics is used in most aspects of daily life. Many executive jobs such as those
of business consultants, computer consultants, airline pilots, company directors and a host
of others require a solid understanding of basic mathematics and in some cases require a
detailed knowledge of mathematics.
FUNCTIONS
A function assigns a unique value to each input of a specified type. The argument and
the value may be real numbers but they can also be elements from any given sets: the
domain and the co-domain of the function.
NOTATION OF A FUNCTION
Formal description of a function typically involves the function's name, its domain, its
co-domain and a rule of correspondence. Thus, we frequently see a two-part notation.
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27
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Special functions are particular mathematical functions which have more or less
established names and notations due to their importance in mathematical analysis,
functional analysis, physics or other applications.
1.8
Broad Questions
1. Evaluate f(3) given that f(x) = | x - 6 | + x 2 - 1
2. Find f(x + h) - f(x) given that f(x) = a x + b
3. Find the range of g(x) = - SQRT(- x + 2) - 6
4. Find (f o g)(x) given that f(x) = SQRT(x) and g(x) = x 2 - 2x + 1
5. How do you obtain the graph of - f(x - 2) + 5 from the graph of f(x)?
Short Notes
a. Application of mathematics in business
b. Business mathematics and business statistics
c. Vertical line test
d. Kinds of functions
e. Special functions
Answers to above Questions:
1. f(3) = 11
2. f(x + h) - f(x) = a h
3. [-2 , 1]
4. (- infinity , - 6]
5. (f o g)(x) = | x - 1 |
6. Shift the graph of f 2 units to the right then reflect it on the x axis, then shift it upward 5
units.)
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Quantitative Methods
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29
Assignment
Exercises
1. Express the area A of a disk in terms of its circumference C.
2. The width of a rectangle is w. Express the area A of this rectangle in terms of its perimeter
P and width w.
Solutions to above exercises:
1. A = C 2 / (4 Pi)
2. A = (1/2) w (P - 2w)
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Quantitative Methods
Unit 2
2.
2nd Reading with understanding: It will need 4 Hrs for reading and understanding a
unit
3.
Self Assessment: It will need 3 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit
4.
5.
Content Map
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Arithmetic Progressions
2.2.1 Sum in A.P.
2.2.2 Product in A.P.
2.3
Geometric Progressions
2.3.1 Elementary Properties of G.P.
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31
Harmonic Progression
2.4.1 Harmonic Series
2.4.2 Divergence
2.4.3 Partial Sums
2.5
2.6
Matrices
2.6.1 Definition of Matrices
2.6.2 Notation
2.6.3 Basic Operations
2.6.4 Matrix Multiplication
2.6.5 Application of Matrices
2.7
Markov Chains
2.7.1 Concept of Markov Chains
2.7.2 Definition of Markov Chains
2.7.3 Variations
2.7.4 Reversible Markov Chains
2.7.5 Application of Markov Chains
2.8
Summary
2.9
2.10
Further Reading
32
Quantitative Methods
2.1 Introduction
A. SEQUENCE
general term an
n/(n+1)
1/2n
(-1) n+1 n/(n+1)
(2n-1)
B. SERIES
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. Finite sequences and series have
defined first and last terms, whereas infinite sequences and series continue indefinitely.
In mathematics, given an infinite sequence of numbers { an }, a series is informally
the result of adding all those terms together: a1 + a2 + a3 + . These can be written more
compactly using the summation symbol . An example is the famous series from Zeno's
dichotomy given below:
The terms of the series are often produced according to a certain rule, such as by a
formula or by an algorithm. As there are an infinite number of terms, this notion is often
called an infinite series. Unlike finite summations, infinite series need tools from
mathematical analysis to be fully understood and manipulated. In addition to their ubiquity
in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as
physics and computer science.
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33
Example of series
a) 2,6,10,14,...
b) 16,8,4,2...
C. MATRICES
Diagonal
Upper Triangular
Identity
Quantitative Methods
2.
If the initial term of an arithmetic progression is a1 and the common difference of
successive members is d, then the nth term of the sequence is given by:
and in general
Examples:
Each one of the following series form an A.P.
1, 3, 5, 7
3, 7, 11, 15
15, 12, 9
x, x - d, x - 2d, .....
35
Expression i is used when the first term and the last term are given and the
expression ii is used when the first and the common difference are given. In any question
involving the five quantities a, d, l, n and s, we can determine all of them if any three are
given.
Remark
If the same quantity is added to or subtracted from every term of an A.P, then the
resulting series will be an A.P. having the same common difference.
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Quantitative Methods
If every term of an A.P. is multiplied by the same quantity, the resulting series will be in
A.P.
If every term of a series in A.P. is divided by the same quantity, the resulting series will
be an A.P.
If three terms are given to be in A.P., it is convenient to take them as: a-d, a, a+d.
Example 2
Express the arithmetic series in two different ways:
Adding both sides of the two equations, all terms involving d cancel:
So, for example, the sum of the terms of the arithmetic progression given by an = 3 +
(n-1)(5) up to the 50th term is
where
denotes the rising factorial and denotes the gamma function. (Note,
however, that the formula is not valid when a1 / d is a negative integer or zero.)
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37
This is a generalisation from the fact that the product of the progression
is given by the factorial n! and that the product
Taking the example from above, the product of the terms of the arithmetic
progression given by an = 3 + (n-1)(5) up to the 50th term is
Study Notes
Assessment
1. Find the sum of the first 10 numbers from this arithmetic progression 1, 11, 21, 31.
2.
Discussion
Discuss sequence, series and matrices.
38
Quantitative Methods
where r 0 is the common ratio and a is a scale factor, equal to the sequence's start
value.
nth term of the geometric progression is,
an=ar (n-1)
39
Positive, the terms will all be the same sign as the initial term.
Between 1 and 1 but not zero, there will be exponential decay towards zero.
Less than 1, for the absolute values there is exponential growth towards positive and
negative infinity (due to the alternating sign).
Geometric sequences (with common ratio not equal to 1,1 or 0) show exponential
growth or exponential decay, as opposed to the linear growth (or decline) of an arithmetic
progression such as 4, 15, 26, 37, 48, (with common difference 11). This result was taken
by T.R. Malthus as the mathematical foundation of his book Principle of Population. Note
that the two kinds of progression are related: exponentiation of each term in an arithmetic
progression yields a geometric progression, while taking the logarithm of each term in a
geometric progression with a positive common ratio yields an arithmetic progression.
We can find a simpler formula for this sum by multiplying both sides of the above
equation by 1 r and we will see that
since all the other terms cancel. Rearranging (for r 1) gives the convenient formula
for a geometric series:
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Quantitative Methods
If one were to begin the sum not from 0 but from a higher term, say m, then
Differentiating this formula with respect to r, allows us to arrive at formulae for sums
of the form
For example:
Then
and
Since:
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41
Then:
The formulae given above are valid only for | r | < 1. The latter formula is valid in
every branch of algebra, as long as the norm of r is less than one and also in the field of padic numbers if | r |p < 1. As in the case for a finite sum, we can differentiate to calculate
formulae for related sums. For example,
This formula only works for | r | < 1 as well. From this, it follows that, for | r | < 1,
Also, the infinite series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + is an elementary example of a
series that converges absolutely.
It is a geometric series, whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its
sum is
The inverse of the above series is 1/2 1/4 + 1/8 1/16 + is a simple example of
an alternating series that converges absolutely.
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Quantitative Methods
It is a geometric series, whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so
its sum is
which is a consequence of Euler's formula. Substituting this into the original series
gives
.
This is the difference of two geometric series and thus is a straightforward
application of the formula for infinite geometric series that completes the proof.
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43
Proof:
Let the product be represented by P:
.
Now, carrying out the multiplications, we conclude that
.
Applying the sum of arithmetic series, the expression will yield
.
.
We raise both sides to the second power:
.
Consequently,
and
,
which concludes the proof.
Example for Geometric Progression:
81, 27, 9... Find the nth term formula and the value of the fifth term from the given
sequence.
Solution: The common ratio to the base r = . The nth term formula is,
an = 81( )n1
=> an = 81 ( )n1
Therefore, fifth term is,
a5 = 81 ( )5 1
=> 81 ( )4
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Quantitative Methods
=> 81 (
=> a5 = 1.
Study Notes
Assessment
Question
A piece of equipment cost a certain factory Rs. 600,000. If it depreciates in value, 15%
the first year, 13.5 % the next year, 12% the third year, and so on, what will be its value
at the end of 10 years, all percentages applying to the original cost?
(1) 2,00,000
(2) 1,05,000
(3) 4,05,000
(4) 6,50,000
[Hint: The total cost being Rs. 6,00,000/100 * 17.5 = Rs. 1,05,000.]
Discussion
Discuss difference between Arithmetic Progression and Geometric Progression.
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45
Its name is derived from the concept of overtones or harmonics in music. For
example, the wavelengths of the overtones of a vibrating string are 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc of the
string's fundamental wavelength. Every term of the series after the first is the harmonic
mean of the neighbouring terms; the term harmonic mean likewise is derived from music.
The harmonic series is counterintuitive to students first encountering it because it is
a divergent series in spite of the fact that each of its terms tends to zero. Thus, an infinite
sum of numbers each of which has a value tending to zero might not be finite. The
divergence of the harmonic series is also the source of some apparent paradoxes or
counterintuitive results.
For example, one paradox is the "worm on the rubber band". Suppose that a worm
crawls along a 1 metre rubber band and after each minute, the rubber band is stretched by
an additional 1 metre. If the worm travels 1 centimetre per minute, will the worm ever reach
the end of the rubber band? The answer, counter intuitively, is "yes", for after n minutes,
the ratio of the distance travelled by the worm to the total length of the rubber band is
The series gets arbitrarily large as n becomes larger. Eventually, this ratio must
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exceed 1, which implies that the worm reaches the end of the rubber band. The value of n at
which this occurs must be extremely large; however, approximately e100: a number
exceeding 1040 (a one with 40 zeros after it). Although the harmonic series diverges, it
diverges very slowly.
Another example is that given a collection of identical dominoes, it is clearly possible
to stack them at the edge of a table, so that they hang over the edge of the table. The
counterintuitive result is that one can stack them in such a way as to make the overhang
arbitrarily large, provided there are enough dominoes.
2.4.2 DIVERGENCE
The harmonic series diverges to +. There are several well-known proofs of this fact.
Comparison test
One way to prove divergence is to compare the harmonic series with another
divergent series:
Each term of the harmonic series is greater than or equal to the corresponding term
of the second series and therefore, the sum of the harmonic series must be greater than the
sum of the second series. However, the sum of the second series is infinite:
It follows (by the comparison test) that the sum of the harmonic series must be
infinite as well. More precisely, the comparison above proves that
for every positive integer k. This proof, due to Nicole Oresme, is a high point of
medieval mathematics. It is still a standard proof taught in mathematics classes today.
Cauchy's condensation test is a generalisation of this argument.
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47
Integral test
However, the total area under the curve y = 1 / x from 1 to infinity is given by an
improper integral:
Since this area is entirely contained within the rectangles, the total area of the
rectangles must be infinite as well. More precisely, this proves that
Rate of divergence
The harmonic series diverges very slowly. For example, the sum of the first 1043
terms is less than 100. This is because the partial sums of the series have logarithmic growth.
In particular,
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Study Notes
Assessment
1.
Does x=3, y=4, z=6 are in harmonic progression ? how to find that ?
2.
Discussion
Discuss how Harmonic Progression different from Geometric Progression?
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49
To solve this problem we need n, a1 and an. In this problem, n will be equal to 30
because we are being asked to find out how many seats are there in all 30 rows or to
add up the seats in the 30 rows. The first term in the sequence, a1, is 20 because the
problem tells us that the first row has 20 seats. The only thing left to do is to find an
which will be a30.
To find a30, we need the formula for the sequence and then we substitute n = 30.
The formula for an arithmetic sequence is
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Thus, we now know that there are 136 seats on the 30th row. We can use this
back in our formula for the arithmetic series.
ii) You go to work for a company that pays one rupee on the first day, Rs. 2 on
the second day, Rs. 4 on the third day and so on. If the daily wage keeps doubling, what
will you total income be for working 31 days?
The problem is geometric as the problem states that the salary from the
previous day is doubled or multiplied by 2. When the same number is multiplied each
time, it is a geometric sequence. Now, the question of arises: what we need to do with
this geometric sequence?
The problem wants to know the total income after 31 days. While dealing with
total amounts, like in the previous example, we need to add the terms in a sequence. In
this case, since we will be adding terms in a geometric sequence, we will be finding a
geometric series. Thus, we need the formula for a geometric series.
We need to know n, a1 and r. We are told r = 2 when the problem says doubling
and n = 31 since thats how many things we need to add up. We also know that the first
term is 0.01 (the decimal amount for one rupee penny). This should give us enough
information to find the answer.
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51
Study Notes
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Assessment
(a) Write the recurring decimal 0474747.. as an infinite geometric series and
hence as a fraction.
(b) In an arithmetic sequence, the fifth term is 18 and the tenth term is 12.
(i) Find the first term and the common difference.
(ii) Find the sum of the first fifteen terms of the sequence.
Ans: (a) 47/99, (b) (i) a = 42, d = 6 (ii) S15 = 0
Discussion
Discuss application of A.P., G.P. and H.P. in real life.
2.6 Matrices
In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices or less commonly matrixes) is a rectangular
array of numbers such as:
An item in a matrix is called an entry or an element. The example has entries 1, 9, 13,
20, 55 and 4. Entries are often denoted by a variable with two subscripts, as shown above.
Matrices of the same size can be added and subtracted entry-wise and matrices of
compatible sizes can be multiplied. These operations have many of the properties of
ordinary arithmetic, except that matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e. AB and BA are
not equal in general. Matrices consisting of only one column or row define the components
of vectors, while higher-dimensional (e.g. three-dimensional) arrays of numbers define the
components of a generalisation of a vector called a tensor. Matrices with entries in other
fields or rings are also studied.
A major branch of numerical analysis is devoted to the development of efficient
algorithms for matrix computations, a subject that is centuries old but is still an active area
of research. Matrix decomposition methods simplify computations both, theoretically and
practically. For sparse matrices, specifically tailored algorithms can provide speedups. Such
matrices arise in the finite element method.
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53
The horizontal and vertical lines in a matrix are called rows and columns,
respectively. The numbers in the matrix are called its entries or its elements. To specify a
matrix's size, a matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m-by-n matrix or m n matrix,
while m and n are called its dimensions. The matrix above is a 4-by-3 matrix.
A matrix with one row (a 1 n matrix) is called a row vector and a matrix with one
column (an m 1 matrix) is called a column vector. Any row or column of a matrix
determines a row or column vector, obtained by removing all other rows respectively
columns from the matrix. For example, the row vector for the third row of the above matrix
A is
Quantitative Methods
matrix are equal, meaning that they determine the same row vector. In some cases, the
value of a row or column should be interpreted as a sequence of values (an element of Rn if
entries are real numbers) rather than as a matrix, for instance, when saying that the rows of
a matrix are equal to the corresponding columns of its transpose matrix.
Most of this section focuses on real and complex matrices, i.e. matrices, whose
entries are real or complex numbers.
2.6.2 NOTATION
The specifics of matrices notation varies widely, with some prevailing trends.
Matrices are usually denoted using upper-case letters, while the corresponding lower-case
letters, with two subscript indices, represent the entries. In addition to using upper-case
letters to symbolise matrices, many authors use a special typographical style, commonly
boldface upright (non-italic), to further distinguish matrices from other variables. An
alternative notation involves the use of a double-underline with the variable name, with or
without boldface style. e.g.
The entry that lies in the i-th row and the j-th column of a matrix is typically referred
to as the i,j, (i,j) or (i,j)th entry of the matrix. For example, the (2,3) entry of the above matrix
A is 7. The (i, j)th entry of a matrix A is most commonly written as ai,j. Alternative notations
for that entry are A[i,j] or Ai,j.
Sometimes, a matrix is referred to by giving a formula for its (i,j)th entry, often with
double parenthesis around the formula for the entry. For example, if the (i,j)th entry of A
were given by aij, A would be denoted ((aij)).
An asterisk is commonly used to refer to whole rows or columns in a matrix. For
example, ai, refers to the ith row of A and a,j refers to the jth column of A. The set of all mby-n matrices is denoted
(m, n).
A common shorthand is
A = [ai,j]i=1,...,m; j=1,...,n or more briefly A = [ai,j]mn
to define an m n matrix A. Usually the entries ai,j are defined separately for all
integers 1 i m and 1 j n. They can however, sometimes be given by one formula. For
example, the 3-by-4 matrix
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55
Definition
Addition
Scalar multiplication
Transpose
The transpose of an m-by-n matrix A is the n-bym matrix AT (also denoted Atr or tA) formed by
turning rows into columns and vice versa:
(AT) i j = A i j
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57
Matrix multiplication satisfies the rules (AB)C = A(BC) (associativity) and (A+B)C =
AC+BC as well as C(A+B) = CA+CB (left and right distributivity), whenever the size of the
matrices is such that the various products are defined. The product AB may be defined
without BA being defined, namely if A and B are m-by-n and n-by-k matrices, respectively
and m k. Even if both products are defined, they need not be equal, i.e. generally one has
AB BA,
i.e. matrix multiplication is not commutative, in marked contrast to (rational, real or
complex) numbers, whose product is independent of the order of the factors. An example of
two matrices not commuting with each other is:
whereas
The identity matrix In of size n is the n-by-n matrix in which all the elements on the
main diagonal are equal to 1 and all other elements are equal to 0,
e.g.
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59
Study Notes
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Assessment
Tick the correct answer from the given choices:
1. What is the size of a Matrix,
a) 2 X 3
b) 3 X 2
c) 3 X 4
d) 4 X 3
2.
?
a) 3
b) 4
c) 12
d) 14
3.
Z=
a)
b)
c)
d)
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61
a)
b)
c)
d)
Discussion
Discuss practical application of Matrices in daily life.
Quantitative Methods
Since the system changes randomly, it is generally impossible to predict the exact
state of the system in the future. However, the statistical properties of the system's future
can be predicted. In many applications, it is these statistical properties that are important.
The changes of state of the system are called transitions and the probabilities
associated with various state-changes are called transition probabilities. The set of all states
and transition probabilities completely characterises a Markov chain. By convention, we
assume that all possible states and transitions have been included in the definition of the
processes, thus there is always a next-state and the process goes on forever.
A famous Markov chain is the so-called "drunkard's walk", a random walk on the
number line where, at each step, the position may change by +1 or 1 with equal
probability. From any position, there are two possible transitions, either to the next or
previous integer. The transition probabilities depend only on the current position and not on
the way the position was reached. For example, the transition probabilities from 5 to 4 and 5
to 6 are both 0.5 and all other transition probabilities from 5 are 0. These probabilities are
independent of whether the system was previously in 4 or 6.
Another example is the dietary habits of a creature who eats only grapes, cheese or
lettuce and whose dietary habits conform to the following (artificial) rules: it eats exactly
once a day; if it ate cheese yesterday, it will not eat today and it will eat lettuce or grapes
with equal probability; if it ate grapes yesterday, it will eat grapes today with a probability of
1/10, cheese with a probability of 4/10 and lettuce with a probability of 5/10; finally, if it ate
lettuce yesterday, it won't eat lettuce again today but will eat grapes with a probability of
4/10 or cheese with a probability of 6/10. This creature's eating habits can be modelled with
a Markov chain since its choice depends on what it ate yesterday and not additionally on
what it ate 2 or 3 (or 4, etc) days ago. One statistical property one could calculate is the
expected percentage of the time for which the creature will eat grapes over a long period.
A series of independent eventsfor example, a series of coin flipsdoes satisfy the
formal definition of a Markov chain. However, the theory is usually applied only when the
probability distribution of the next step depends non-trivially on the current state.
Many other examples of Markov chains exist.
63
Formally,
The possible values of Xi form a countable set S called the state space of the chain.
Markov chains are often described by a directed graph, where the edges are labelled
by the probabilities of going from one state to the other states.
2.7.3 VARIATIONS
Time-homogeneous Markov chains (or stationary Markov chains) are processes where
A Markov chain of order m (or a Markov chain with memory m) where m is finite, is a
process satisfying
In other words, the future state depends on the past m states. It is possible to
construct a chain (Yn) from (Xn) which has the 'classical' Markov property as follows:
Let Yn = (Xn, Xn1, ..., Xnm+1), the ordered m-tuple of X values. Then Yn is a Markov
chain with state space Sm and has the classical Markov property.
for n > m.
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Example
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for all pages that are not linked to. The parameter is taken to be
about 0.85.
Markov models have also been used to analyse web navigation behaviour of users. A
user's web link transition on a particular website can be modelled using first- or secondorder Markov models and can be used to make predictions regarding future navigation and
to personalise the web page for an individual user.
Statistics: Markov chain methods have also become very important for generating
sequences of random numbers to accurately reflect very complicated desired probability
distributions, via a process called Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC). In recent years, this
has revolutionised the practicability of Bayesian inference methods, allowing a wide range of
posterior distributions to be simulated and their parameters found numerically.
Economics and Finance: Markov chains are used in Finance and Economics to model
a variety of different phenomena, including asset prices and market crashes. The first
financial model to use a Markov chain was from Prasad et al in 1974. Another was the
regime-switching model of James D. Hamilton (1989), in which a Markov chain is used to
model switches between periods of high volatility and low volatility of asset returns. A more
recent example is the Markov Switching Multifractal Asset Pricing Model, which builds upon
the convenience of earlier regime-switching models. It uses an arbitrarily large Markov chain
to drive the level of volatility of asset returns.
Dynamic macroeconomics is greatly dependent on Markov chains. An example is
using Markov chains to exogenously model prices of equity (stock) in a general equilibrium
setting.
Social Sciences: Markov chains are generally used in describing path-dependent
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67
Study Notes
Assessment
1. A math teacher, not wanting to be predictable, decided to assign homework based on
probabilities. On the first day of class, she drew this picture on the board to tell the
students whether to expect a full assignment, a partial assignment, or no assignment
the next day.
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a. Construct and label the transition matrix that corresponds to this drawing. Label it A.
b. If students have a full assignment today, what is the probability that they will have a full
assignment again tomorrow?
c. If students have no assignment today, what is the probability that they will have no
assignment again tomorrow?
d. Today is Wednesday and students have a partial assignment. What is the probability
that they will have no homework on Friday?
e. Matrix A is the transition matrix for one day. Find the transition matrix for two days (for
example, if today is Monday, what are the chances of getting each kind of assignment
on Wednesday?).
f. Find the transition matrix for three days.
g. If you have no homework this Friday, what is the is the probability that you will have no
homework next Friday (since we are only considering school days, there are only 5 days
in a week)? Give your answer accurate to two decimal places.
h. Find, to two decimal places, the matrix to which matrix A would appear to converge
after many days.
i.
Answers
a.
The students might arrange the rows and, therefore the columns, in a different order.
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69
b.
0.4
c.
0.05
d.
0.18
e.
f.
g.
0.18
h.
i.
If we are looking far enough into the future (a few weeks or longer), it doesn't
matter what kind of assignment we have today. We have a 49% chance of having a full
assignment, a 33% chance of having a partial assignment and an 18% chance of not having
an assignment.
Discussion
Discuss application of Markov Chains.
2.8 Summary
Sequence: A set of numbers arranged in a definite order according to some definite
rule is called a sequence.
Series: A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence.
Arithmetic Progression: An arithmetic progression or arithmetic sequence is a
sequence of numbers such that the difference of any two successive members of the
sequence is a constant.
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we
can
use
this
formula
1/2(2a1
d(n-1))n
and
-56
-109
19
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71
217
Short Notes
a. Arithmetic progression
b. Managerial applications of sequence and series
c. Matrix and its application in business
d. Markov chains and its applications
e. Sequences and series
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Assignment
Write down examples from day-to-day life where matrix can be used.
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Unit 3
2.
2nd Reading with understanding: It will need 4 Hrs for reading and understanding a
unit
3.
Self Assessment: It will need 3 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit
4.
5.
Content Map
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Frequency Distribution
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
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75
3.3
3.2.5
3.2.6
Introduction to Probability
3.3.1 Probability Theory
3.4
Probability Distributions
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.6
3.7
3.8
Binomial Distribution
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
Examples
3.5.4
Poisson Distribution
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
Example Problems
Normal Distribution
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.7.4
3.7.5
3.7.6
The Z-Table
Exponential Distribution
3.8.1
76
3.8.2
3.9
Summary
3.10
3.11
Further Reading
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77
3.1 Introduction
Numerical facts or measurements obtained in the course of an enquiry into a
phenomenon that has been marked by uncertainty, constitute statistical data. Statistical
data may be already available or may have to be collected by an investigator or an agency.
Data collected for the first time by the investigator (or on his behalf) is termed primary,
while data taken from records or data already available is termed as secondary. The
Meteorological Department regularly collects data on different aspects of weather and
climate such as amount of rainfall, humidity, maximum and minimum temperature of a
certain place. This is an example of primary data. To someone using this data for a certain
investigation afterwards, the data will be secondary.
The most important method of organising and summarising statistical data is by
constructing a distribution table. In this method, classification is done according to
quantitative magnitude. The items are classified into groups of classes according to their
increasing or decreasing order of magnitude and the number of items falling into each group
is determined and indicated.
In the science of statistics, we are not concerned about the occurrence of a single
event. The statement 'Stormy coast today' is the subject matter of the level of confidence
of the one who made it. On the other hand, in the subject field of statistics, the probability
where the generalised situation is defined is very useful for it.
The probability or chance for any comment or event will be judged on the basis of all
possible cases in which it may be true or other alternate possibilities when it may be false.
The concept of probability can be elaborated by means of two approaches viz,
mathematical approach and experimental approach. The mathematical approach concerns
the classical or Priori probability, which indicates that if an event can happen in p way and
fails to happen in q way, where the chances of occurrence of p and q are same, then the
probability of happening of p will be [p / (p+q)] and that of q will be [q / (p+q)]. This is also
called Laplaces first Principle of probability.
In the second case, the experimental approach of probability, which is also known as
statistical or empirical probability, concerns the situation where the trial is repeated for a
large number of times under identical condition. Thus, in N trials, the event E happens t
times then the probability of happening E will be equal to that of (t/N) where N ranges up to
the infinity.
As a mathematical foundation for statistics, probability theory is essential to many
human activities that involve quantitative analysis of large sets of data. Methods of
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78
probability theory also apply to descriptions of complex systems given only partial
knowledge of their state, as in statistical mechanics. An important discovery of twentieth
century physics was the probabilistic nature of the physical phenomena at atomic scales,
described in quantum mechanics.
Most introductions to probability theory treat discrete probability distributions and
continuous probability distributions separately. The more mathematically advanced
Measure Theory-based treatment of probability covers both the discrete, the continuous,
any mix of these two and more.
53, 38,58,26,43
36, 63,26,48,76
45, 66,74,16,86
56, 31,58,90,32
43, 36,66,46,58
36, 59,54,48,21
36, 64,58,45,76
58, 84,68,65,59
74, 48,64,58,50
46, 53,64,57,65
58, 95,56,66,44
79
lot. The number of tallies in a class or group indicates the number of marks falling under that
group. This number is known as the frequency of that group or corresponding to that class
interval. Proceeding in this way, we get the following frequency table.
Table 3.1: Frequency Distribution of Marks Secured by 60 students
Frequency
Class interval
(No.
of
Tally
0 to 10
11 to 20
//
21 to 30
////
31 to 40
//// //
41 to 50
//// //// //
12
51 to 60
15
61 to 70
//// //// /
11
71 to 80
////
81 to 90
///
91 and above
Total
60
We shall now consider construction of a frequency distribution table of a continuous
variable.
Example 2: The heights of 50 students to the nearest centimetre are given below:
80
144.5-146.5
146.5-148.5
148.5-150.5
150.5-152.5
15
152.5-154.5
154.5-156.5
156.5-158.5
158.5-160.5
Total
50
81
When we refer to the heights being recorded to the nearest centimetre and consider
a height between 144.5(greater or equal to 144.5 but less than 146.5) as falling in that class,
the class is represented as 144.5, 146.5. The end numbers are called class boundaries, while
the smaller number 144.5 is known as the lower class boundary and the larger number 146.5
as the upper class boundary. The difference between the upper and lower class boundaries
is known as the width of the class. Here, the width is 146.5 - 144.5 = 2 cm and is the same for
all the classes. The common width is denoted by c: here c = 2 cm. Note that in certain cases,
it may not be possible to have the same width for all the classes (specially the end classes).
Note also that the upper class boundary of a class coincides with the lower class
boundary of the next class; there is no ambiguity: We have clearly indicated that an
observation less than 146.5 will fall in the class 144.5 - 146.5 and an observation equal to
146.5 will fall in the class 146.5 - 148.5.
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Tally
Frequency
2.9-3.4
////
3.4-3.9
//// //
3.9-4.4
//// ///
4.4-4.9
//// //// /
11
4.9-5.4
//// ////
5.4-5.9
////
5.9-6.4
////
6.4-6.9
//
Total
50
83
A different tabulation scheme aggregates values into bins such that each bin
encompasses a range of values. For example, the heights of the students in a class could be
organised into the following frequency table:
Table 3.5: Frequency table
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Quantitative Methods
The total row and total column report the marginal frequencies or marginal
distribution, while the body of the table reports the joint frequencies.
Study Notes
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85
Assessment
In the US Open Tennis 2002, Max Mirnyi played 5 matches, Andy Roddick played 5
matches, Kenneth Carlsen played 2 matches, Andre Agassi played 7 matches and Pete
Sampras played 6 matches. Pick an appropriate frequency table for the data.
Discussion
Discuss application of frequency distribution in managerial decision making.
Quantitative Methods
In other words, we can explain the concept as we consider the few simple questions
viz., Will it rain this week or not?, Will a bus reach the destination in time or not? or
Will the coins lifted be of the same value? etc, in all of which there is uncertainty or a
prevalence of doubt. The strength of the doubt differs as per the case or situation viz., the
tossed coin will land either showing head or tail but the probability of a baby born in the
year 2008 going on to become Prime Minister is very uncertain. This strength of doubt is
called the degree of doubt of that event.
Simply put, the probability is the ratio of the number of favourable cases to that of
the total number of equally likely or possible cases.
Hence, probability can be measured as
No. of favourable cases
Probability
________________________________
Total number of all possible cases
function.
Other distributions may not even be a mix. For example, the Cantor distribution has
no positive probability for any single point and neither does it have a density. The modern
approach to Probability Theory solves these problems using Measure Theory to define the
Quantitative Methods
87
probability space:
Given any set
defined on
If
on it, a measure
is the Borel -algebra on the set of real numbers, then there is a unique
probability measure on
for any cdf and vice versa. The measure corresponding to a cdf is
said to be induced by the cdf. This measure coincides with the pmf for discrete variables and
pdf for continuous variables, thus making the measure-theoretic approach free of fallacies.
The probability of a set
in the -algebra
is defined as
induced by
Along with providing better understanding and unification of discrete and continuous
probabilities, the measure-theoretic treatment also allows us to work on probabilities
outside
Study Notes
Assessment
What do you understand by probability? Give general examples in this context.
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Discussion
Discuss and find the answers of the following questions:
Two coins are tossed, find the probability that two heads are obtained.
A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting the 3 of
diamond.
A jar contains 3 red marbles, 7 green marbles and 10 white marbles. If a marble is
drawn from the jar at random, what is the probability that this marble is white?
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describe underlies the mathematical discipline of Probability Theory and the science of
statistics. There is spread or variability in almost any value that can be measured in a
population (e.g. height of people, durability of a metal, sales growth, traffic flow, etc.);
almost all measurements are made with some intrinsic error; in physics many processes are
described probabilistically, from the kinetic properties of gases to the quantum mechanical
description of fundamental particles. For these and many other reasons, simple numbers are
often inadequate for describing a quantity, while probability distributions are often more
appropriate.
There are various probability distributions that show up in various different
applications. One of the more important ones is the normal distribution, which is also known
as the Gaussian distribution or the bell curve and approximates many different naturally
occurring distributions. The toss of a fair coin yields another familiar distribution, where the
possible values are heads or tails, each with a probability of 1/2.
to measurable space
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density function: a non-negative Lebesgue integrable function defined on the real numbers
such that
P(A) is the prior probability or marginal probability of A. It is "prior" in the sense that it
does not take into account any information about B.
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This lemma is sometimes called the product rule for probabilities. Discarding the
middle term and dividing both sides by P(B), provided that neither P(B) nor P(A) is 0, we
obtain Bayes' theorem:
Binomial Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Normal Distribution
Exponential Distribution
Study Notes
Assessment
1. Differentiate between Discrete Probability distribution and continous probability
distribution
2.
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93
Discussion
Discuss and solve: The table shows the probability distribution for the random variable x,
where x represents the number of CDs a person rents from a video store during a single
visit.
X
p(x)
0.06
0.58
0.22
0.10
0.03
0.01
Determine whether the following is a valid probability distribution for the random variable
x.
[Hint: Since P(x) = 0.97 is not equal to 1.
x = (0) (.06) + (1) (.58) + (2) (.220 + (4) (.03) + (5) (0.01)
= 1.49 CDs]
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Each trial can have two possible outcomes. One is success and the other is failure.
Mean = n * P.
Variance = n * P * (1 P).
b(x; n, P) = nCx * P * (1 - P)
nx
3.5.3 EXAMPLES
An elementary example is this: roll a standard die ten times and count the number of
fours. The distribution of this random number is a binomial distribution with n = 10 and
p = 1/6.
For another example, flip a coin three times and count the number of heads. The
distribution of this random number is a binomial distribution with n = 3 and p = 1/2.
Binomial distribution is a statistical experiment which means the number of
successes in n repeated trials of a binomial experiment. It is also called Bernoulli distribution
or Bernoulli trial.
For example,
For a clinical trial, a patient may live or die. Here the researcher faces the number of
survivors and not how much time the patient lives after treatment.
We take a coin and flip it twice. Here we calculate the count of number of
heads(successes). Thus, the binomial distribution is
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95
Number of heads
Probability
No head
0.25
One head
0.5
Two head
0.25
b( 2; 6, 0.167 )
= 0.201. Answer.
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where,
n = Number of events.
r = Number of successful events.
p = Probability of success on a single trial.
n
Cr =
Cr =
=
=
=
=
= 924
97
= 0.56 = 0.015625
Step 6: Solve P(X = r) = nCr p r (1-p)n-r
= 924 0.015625 0.015625
= 0.2255859375
The probability of getting exactly 6 heads is 0.23
Second Example on Binomial Distribution
Suppose a die is tossed 5 times. What is the probability of getting fours twice?
Solution:
Step 1:Number of trials n = 5
Number of success r = 2
Probability of success on any single trial p = 1/6 or 0.167
Step 2:To calculate nCr formula is used.
n
Cr =
=
=
=
=
= 10
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. What did you understand by Binomial Distribution?
2.
Discussion
Discuss and solve: A die is tossed 6 times. What is the Probability of getting exactly 2 fours?
[ Hint:Here n = 6, x = 2, probability of success on a single trial = 1/ 6 = 0.167.
Then p = 0.167,
p + q =1
p = 1-q
Formula P(b) = ncr pr q(n-r) or q =(1-p).
Ans. b( 2; 6, 0.167 ) = 0.201]
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where
k! is the factorial of k
is a positive real number, equal to the expected number of occurrences that occur
during the given interval. For instance, if the events occur on average 4 times per minute
and you are interested in probability for k times of events occurring in a 10 minute
interval, you would use a Poisson distribution with = 104 = 40 as your model.
As a function of k, this is the probability mass function. The Poisson distribution can
The Poisson distribution can be applied to systems with a large number of possible
events, each of which is rare. A classic example is the nuclear decay of atoms.
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which is the largest integer less than or equal to . This is also written as floor(). When
is a positive integer, the modes are and 1.
and Xi are
independent, then
also follows a Poisson distribution, whose parameter is the sum of the component
parameters. A converse is Raikov's Theorem, which says that if the sum of two independent
random variables is Poisson-distributed, then so is each of those two independent random
variables.
then
All of the cumulants of the Poisson distribution are equal to the expected value . The
nth factorial moment of the Poisson distribution is n.
101
Given
=8 and
= 12
=8
= 12
e= 2.718
Step2: Formula is
Step3:
=( 2.718) -8
= 0.000335
Step4:
=(8)12
= 68719476736
Step5: Apply the values
=
=
=
= 0.048
Solution: The Poisson distribution is 0.048
Problem2:
Solve the Poisson distribution where
Step1:
Given
=9 and
= 11
=9
= 11
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e= 2.718
Step2: Formula is
Step3:
=( 2.718) -9
= 0.0001234
Step4:
=(9)11
= 31381059609
Step5: Apply the values
=
=
=
= 0.097
Solution: The Poisson distribution is 0.097
Problem3:
Solve the Poisson distribution where
Step1:
Given
=6 and = 12
=6
= 12
e= 2.718
Step2: Formula is
Step3:
=( 2.718) -6
=0.00247875
Step4:
=(6)12
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= 2176782336
Step5: Apply the values
=
=
=
= 0.011
Solution: The Poisson distribution is 0.011.
Practice Problems for Poisson Distribution
Problem1:
Solve the Poisson distribution where
=22
= 26
Solution:
The answer of the Poisson distribution where
=22
= 26 is 0.055
Problem2:
Solve the Poisson distribution where
=20
= 29
Solution:
The answer of the Poisson distribution where
=20
= 29 is 0.013
Problem3:
Solve the Poisson distribution where
=18
= 21
Solution:
The answer of the Poisson distribution where
=18
= 21 is 0.068.
Problem4:
Solve the Poisson distribution where
=20
= 30
Solution:
The answer of the Poisson distribution where
104
=20
= 30 is 0.008
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. The number of pizza orders received at a pizza place follows a Poisson model with a
mean rate of 7 per hour.
a. What is the probability that the pizza shop goes more than 1/2hour between orders?
b. If it has been 1 hour since the last order, what is the probability that an order arrives
in less than 15 minutes?
2. A pizza shop makes deliveries, and the time to make the delivery follows a uniform
distribution between 20 and 35 (minutes): f(x) = 1/15 for 20 < x < 35.
a. Find the average delivery time and the standard deviation of the delivery times.
b. According to Chebyshev's theorem, at least 75% of the delivery times must be
between what two values?
c. On each trip, the supervisor of the drivers gives a bonus of $0.10 for each minute
below 35. For example, if a driver takes 28 minutes, that is a $0.70 bonus. What is
the average bonus per trip?
Discussion
Discuss how Poisson Distribution is different from Probability and Binomial Distribution?
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The constant
in this expression ensures that the total area under the curve
(x) is equal to one and 12 in the exponent makes the width of the curve (measured as
half of the distance between the inflection points of the curve) also equal to one. It is
traditional in statistics to denote this function with the Greek letter (phi), whereas density
functions for all other distributions are usually denoted with letters or p. The alternative
glyph is also used quite often, however, within this article we reserve to denote
characteristic functions.
More generally, a normal distribution results from exponentiating a quadratic
function (just as an exponential distribution results from exponentiating a linear function):
This yields the classic bell curve shape (provided that a < 0 so that the quadratic
function is concave). Notice that f(x) > 0 everywhere. One can adjust a to control the
width of the bell, then adjust b to move the central peak of the bell along the x-axis and
finally adjust c to control the height of the bell. For f(x) to be a true probability density
function over R, one must choose c such that
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by its mean = b/(2a) and variance 2 = 1/(2a). Changing to these new parametres allows
us to rewrite the probability density function in a convenient standard form,
Notice that for a standard normal distribution, = 0 and 2 = 1. The last part of the
equation above shows that any other normal distribution can be regarded as a version of the
standard normal distribution that has been stretched horizontally by a factor and then
translated rightward by a distance . Thus, specifies the position of the bell curves central
peak and specifies the width of the bell curve.
The parameter is at the same time the mean, the median and the mode of the
normal distribution. The parametre 2 is called the variance; as for any random variable, it
describes how concentrated the distribution is around its mean. The square root of 2 is
called the standard deviation and is the width of the density function.
The normal distribution is usually denoted by N(,2). Commonly the letter N is
written in calligraphic font (typed as \mathcal{N} in LaTeX). Thus, when a random variable X
is distributed normally with mean and variance 2, we write
1
------- e
2
1 X-
- -- -----2
Where;
and are the parameters of the normal distribution
The above mentioned equation of the normal distribution defines the Y of any value
of X located in between .
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N
-------- e
2
1 X-
- -- -----2
The distribution curve of normal distribution shows symmetrical nature about the mean
() and falls rapidly on either side, tailing off asymptotically to the X axis in both
directions.
As mentioned in property one, the X axis of normal distribution curve is tangent to the
curve of infinity.
In normal distribution studies, there are only two parametres. They are the mean () and
the standard deviation () of the population
Under the normal distribution condition, the first and the third moment about the mean
are zero
1 = 0 and 3 = 0
The second moment of normal distribution about the mean is equal to the variance ( 2),
i.e. squared standard deviation.
2 = 2
i.e. 4 = 3 4
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1
------- e
2
1 X-
- -- -----2
By differentiating the equation of the normal curve twice with respect to X and
representing the derivatives by Y
we gets
1
Y
----- (X -) Y
2
and
X-
1
Y
= -----
1 ---------
The normal distribution shows the property that the sum and differences of normally
distributed variables are also distributed normally.
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111
and variance to a new set of observations of another normal random variable Z with mean
0 and variance 1 by using the following transformation:
= 0, = 1
Fig. 3.6: Normal distribution
The two graphs have different and but have the same shape (if we alter the
axes).
The new distribution of the normal random variable Z with mean 0 and variance 1 (or
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So
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113
= 0, = 1
Fig. 3.8: Normal distribution
Percentages of the Area under the Standard Normal Curve
A graph of this standardised (mean 0 and variance 1) normal curve is shown.
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Also, 95.45% of the scores lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. What are the Properties of Normal Distribution?
2. Explain Normal Variable and Normal Curve.
3.
What is z-Table?
Discussion
The average life of a certain type of motor is 10 years, with a standard deviation of 2 years.
If the manufacturer is willing to replace only 3% of the motors that fail, how long a
guarantee should he offer? Assume that the lives of the motors follow a normal
distribution.
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117
Here > 0 is the parameter of the distribution and is often called the rate parameter.
The distribution is supported on the interval [0, ). If a random variable X has this
distribution, we write X ~ Exp().
Alternative parameterisation
A commonly used alternative parameterisation is to define the probability density
where > 0 is a scale parameter of the distribution and is the reciprocal of the rate
parameter, , defined above. In this specification, is a survival parameter in the sense that
if a random variable X is the duration of time that a given biological or mechanical system
manages to survive and X ~ Exponential() then E[X] = . That is to say, the expected
duration of survival of the system is units of time. The parameterisation involving the
"rate" parameter arises in the context of events arriving at a rate , when the time between
events (which might be modelled using an exponential distribution) has a mean of = 1.
The alternative specification is sometimes more convenient than the one given
above and some authors will use it as a standard definition. This alternative specification is
not used here. Unfortunately, this gives rise to a notational ambiguity. In general, the reader
must check which of these two specifications is being used if an author writes
"X ~ Exponential()", since either the notation in the previous (using ) or the notation in this
section (here, using to avoid confusion) could be intended.
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In light of the examples given above, this makes sense: if you receive phone calls at
an average rate of 2 per hour, then you can expect to wait half an hour for every call.
The variance of X is given by
where ln refers to the natural logarithm. Thus, the absolute difference between the
mean and median is
This says that the conditional probability that we need to wait, for example, more
than another 10 seconds before the first arrival, given that the first arrival has not yet
happened after 30 seconds, is equal to the initial probability that we need to wait more than
10 seconds for the first arrival. Thus, if we waited for 30 seconds and the first arrival did not
happen (T > 30), the probability that we will need to wait another 10 seconds for the first
arrival (T > 30 + 10) is the same as the initial probability that we need to wait more than 10
seconds for the first arrival (T > 10). This is often misunderstood by students taking courses
on probability: the fact that Pr(T > 40 | T > 30) = Pr(T > 10) does not mean that the events
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119
median
third quartile
4. KullbackLeibler divergence
The directed KullbackLeibler divergence between Exp(0) ('true' distribution) and
Exp() ('approximating' distribution) is given by
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The index of the variable which achieves the minimum is distributed according to the
law
Note that
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Similar caveats apply to the following examples, which yield approximately exponentially
distributed variables:
The time until a radioactive particle decays or the time between clicks of a Geiger
counter
The time until default (on payment to company debt holders) in reduced form credit risk
modelling
Exponential variables can also be used to model situations where certain events
occur with a constant probability per unit length, such as the distance between mutations
on a DNA strand or between roadkills on a given road.
In Queuing Theory, the service times of agents in a system (e.g. how long it takes for
a bank teller etc. to serve a customer) are often modelled as exponentially distributed
variables. (The inter-arrival of customers, for instance, in a system is typically modelled by
the Poisson distribution in most management science textbooks.) The length of a process
that can be thought of as a sequence of several independent tasks is better modelled by a
variable following the Erlang distribution (which is the distribution of the sum of several
independent exponentially distributed variables).
Reliability Theory and reliability engineering also make extensive use of the
exponential distribution. As a result of the memoryless property of this distribution, it is
well-suited to model the constant hazard rate portion of the bathtub curve used in reliability
theory. It is also very convenient because it is easy to add failure rates in a reliability model.
The exponential distribution is however, not appropriate to model the overall lifetime of
organisms or technical devices because the "failure rates" here are not constant: more
failures occur for very young and for very old systems.
In physics, if you observe a gas at a fixed temperature and pressure in a uniform
gravitational field, the heights of the various molecules also follow an approximate
exponential distribution.
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. What do you mean by Exponential Distribution?
2.
Discussion
Discuss occurrence and application of Exponential Distribution.
3.9 Summary
Frequency Distribution: In statistics, a frequency distribution is a tabulation of the
values that one or more variables take in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the
frequency or count of the occurrences of values within a particular group or interval. In this
way, the table summarises the distribution of values in the sample.
Probability Theory: Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with
analysis of random phenomena. Simply put, probability is the ratio of the number of
favourable cases to that of total number of equally likely or possible cases.
Probability Distribution: Probability distribution identifies either the probability of
each value of a random variable (when the variable is discrete) or the probability of the
value falling within a particular interval (when the variable is continuous).
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123
Bayes' Theorem: In probability theory and applications, Bayes' theorem shows the
relation between two conditional probabilities, which are the reverse of each other. This
theorem is named for Thomas Bayes and often called Bayes' law or Bayes' rule. Bayes'
theorem expresses the conditional probability, or "posterior probability", of a hypothesis H
(i.e. its probability after evidence E is observed) in terms of the "prior probability" of H, the
prior probability of E, and the conditional probability of E given H.
Binomial Distribution: The binomial distribution is the discrete probability
distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of n independent yes/no experiments,
each of which yields success with probability p.
Poisson Distribution: The Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution
that expresses the probability of a number of events occurring in a fixed period of time if
these events occur with a known average rate and independently of the time since the last
event.
Normal Distribution: The distribution characterised by the continuous property is
termed as normal distribution. The normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution,
is an important family of continuous probability distributions, applicable in many fields.
Exponential Distribution: The exponential distributions are a class of continuous
probability distributions. They describe the times between events in a Poisson process, i.e. a
process in which events occur continuously and independently at a constant average rate.
Quantitative Methods
4. According to Financial Executive (July/August 1993) disability causes 48% of all mortgage
foreclosures. Given that 20 mortgage foreclosures are audited by a large lending
institution, what is the probability that less than 8 foreclosures are due to a disability?
5. Ninety percent of the trees planted by a landscaping firm survive. What is the probability
that of the next 13 trees planted:
a. at most ten will survive?
b. at least ten will survive?
c. exactly ten will survive?
Short Notes
a. Properties of Poisson distribution
b. Probability theory
c. Constructing frequency distribution table
d. Normal distribution
e. Applications of probability distributions
f. Bayes' Theorem
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125
Assignment
A doctor has decided to prescribe two new drugs to 200 heart patients as follows : 50 get
drug A, 50 get drug B and 100 get both the drugs A and B. The 200 patients were chosen
so that each had an 80% chance of having a heart attack if given neither drug. Drug A
reduces the probability of having of a heart attack by 35 %, drug B reduces the
probability by 20% and the two drugs when taken together work independently. If a
randomly selected patient in the programme has a heart attack, what is the probability
that he is given both the drugs? (0.4177)
Suppose that weights of bags of potato chips coming from a factory follow a normal
distribution with mean 12.8 ounces and standard deviation .6 ounces. If the
manufacturer wants to keep the mean at 12.8 ounces but adjust the standard deviation
so that only 1% of the bags weigh less than 12 ounces, how much does he/she need to
make that standard deviation?
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Unit 4
Explain correlation
2.
2nd Reading with understanding: It will need 4 Hrs for reading and understanding a
unit
3.
Self Assessment: It will need 3 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit
4.
5.
Content Map
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Correlation
4.2.1
Correlation Analysis
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127
4.3
4.4
4.2.2
Definition of Correlation
4.2.3
Concept of Correlation
4.2.4
4.2.5
Measurement of Correlation
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.2.8
Standard Error
4.2.9
Coefficient of Determination
Regression Analysis
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
Time Series
4.4.1
Analysis
4.4.2
Models
4.4.3
Notations
4.4.4
Conditions
4.4.5
4.5
Summary
4.6
4.7
Further Reading
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4.1 Introduction
Correlation and dependence are any of a broad class of statistical relationships
between two or more random variables or observed data values.
Familiar examples of dependent phenomena include: the correlation between the
physical statures of parents and their offspring and the correlation between the demand for
a product and its price. Correlations are useful because they can indicate a predictive
relationship that can be exploited in practice. For example, an electrical utility may produce
less power on a mild day based on the correlation between electricity demand and weather.
Correlations can also suggest possible causal or mechanistic relationships; however,
statistical dependence is not sufficient to demonstrate the presence of such a relationship.
Formally, dependence refers to any situation in which random variables do not
satisfy a mathematical condition of probabilistic independence. In general statistical usage,
although correlation or co-relation can refer to any departure of two or more random
variables from independence, it most commonly refers to a more specialised type of
relationship between mean values. There are several correlation coefficients, often denoted
or r, measuring the degree of correlation. The most common of these is the Pearson
correlation coefficient, which is mainly sensitive to a linear relationship between two
variables. Other correlation coefficients have been developed to be more robust than the
Pearson correlation or more sensitive to nonlinear relationships.
Regression analysis refers to the techniques used for modelling and analysis of
numerical data consisting of values of a dependent variable (response variable) and of one
or more independent variables (explanatory variables). The dependent variable in the
regression equation is modelled as a function of the independent variables, corresponding
parametres ("constants") and an error term. The error term is treated as a random variable.
It represents unexplained variation in the dependent variable. The parametres are estimated
in order to give a "best fit" of the data. Most commonly, the best fit is evaluated by using the
least squares method, although other criteria have also been used.
Regression can be used for prediction (including forecasting of time-series data),
inference, hypothesis testing and modelling of causal relationships. These uses of regression
rely heavily on the underlying assumptions being satisfied. Regression analysis has been
criticised as being misused for these purposes in many cases, where the appropriate
assumptions cannot be verified to hold. One factor contributing to the misuse of regression
is that it can take considerably more skill to criticise a model than to fit a model.
In statistics, signal processing, econometrics and mathematical finance, a time series
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129
is a sequence of data points, measured typically at successive times spaced at uniform time
intervals. Examples of time series are the daily closing value of the Dow Jones index or the
annual flow of volume of the Nile river at Aswan. Time series analysis comprises methods for
analysing time series data, in order to extract meaningful statistics and other characteristics
of the data. Time series forecasting is the use of a model to forecast future events based on
known past events: to predict data points before they are measured. An example of time
series forecasting in econometrics is predicting the opening price of a stock based on its past
performance.
4.2 Correlation
Correlation is the tendency towards interrelation variation. The measure of such a
tendency is the degree to which the two variables are interrelated and is measured by a
coefficient that is called coefficient of correlation.
Quantitative Methods
i =1
j=1
(fij)
Covariance: The corresponding values of the two variables x and y on the given set of
n unit of observation is given by the pair
(x1 y1), (x2, y2), (x3,y3), (xn,yn)
Covariance of x, y, cov(x, y) =
[(x1 - x ) (y1- y ) + (x2 - x ) (y2- y ) (xn - x ) (yn- y )] / n
n
= 1/n
(xn - x ) (yn- y )
i =1
i =1
i =1
j=1
131
yj = 6+9+6+7+8 = 36
xi yj = 6+18+18+28+40 = 110
n
i =1
i =1
j=1
1
1
[110 - (15)(36)]
5
5
1
2
(110 - 108) = = 0.4
5
5
Types of Correlation
1. Positive Correlation
If the value of two variables deviates in the same direction as if an increase in one
variable (x) increases the other variable (y), then the correlation is positive or direct. The
height and weight of a growing child can be taken as an example. This is also called linear
correlation.
Quantitative Methods
3. No Correlation
If the points that are plotted on the graph are scattered, then there is no correlation
between x and y.
The correlation coefficient r is only appropriate for measuring the degree of relationship
between variables that are linearly related to the points to fall along about an imaginary
straight line that passes through the cluster of points.
The variables are random variables and are measured on either an interval or a ratio
scale.
The two variables follow bivariate normal distribution for any given values of x, y.
cov(x,y)
x.y
= standard dviation.
Now for n pairs of observation (x1 y1) (x2 y2) (xn, yn)
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133
(x - x ) (y - y )
1 = 1/n(x-x) 2
2 = 1/n(y-y) 2
=
(x - x ) (y - y )
( x x) 2 (y - y ) 2
= (dx. dy)/ (dx)2 (dy)2 )without 1 2
nxy-(x)(y)
[nx 2 (x) 2 )[ny 2 ({y) 2 ]
Examples:
1. Calculate the coefficient of correlation for the following data:
(1,2) (2,4) (3,8) (4,7) (5, 10) (6,5) (7, 14) (8, 16) (9, 2) (10, 20)
Solution:
n = 10
x1
= 1+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 55
y1
= 2 + 4 + 8 + 7 + 10 + 5 + 14 + 16 + 2 + 20 = 88
x5
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49 + 64 + 81 + 100 = 385
y5
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55
= 5.5
10
y=
88
= 8
10
1020
825 X 3396
1020
2801700
1020
= 0.61 (approx)
1673.5
2. Given below are the monthly incomes and savings of 10 employees of a company.
Calculate the correlation coefficient.
Employee
10
Monthly
780
360
980
250
750
820
900
620
650
390
84
51
91
60
66
62
86
58
53
47
Income
Net saving
Solution:
No.
=
xy
6500
= 650 ;
10
660
= 66
10
x = x- y = y -
x5
y5
xy
780
84
130
18
16900 324
2340
360
51
-290
-15
84100225
4350
980
91
330
25
108900
625
8250
250
60
-400
-6
160000
36
2400
750
68
100
10000
200
820
62
-4
28900
16
-680
900
86
20
62500
400
500
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170
250
135
620
58
-30
-8
900
650
53
-13
10
390
47
-260
Total 6500
660
64
240
169
-19
67600
361
4610
539800
2224 27040
The value indicates a high degree of association between the variables x and y.
From this we can derive that higher the income, higher will be the savings.
2. Spearmans Rank Correlation
The coefficient of rank correlation is denoted by R.
This is applied to a problem where there is no quantitative data.
Then,
Coefficient of correlation is given by the
R=1-
6D 2
n(n2 1)
7 10
Accountancy
1 2
10
136
Rank x
Rank y
D5
-3
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-1
-4
16
36
10
64
10
81
Total
214
Now R = =
= 1- 1.3 = -0.3
Rank Correlation Coefficient
When the ranks are not given
1. Assign the rank highest first and the lowest last on both x and y
2. Find the rank difference (D), then D2
3. Apply formula as done earlier.
Example:
Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the following data by the method of rank
correlation.
x : 75 88 95 70 60 80 81 50
y : 120 134 150 115 110 140 142 100
x - Assign the highest first
95, 88, 81, 80, 75, 70, 60, 50.
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137
Rank x
Rank y
Rank
D2
differences
75
120
88
134
-2
95
150
70
115
60
110
80
140
81
142
50
100
D2 = 6
Coefficient of rank correlation is given by
R=
1 6D 2
n=8
n(n 2 1)
D2 = 4=
1 6X 4
1
20
= 1=
= 0.9
8(64 1)
21
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Quantitative Methods
c = + 2c n /n
c = number of pairs of concurrent deviations
n = number of pairs of deviations, which one less than actual numbers N
= n
= N -1
Example: Calculate the coefficient of correlation by concurrent deviation method.
Price :
4 3 5 5 8 10 10 11 15
Demand: 100 80 80 60 58 50 40 40 35 30
Solution:
Price
(X)
Cx
Demand
Cy
Cx Cy
(y)
1
100
--
--
80
--
--
80
--
--
60
--
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139
--
58
--
--
50
--
10
--
40
--
10
--
40
--
11
--
35
--
15
--
30
--
+
C=9
Here n = N -1 = 10 -1 = 9
c =
+
+
2c n /n =
2X9 10 /10
Pc = + 0.89
Merits:
The merits of coefficient of concurrent deviation can be given as follows:
Limitations:
The limitations of coefficient of concurrent deviation can be given as follows:
(1 r ) 2 2 (1 r ) 2
=
3
n
n
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Quantitative Methods
Properties of P.E.:
The properties of probable error in correlation can be given as:
Correlation of the population r D P.E. This P.E. is used for testing the reliability value of
r.
The sample taken should be unbiased and the individual items must be independent.
The whole data is symmetrical and gives a normal frequency curve (bell shaped).
SE=
1 r2
n
r = Coefficient of Correlation
n = number of observations in pairs.
r P.E.=0.6745
(1 r 2 )
n
n = 25
r =?
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141
PE = 0.072
0.072 =
0.6745 (1 r 2 )
25
0.072 =
0.6745 (1 r 2 )
5
(1-r 2 ) =
0.07235 0.360
360
=
=
= 0.533
0.6745 0.6745 674.5
1 r2 = 0.533
r2 = 1- 0.533 = 0.467
r = 0.467 = 0.6828
Standard error SE =
1 r2
n = 25
n
0.533
= 0.1066
5
Study Notes
Assessment
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Quantitative Methods
Discussion
It is assumed that achievement test scores should be correlated with student's classroom
performance. One would expect that students who consistently perform well in the
classroom (tests, quizes, etc.) would also perform well on a standardized achievement test
(0 - 100 with 100 indicating high achievement). A teacher decides to examine this
hypothesis. At the end of the academic year, she computes a correlation between the
students achievement test scores (she purposefully did not look at this data until after she
submitted students grades) and the overall g.p.a. for each student computed over the
entire year. The data for her class are provided below.
Achievement G.P.A.
98
3.6
96
2.7
94
3.1
88
4.0
91
3.2
77
3.0
86
3.8
71
2.6
59
3.0
63
2.2
84
1.7
79
3.1
75
2.6
72
2.9
86
2.4
85
3.4
71
2.8
93
3.7
90
3.2
62
1.6
1.
2.
What does this statistic mean concerning the relationship between achievement
test prformance and g.p.a.?
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143
3.
What percent of the variability is accounted for by the relationship between the two
variables and what does this statistic mean?
4.
What would be the slope and y-intercept for a regression line based on this data?
5.
[Answers:
1.
r = .524127623 or .52
2.
3.
r2 = .27 The percent a variability is relatively low. Only 27 percent of the achievement
test performance is related to the g.p.a (and vice versa). Seventy-three percent of the
variability is left unexplained.
4.
5.
Quantitative Methods
Independent variable: The variable, which influences the value or is used for
prediction is called the independent variable. The independent variable is also known as
regression or predictor explanatory, while the dependent variable is called a regressed or
explained variable.
Regression equation of y on x
Straight line equation = y = a + b x (y on x) where a and b are constant representing
the Y intercept and the slope of the line respectively. a and b are obtained by solving the
normal equations
y = n a + b x
and
x y = ax + bx2
obtained from n given pairs of observations for y and x. We use the form
y - y = byx (x - x )
where byx is the regression. Coefficient of y on x which is given by
byx = Cov (x1 y) = y
or byx =
nxy (x)(y )
n ( x ) 2 ( x ) 2
Direct Method
Regression equation of x and y
It is expressed as x = a + b y
x=na+by
and
x y = a y + b y2
A more convenient form
x - x = bxy (y - y )
Where, bxy is the regression coefficient of x on y which is given by
bxy =
Cov( x, y ) y x dxdy
=
=
y2
y
dy 2
where dx = x- x
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145
dy = y- y
or
bxy =
nxy (x)(y )
n ( y 2 ( y ) 2
r = bxy byx where r has the same sign ( + or -) as that of bxy and by
unexplained error / n =
(y y
) 2/n
y is the actual
ye is estimated value for given x
Also,
Syx = y
1-r2
(x-xe)
n
1 r2
Standard error of estimate measures the accuracy of the estimated figures. Smaller
its value, better are the estimates and hence more representative is the regression line.
Example:
1. The following data gives the experience of machine operators and their performance
ratings given by the number of goods turned out per 100 pieces.
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Quantitative Methods
Operator
Experience (x)
16
12
18
10
12
Ratings
87
88
89
68
78
80
75
83
(y)
Calculate the regression line of performance ratings on experience and estimate the
probable performance if an operator has 7 years of experience.
n=8
We have x =
y =
x 80
=
= 10
n
8
y 81
=
=81
n
8
dx=x-10
dy(y-81) dx2
dy2
dx. dy
x2
y2
Xy
16
87
36
36
36
256
7569
1392
12
88
49
14
144
7744
1056
18
89
64
64
64
324
792
1602
68
-6
-13
36
169
78
16
4624
272
78
-7
-3
49
21
6884
234
10
80
-1
36
100
6400
800
75
-5
-6
25
36
30
25
5625
375
12
83
144
6889
996
80
648
218
318
247
1018
53676
6727
218
By direct method:
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147
byx =
Ans.
Ans.
X=36
Y=85
Standard deviation
11
Correlation coefficient between x and y is 0.66. Find the regression equation x and y
hence estimate the value of x when y = 75.
Solution:
Given
x = 36, y = 85,
x = 11 y = 8
r = 0.66
bxy =
x
11
= 0.66 X = 0.908
y
8
Quantitative Methods
Some of the IT
Microsoft Excel: Excel is a spreadsheet program that can be used to access, process,
analyse, display and share information for running a business. Excel continues to make
the existing functionality easier to use while simultaneously offering a wide array of
tools for making more advanced tasks less complex and more intuitive. Excel is not
Quantitative Methods
149
businesses of the past. Small business managers used to solve most of their problems
through personal contacts.
statistical methods.
Here are a list of six areas of business that rely on information and techniques:
Product planning: Statistical methods are used to analyse economic factors and business
trends and to prepare detailed sales budgets, inventory-control systems and realistic
sales quotas.
Forecasting: Statistics are used to predict sales, productivity and employment trends.
Yearly reports: Annual reports for stockholders are based on statistical treatment of
many cost and revenue factors analysed by the business comptroller.
Personnel management: Statistical procedures are used in areas of age and sex
discrimination lawsuits, performance appraisals and workforce-size planning.
Market research: Corporations that develop and market products or services use
sophisticated statistical procedures to describe and analyse consumer purchasing
behaviour.
150
Quantitative Methods
Study Notes
Assessment
1. What are the properties of Regression Coefficients?
2. What are the drawbacks of Regression?
Discussion
Discuss real world application of regression.
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151
future values. (Time series: random data plus trend, with best-fit line and different
smoothing).
Methods for time series analyses may be divided into two classes: frequency-domain
methods and time-domain methods. The former include spectral analysis and recently
wavelet analysis, while the latter include auto-correlation and cross-correlation analysis.
Obtain an understanding of the underlying forces and structure that produced the
observed data
Fit a model and proceed to forecasting, monitoring or even feedback and feedforward
control
Economic forecasting
Sales forecasting
Budgetary analysis
Yield projections
Inventory studies
Workload projections
Utility studies
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Quantitative Methods
Census analysis
4.4.1 ANALYSIS
There are several types of data analysis available for time series. These are
appropriate for the following different purposes:
General exploration
Spectral analysis to examine cyclic behaviour which need not be related to seasonality.
For example, sunspot activity varies over 11 year cycles. Other common examples
include celestial phenomena, weather patterns, neural activity, commodity prices and
economic activity.
Description
Separation into components representing trend, seasonality, slow and fast variation,
cyclical irregular: see decomposition of time series
Simple or fully-formed statistical models to describe the likely outcome of the time series
in the immediate future, given knowledge of the most recent outcomes (forecasting).
4.4.2 MODELS
Models for time series data can have many forms and represent different stochastic
processes. When modelling variations in the level of a process, three broad classes of
practical importance are the autoregressive (AR) models, the integrated (I) models and the
moving average (MA) models. These three classes depend linearly on previous data points.
Combinations of these ideas produce Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) and
Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models. The Autoregressive Fractionally
Integrated Moving Average (ARFIMA) model generalises the former three. Extensions of
these classes to deal with vector-valued data are available under the heading of multivariate
time-series models and sometimes the preceding acronyms are extended by including an
Quantitative Methods
153
initial "V" for "vector". An additional set of extensions of these models is available for use,
where the observed time-series is driven by some "forcing" time-series (which may not have
a causal effect on the observed series): the distinction from the multivariate case is that the
forcing series may be deterministic or under the experimenter's control. For these models,
the acronyms are extended with a final "X" for "exogenous".
Non-linear dependence of the level of a series on previous data points is of interest,
partly because of the possibility of producing a chaotic time series. However, more
importantly, empirical investigations can indicate the advantage of using predictions derived
from non-linear models over those from linear models.
Among other types of non-linear time series models, there are models to represent
the changes of variance along time (heteroskedasticity). These models are called
Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (ARCH). Here, changes in variability are
related to or predicted by, recent past values of the observed series. This is in contrast to
other possible representations of locally-varying variability, where the variability might be
modelled as being driven by a separate time-varying process, as in a doubly stochastic
model.
In recent work on model-free analyses, wavelet transform based methods (for
example, locally stationary wavelets and wavelet decomposed neural networks) have gained
favour. Multiscale (often referred to as multiresolution) techniques decompose a given time
series, attempting to illustrate time dependence at multiple scales.
The general representation of an autoregressive model, known as AR(p), is
where the term t is the source of randomness and is called white noise. It is
assumed to have the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
With these assumptions, the process is specified up to second-order moments and
subject to conditions on the coefficients, may be second-order stationary.
If the noise also has a normal distribution, it is called normal white noise (denoted
here by Normal-WN):
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Quantitative Methods
In this case, the AR process may be strictly stationary, again subject to conditions on
the coefficients.
Many types of data are collected over time. Stock prices, sales volumes, interest
rates and quality measurements are typical examples. Owing to the sequential nature of the
data, special statistical techniques that account for the dynamic nature of the data are
required.
The following procedures are followed for analysing time series data:
Seasonal Decomposition: Decomposes time series data into trend, cycle, seasonal and
irregular components and returns seasonally adjusted data if desired.
Forecasting: Creation of forecasts beyond the end of the data, using trend models,
moving averages, exponential smoothers or ARIMA models.
Automatic Forecasting: Selects the best forecasting method for a time series by
optimising a specified information criterion.
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
Characterising a time series involves estimating not only a mean and standard
deviation but also the correlations between observations separated in time. Tools such as
the autocorrelation function are important for displaying the manner in which the past
continues to affect the future. Other tools, such as the periodogram, are useful when the
data contain oscillations at specific frequencies.
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155
SMOOTHING
When a time series contains a large amount of noise, it can be difficult to visualise
any underlying trend. Various linear and nonlinear smoothers are provided to separate the
signal from the noise.
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FORECASTING
A common goal of time series analysis is extrapolating past behaviour into the future.
The forecasting procedures include random walks, moving averages, trend models, simple,
linear, quadratic and seasonal exponential smoothing and ARIMA parametric time series
models. Users may compare various models by withholding samples at the end of the time
series for validation purposes.
4.4.3 NOTATIONS
A number of different notations are in use for time-series analysis:
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157
4.4.4 CONDITIONS
There are two sets of conditions under which much of the theory is built:
Stationary process
Ergodicity
However, ideas of stationarity must be expanded to consider two important ideas:
strict stationarity and second-order stationarity. Both models and applications can be
developed under each of these conditions, although the models in the latter case might be
considered as only partly specified.
In addition, time series analysis can be applied, where the series are seasonally
stationary or non-stationary. Situations where the amplitudes of frequency components
change with time can be dealt with in time-frequency analysis, which makes use of a time
frequency representation of a time-series or signal.
Averaging Methods
158
Quantitative Methods
Supplier
Amount
Supplier
Amount
11
13
12
10
11
11
12
12
10
The computed mean or average of the data = 10. The manager decides to use this as
the estimate for expenditure of a typical supplier.
Is this a good or bad estimate?
Mean squared error is a way to judge how good a model is. We shall compute the
"mean squared error":
Quantitative Methods
Supplier $
Error
Error Squared
-1
-2
-1
159
12
-1
12
11
-3
13
10
-1
11
11
12
10
The SSE = 36 and the MSE = 36/12 = 3. Table of MSE results for example using
different estimates. So how good was the estimator for the amount spent for each supplier?
Let us compare the estimate (10) with the following estimates: 7, 9 and 12. That is, we
estimate that each supplier will spend $7 or $9 or $12.
Performing the same calculations we arrive at:
Estimator 7
10
12
SSE
144
48
36
84
MSE
12
The estimator with the smallest MSE is the best. It can be shown mathematically that
the estimator that minimises the MSE for a set of random data is the mean.
The above table shows squared error for the mean for sample data.
Next, we will examine the mean to see how well it predicts net income over time.
The next table gives the income before taxes of a PC manufacturer between 1985
and 1994.
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Quantitative Methods
Year
$ (millions) Mean
Error
Squared Error
1985
46.163
48.776
-2.613
6.828
1986
46.998
48.776
-1.778
3.161
1987
47.816
48.776
-0.960
0.922
1988
48.311
48.776
-0.465
0.216
1989
48.758
48.776
-0.018
0.000
1990
49.164
48.776
0.388
0.151
1991
49.548
48.776
0.772
0.596
1992
48.915
48.776
1.139
1.297
1993
50.315
48.776
1.539
2.369
1994
50.768
48.776
1.992
3.968
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161
The "simple" average or mean of all past observations is only a useful estimate for
forecasting when there are no trends. If there are trends, use different estimates that
take the trend into account.
The average "weighs" all past observations equally. For example, the average of the
values 3, 4, 5 is 4. We know, of course, that an average is computed by adding all the
values and dividing the sum by the number of values. Another way of computing the
average is by adding each value divided by the number of values or
3/3 + 4/3 + 5/3 = 1 + 1.3333 + 1.6667 = 4.
The multiplier 1/3 is called the weight. In general:
The
Study Notes
Assessment
What is Time Series? Explain the procedures followed for analsing time series data.
Discussion
What is Smoothing?
What is Forecasting?
Discuss.
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Quantitative Methods
4.5 Summary
Definition of Correlation: Croxton and Cowden definition of correlation: The
relationship is of quantitative nature. The appropriate statistical tool for discovering and
measuring the relationship and expressing it in brief formula is known as correlation".
Correlation Coefficient: Correlation is the tendency towards interrelation variation
and the coefficient of correlation is a measure of such a tendency is the degree to which the
two variables are interrelated and is measured by a coefficient that is called coefficient of
correlation. It gives the degree of association between the variables.
Karl Pearsons method of correlation: This method is used for measuring the linear
relationship between two variables (series). Pearsons Coefficient between two variables (x,
y) is denoted by r (x, y) or r(xy) or simply r. This is also known as product moment correlation
coefficient.
= standard dviation.
Spearmans Rank correlation: The coefficient of rank correlation is denoted by R.
This is applied to a problem where there is no quantitative data.
Concurrent deviation: The principle underlying in the coefficient of concurrent
deviation is as follows: If the short term fluctuations of two series are correlated positively,
their deviation would be concurrent and the curves would move in the same direction
indicating positive correlation between the series.
Coefficient of determination: It is square of the Coefficient Correlation
= r2, where r = Coefficient of Correlation
Regression: Regression analysis is used for estimating or predicting these unknown
values of a variable (called as dependent variable) from the known values of other (called as
independent variable). This is done through regression line. This describes the average
relationship between the variable x and y.
Properties of Regression Coefficient:
1. Regression coefficients are not symmetric (byx bxy) unlike the correlation coefficients
[(rxy) = (ryx) = r]
2. Both regression coefficient bxy and byx have the same sign.
3. r2 = bxy.byx
r = bxy byx where r has the same sign (+ or -) as that of bxy and by
Quantitative Methods
163
Economic Forecasting
Sales Forecasting
Budgetary Analysis
Yield Projections
Inventory Studies
Workload Projections
Utility Studies
Census Analysis
Procedures for analysing time series data: Following are the procedures followed for
Descriptive Methods
Smoothing
Seasonal Decomposition
Forecasting
Automatic Forecasting
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Quantitative Methods
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
61
63
63
63
64
65
62
Ans.: = 0.939
2. Calculate Coefficient and Correlation and problem error from the following data.
X
10
20
16
14
10
10
44
46
40
44
42
45
42
38
40
42
57
Y 29
31
19
18
19
27
27
29
41
30
26
10
Also find the value of the Correlation Coefficient between x and y. (hint):r = _ + bxy Xbxx
Ans.: y = -1.22x + 78.67; x = -0.44y + 54.80; r = -0.7326
4. Given Below is the information about advertising and sales.
Advt exp (in Lakhs) Sales (Rs Lakh)
Mean
10
90
S.D.
12
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165
c. What should be the advertising expenditure if the company sales target is of Rs. 120
lakhs
(Ans)
a. Y = 3.2 x + 58X = 0.2y - 8,
b. 106 lakh,
c. 10 lakh.
Short Notes
a. Measurement of correlation
b. Standard error
c. Correlation coefficient
d. Regression
e. Real world application using IT tools
f. Time series
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Quantitative Methods
Assignment
1. Calculate Karl Pearson Coefficient of Correlation from the following data:
Year
Index
1985
of 100
1986
1987 1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
102
104
107
105
112
103
99
12
13
11
12
12
19
26
production
Number of 15
unemployed
12
20
16
18
22
10
16
14
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Unit 5
Linear Programming
Learning Outcome
2.
2nd Reading with understanding: It will need 4 Hrs for reading and understanding a
unit
3.
Self Assessment: It will need 3 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit
4.
5.
Content Map
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Basic Concepts
5.2.2
5.3
5.4
Solution Methods
5.4.1 Graphical method
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169
5.6
5.7
Summary
5.8
5.9
Further Reading
170
Quantitative Methods
5.1 Introduction
Linear programming (L.P.) is one of most widely and best understood Operation
Research (OR) techniques. L.P. is confined to the allocation of scarce resources among
various activities in an optimal manner. It determines the way to achieve the best outcome
(such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given mathematical model and given some list
of requirements represented as linear equations. Linear programming is a considerable field
of optimisation for several reasons.
This technique originated during world war in order to overcome the use of military
resources. After the war, the industries started using this technique for optimal allocation of
their resources. L.P. is always used for minimising cost and maximising profit in
manufacturing industries and various other industries. Many practical problems in
operations research can be expressed as linear programming problems.
Linearity assumption: The term linearity means straight line or proportional relationship
with x and y. For example, if one machine and one worker produce, say 100 units per
week, then two machines and two workers will produce 200 units per work (doubled).
i.e. there is a linearity between men and machines.
Process and its level: Conversion of an input into an output is called a conversion
process. In a process, factor of production is used in fixed ratio, depending upon
technology and as such no substitution is possible within a process. There are many
processes available to a firm for production of a product. One process can be substituted
for another. There is, thus, no interference of one with another. Two or more processes
can be used simultaneously. If a product can be produced in two different ways, then
there are two different processes/ activities/ decision variables.
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171
or loss of C j = 2.
Feasible solutions: Feasible solutions are all those possible solutions, which can be
worked upon under given constraints.
There is no guarantee that linear programming will give integer valued solutions. For
instance, a solution may result in producing a fraction / decimal. In such a situation, the
manager will examine the possibility of producing higher or lower product and will take a
decision, which ensures higher profits subject to given constraints. Thus, rounding can
give reasonably good solutions in many cases but in some situations we will get only a
poor answer even by rounding. Then integer programming techniques alone can handle
such unknown.
The linear
programming model operates only when values for costs, constraints, etc are known but
in real life such factors may be unknown.
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Quantitative Methods
returns begins to operate. In this context, it can, however, be stated that non linear
programming techniques are available for dealing with such situations.
Linear programming will fail to give a solution if management has multiple conflicting
goals. In L.P. model there is only one goal, which is expressed in the objective function,
e.g. maximising the value of the profit function or minimising the cost function. One
should resort to Goal Programming (G.P.) in situations involving multiple goals.
All these limitations of linear programming indicate only one thing: that linear
programming cannot be made use of in all business problems. Although linear programming
is certainly not a panacea for all management and industrial problems, for those problems
where it can be applied, linear programming is considered a very useful and powerful tool.
Study Notes
Assessment
What is Linear Programming?
Explain the concept of Linear Programming?
Discussion
Discuss the limitations of Linear Programming.
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173
Unit
requirements
Amount
Available
Resources
Table
Chair
35
30
350
Labour
10
20
150
10
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x 1, x 2 0
Let us discuss constrains
1. Wood available for table and chair
35 X1 + 30 X2 350 (available wood)
( less than or equal to)
Second constraint is labour. This can be expressed in the same way.
10 X1 + 20 X2 150 (available labour)
In this, we cannot have negative production, i.e. even when the plant is idle. X1 0
and X2 0. This is called non-negativity constraints.
Problem can be stated as follow,
and
Study Notes
Assessment
Explain how can you express Linear Programming in mathematical form. Give suitable
example.
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175
Discussion
Express in mathematical form:
A farmer needs to buy up to 25 cows for a new herd. He can buy either brown
cows (x) at $50 each or black cows (y) at $80 each and he can spend a total of
no more than $1600. He must have at least 9 of each type. On selling the cows he makes a
profit of $50 on each brown cow and $60 on each black cow.
Graphical method
Simplex method
chairs and tables, from its available resources which consist of 400 cubic feet of mahogany
timber and 450 man hours of labour. It knows that to make a chair it requires 5 cubic feet of
timber and 10 man hours and yields a profit of Rs 80/-. To manufacture a table, it requires
20 cubic feet of timber and 15 man hours and yields a profit of Rs. 90/-. The problem is to
determine how many chairs and tables the company can make keeping within the resources
constraints so that is maximises the profit. Formulate L.P.P. model and provide its graphical
solution.
Graphical method for solving L.P.P.
This method has used two variables (X1 and X2)
Let X1 is denoted for chair.
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Chair
Table
Amount
Available
Wood
20
400
10
15
450
Formulation
5 X1 + 20 X2 400
10X1 + 15 X2 450
Z max = 45 X1 + 80 X2 subject to
5 X1 + 20 X2 400 i.e. X1 + 4X2 80 - - - - (a)
10 X1 + 15 X2 450 i.e. 2 X1 + 3 X2 90 - - -(b)
X1 X2 0
Converting
(a) and (b) to equality, we get
X1 + 4 X2 = 80 . . . . .(1)
2X1 + 3X2 = 90 . . . (2)
Step-1. Let us take the equation (1) i.e
X1 + 4 X2 = 80
Put X1 = 0 i.e. 4 X2 = 80 X2 = 20
Coordinate (0, 20)
Put X2 = 0, X1 = 80
coordinate (80, 0)
3 X2 = 90
Put X2 = 0
2 X1 = 90
X1 = 45 coordinate (45, 0)
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177
90
80
70
C
H
A
I
R
S
( C-45,0 )
60
50
40
30
20
( B-14,24)
10
( 0, 30 )
00
( 0, 20 )
Table
X1 + 4 14 = 80
X1 = 24
i.e. point B in the graph
To find the value of the objective function
Max Z= 45 X1 + 80 X2
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Coordinate of
Objective function
corner point
45 X1 + 80 X2 = Z max
(0, 0)
45 X0 + 80 X0 = 0
(0, 20)
0 + 1600
1600
(24, 14)
45 24 + 80 14
2220
(45, 0)
45 45 + 80 0
2025
Value
This maximum profit is obtained at B i.e. 24 chairs and 14 tables and is equal to
2220.
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179
Zmax = 45 X1 + 80 X2 + S1 + S2
subject to 5 X1 + 20 X2 + S1 = 400
10 X1 + 15 X2 + S2 = 450
and X1, X2, S1, S2 0
The problem can be tabulated as follows:
Key Row
Cj
Key Column
Contribution/unit
Basic variable.
Solution
Variable
45
80
X1
X2
S1
S2
Min. ratio
S1
400
20
400/20=20
S2
450
10
15
450/15=30
Contribution Loss/Unit(Z j)
Z=0
45
80
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result if one unit of the j the value is brought into solution. Hence, the Z j is a objective
function contribution loss per unit and is found out by adding the product, of C j column and
the coefficient in the constraint set, associated uni-responding basic variable.
In the
example, contribution loss per unit (Zj) row values is determined as follows:
Contribution loss per unit (Zj) = Addition of (coefficients of Cj column multiplied by
corresponding coefficients of the constraint set.)
Ci Z j = 0 30 + 0 10 = 0
Similarly, values of Z j of the column can be calculated and shown in the above table
the last row (C j - Zj) represents net contribution per unit and is determined by subtracting
the appropriate Zj value from the corresponding coefficient C j value in the objective
function for that column. The value (C j - Z j) is the difference between the contribution C j
and the lost Zj that result from one unit of X j being produced. To find out the value of the
last row (Cj - Zj), the necessary calculations are shown as below:
Net contribution per unit is (Cj - Zj).
In the example, (Cj - Zj) for X1 column is: (45 0) = 45
Similarly, other columns can be calculated as is shown in the table above.
When (Cj - Zj) is positive, that means that there is an improvement possible in the
existing solution. The objective is to maximise profit, therefore consider the column where
contribution per unit is maximum. In this case, the X2 column contribution per unit is Rs.
80/- (maximum). This helps us to know the variable to be entered into the solution in the
beginning. Thus, X2 is the entering variable. The column corresponding in the entering
variable is known as Key Column.
Since it is decided to enter one variable as the basic variable into the solution basic,
hence one existing variable is to be departed from solution basic and replace entering
variable to be departed is identified by forming the ratios of solution values to physical rates
of substitution of entering variable. Thus, in the example given above, we have
For, S1= 400/20 = 20
S2 = 450/15 = 30
Hence, departing variable is one which is minimum, i.e. S1 is the departing variable in
our example. This procedure guarantees that there is no negative value in the basic
variable.
The row corresponding to the departing variable is called Key Row. The
intersection of the element of Key Row and Key Column is called the Key Element and is
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181
maximisation problem. Now that you have developed some familiarity and understanding of
the simplex method, we can apply it to a minimisation problem.
Another way to minimise the problem is to convert the problem by multiplying the
objective function by 1. This yields negative solution values whose sign must be reversed for
application. However this approach is not recommended, since a direct solution is more
convenient to use.
problem, we can change the last constraint of less than or equal to () type into a equality
(=) type in the problem. Its modified formulation of LP problem can now be written as given
below:
Min Z = 60X1 + 80X2
Subject to X2 200
X1 400
X1 + X2 = 500
And X1 X2 0.
The problem can be converted into the standard form by adding slack, surplus and
artificial variables in the set of constraints and assigning appropriate costs to these variables
in the objective function.
Degeneracy is revealed when a basic variable acquires a zero value (rather than a negative
or positive value) or in the final solution, either the number of basic variables is not equal to
the number of constraints or the number of zero variables does not equal the number of
decision variables. A tie for an existing variable and an arbitrary selection for it usually
precede the instance of degeneracy. If this is resolved by a proper selection of pivot
element, degeneracy can be avoided.
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NON-FEASIBLE SOLUTION
A linear programming problem may be unsolved mathematically due to the
contradictory nature of the constraints. Such an instance is referred to as a non-feasible
solution. A solution is also non-feasible if an artificial variable appears in the basis of the
solution purported to be optimal.
UNBOUNDED SOLUTION
If the coefficient of the entering variable is either negative or zero, implying that this
variable can be increased indefinitely without ever violating feasibility, the maximisation
problem has an unbounded solution.
MULTIPLE SOLUTIONS
The optimal solution may not be unique if one of the non-basic variables has a zero
coefficient in the final Zj - Cj row. This implies that bringing this zero coefficient non-basic
variable in the basis will neither increase nor decrease the value of the objective function.
Thus, the problem has an alternate solution, which is also optimal.
Study Notes
Assessment
Complete the sentence by choosing the correct answer the choices given:
linear programming problems are solved with the computer the meaning of the computer
output and linear programming concepts can be gained by analyzing a simple two-variable
problem with the method.
a) Linear programming
b) Graphic method
c) 2-Way method
d) All the above
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Discussion
Hale Company manufactures products A and B, each of which requires two processes,
grinding and polishing. The contribution margin is $3 for A and $4 for B. A graph showing
the maximum number of units of each product that can be processed in the two
departments identifies the following corner points: A = 0, B = 20; A = 20, B = 10; A = 30, B =
0. What is the combination of A and B that maximizes the total contribution margin?
[Answer: (a = 0, b = 20); $3(0) + $4(20) = $80 CM
(a = 20, b = 10); $3(20) + $4(10) = $100 CM - Maximum CM
(a = 30, b = 0); $3(30) + $4(0) = $90 CM]
The n-coefficients of the objective function of primal (cj) become the n-constant terms of
its dual.
The n-constant terms of the primal (bi) become the m-constant terms of the objective
function of its dual.
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The coefficients of the variables of the primal (aij) are transformed in their position in
the dual, i.e. they become aij with respect to the position held in the primal.
The n-variables (Xn) of the primal are replaced by the m new variables (Ym) of its dual.
This change affects the system of restrictions as well as the objective function.
The sign of the inequalities in the set of restrictions of the primal () is reversed in the
set of restrictions is its dual (/) and vice-versa. Readers should note that while writing
dual of the primal problem, all the given constraints of the primal should first be
changed in an uniform pattern, say of the z type constraints. This can easily be done as
stated below:
If the constraints is 2X1,+X2 /2, it can also be written as -2X1, -X2 -2. But if the
The sign of the inequalities restricting the variable ( x j) non-negative values in the
primal is equal to the inequality sign of the new variable
( - yj) of its dual.
Thus, by application of these considerations,
Maximise:
Z = 2X1 + 3X2
Subject to:
2X1 + X2 20
X1 + 2X2 20
and
X 1, X 2 0
Transforms to its dual as follows:
Minimise:
Zy = 20Y1 + 20Y2
Subject to:
2Y1 + Y2 / 2
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185
Y1 + 2Y2/3
and
Y 1, Y 2 0
It is instructive to note that the simplex method automatically identifies the dual
basic solution. The optimal value of the objective function remains the same as in the primal
problem. Given an optimal solution of the primal problem, the dual variable acquires the
coefficient of the slack variable in the optimal objective function equation as its optimal
value. In view of all this, it is possible to identify the dual solution from the primal solution.
Exercise
A carpenter makes chairs and tables. Processing of these products is done on
machine A and B. A chair requires 2 hours of machine A and B hours of machine B while a
table requires 5 hours of machine A but does not require machine B. Machine A and B are
available for 16 hours and 20 hours per day respectively. Profits gained by the carpenter per
chair and per table are Rs. 20/- and Rs. 100/- respectively. What should be the daily
production of the two products to realize maximum gain? Formulate LPP.
Hint: Maximise Z = 20 x1 + 100 x2
S.t 2x1 + 5x2 16,
6x1 20, x1, x2 0
Where x1 = no. of chairs, x2 = No. of tables
Study Notes
Assessment
Explain Duality Theorem in your own words.
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Discussion
Discuss how Duality Theorem can be applied in real world.
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187
are minimized. With the use of LPP models such problems can be solved.
3. Marketing
The right mix of media publicity in an advertising campaign is essential decision for
marketing team, where linear programming can prove to be useful tool. For example, the
media available are radio, television, and newspapers. The aim is to decide how many
advertisements are to be placed in each medium. Here, the cost of placing an advertisement
varies for various medium. The aim of every department in organisation is minimisation of
the total cost; here the aim of marketing department thus is minimisation of total cost of the
advertising campaign, keeping in mind the constraints.
4. Distribution
Another application of linear programming is in the area of distribution. For example,
there are a specified number of factories that must ship goods to a given number of
warehouses. One factory could make shipments to any number of warehouses. Here, the
cost of shipping one unit of product from a factory to warehouse is important variable. The
main aim is to minimize the total shipping costs. This decision is subject to various
constraints. Keeping in mind all the constraints and aim of the department, LPP is used to
take suitable decision.
The uses of linear programming are not limited to these five areas but allow you to
easily see why linear programming is so important and how it can practically be applied to
many areas of decision-making.
Study Notes
Assessment
Explain the application of Linear Programming
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Discussion
Discuss how Linear Programming is useful for Marketing?
5.7 Summary
Linear Programming: Linear programming has become the most orderly used
mathematical technique in solving a variety of problems related with management- from
scheduling, media selection, financial planning to capital budgeting, transportation and
many others. The special characteristic that linear programming always expects is to
maximise or minimise some quantity. One of the main advantages of linear programming is
that it fits strictly with reality. However, it has limitations too. The most important is the
achievement of goals. It fails to give a solution, where the management has multiple goals.
Basic Concepts: The basic concepts are as follows:
Linearity assumption: The term linearity means straight line or proportional relationship
with x and y
Process and its level: Conversion of an input into an output is called a conversion
process. In a process, factor of production are used in fixed ratio, of course, depending
upon technology and as such no substitution possible within a process.
Criterion function: This is also known as objective function. This states that determinants
of the quantity either to be maximised or minimised.
Feasible solutions: Feasible solutions are all those possible solutions, which can be
worked upon under given constraints.
function, as well as the constraints, can be expressed as linear mathematical functions of the
decision variables.
Formulation of L.P.: Formulation means expressing a problem in a convenient
mathematical form.
Methods of solving: L.P. problems can be solved by two methods: Graphical method
and Simplex method.
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Graphical method: Graphical method of solving L.P. problems involves two decision
variables x1 and x2. It includes two major steps:
problems. In the graphical solution, a search for optimal solution was limited to only a
corner point of feasible solution region. This problem can be solved manually also, with two
variables (x and y) and lesser number of constraints. For a bigger problem, an efficient
procedure is available for getting optimal solution. This is one of the main objectives of
simplex method. This is a systematic procedure called algorithm. This method moves from
one corner point to another corner point, till optimal solution is obtained, always improving
the objective function.
The Duality Theorem: For every linear programming problem, there is another
intimately related linear programming problem referred to as its dual. The duality theorem
states that for every maximisation (or minimisation) problem in linear programming, there is
a unique similar problem of minimisation (or maximisation) involving the same data, which
describes the original problem. The original problem is referred to as the primal. The dual
of a dual problem is the primal.
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Numerical Exercises:
1. Maximise: P = 1.4X1 + X9
Subject to: X1 3
2X1 + X2 8
3X1 + 4X2 24
and X1/ 0, X2 /0.
2. Maximise: Z = X1 + X2
Subject to: X1 + X2 3
2X1 + 3X2 18
X1 6
and X1, X2 > 0
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Assignment
Comment in your own words, how linear programming is an important part of quantitative
techniques.
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Glossary
Business mathematics:
Business Statistics:
Co-efficient:
Correlation coefficient:
Function:
Markov Chain:
Matrices:
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193
Mean:
Median:
Mode:
Moving Average:
Normal Distribution:
Poisson distribution:
Probability:
Regression Analysis:
Sequence:
Series:
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