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CHAPTER 2 Fate Consianis of Elementary Reactions Consider the following elementary reaction: AsBxtes+w 022) At equilibrium, HCC = kCsCw 023) and eee) (). e2h If the Amthenius law is used for the reaction rate constants, Equation (2.2.4) can be swriten A) (B= £1) _ (CCW a Jeol RT ) - (22), . It is easy to see from Equation (2.2.5) that if (E — E,) > 0 then the reaction is ‘exothermic and likewise if (Ey ~ Fy) <0 itis endothermic (refer to Appendix A for temperature dependence of Ke). In typical situation, the highest yields of prod- ucts are desired. That is, the ratio (CyCy/C,Cp)a Will be as large as possible. If the reaction is endothermic, Equation (2.2.5) suggests that in order to maximize the product yield, the reaction should be accomplished at the highest possible temper- ature, To do so, it is necessary to make exp{(E, — £,)/(R,)] as large as possible by maximizing (R,7), since (Ey ~ E;) is negative. Note that as the temperature in- creases, so do both the rates (forward and reverse). Thus, for endothermic reactions, the rate and yield must horh increase with temperature. For exothermic reactions, there is always a trade-off between the equilibrium yield of products and the reac- tion rate. Therefore, a balance between rate and yield is used and the T' chosen is dependent upon the situation. 2.3 | Transition-State Theory For most elementary reactions the rearrangement of atoms in going from reactants to products via a transition state (se, for example, Figure 1.11) proceeds through the movements of atomic nuclei that experience a potential energy field that is gen- crated by the rapid motions ofthe electrons inthe system. On this potential energy surface there will bea path of minimum energy expenditure for the reaction to pro- ceed from reactants to products (Feaction coordinate). The low energy positions of reactants and products on the potential energy surface will be separated by a higher energy region. The highest energy along the minimum energy pathovay in going from reactants to products defines the transition state, As stated in Chapter 1, the transition state isnot a reaction intermediate but rather a high energy configuration ‘of a system in transit from one state to another.marten 2. fate Constants of lomontary Reactions _____st ‘Transition sate ‘Transition ste LL Potential energy ‘Activation barier Reseton coordinate Resetion coordinate @ » Figure 2.3.1 | Potential energy profiles for the elementary reaction A + B —> $+ W for (a) an ‘endothermic reaction and (b) an exothermic reaction The difference in energies of the reactants and products is related to the heat of reaction—a thetmodynamie quantity. Figure 2.3.1 shows potential energy profiles for endothermic and exothermic elementary reactions. Transition-state theory is used to calculate an elementary reaction that con- forms to the energetic picture illustrated in Figure 2.3.1. How this is done is de- scribed next, VIGNETTE 2.3.1 ince transition sates exist for only picosecond or les, the ability to observe them in ‘eal time requires femtosecond (10"'" s) time resolution. Femtochemistry, or chemistry ‘onthe femtosecond time scale has been defined a the fed of chemical dynamics con- cemed withthe act of chemical transformation (i. the proess of bond breaking snd raking). Femvochemisry requires ules lasers oiitiate and obsewve chemical reae- ‘ins with femtosecond time resolution. Ahmed Zeal and his coworkers have care out those types of experiments beginning inthe lte 1980s (The Chemical Bond Structure ‘and Dynamics, 8. A. eval Academic Press, San Diego, 1992), Figure 2.3.2 ilotrates the femtochemistry experimen of watching” excited ICN dissociate, The rection i i tiated by addition of light energy from x laser to bring ICN from the ground state to an cited state (upper to lower enerzy cures) where the LCN is now completely in a re- pulse state. AS th I and CN depart from one another, the intermediates are observed. For example, st 100 femtoseconds, the distance between I and CN (I--» CN) has increased 1A. These studies provide insights and help confirm theories of how reactions proceed athe molecular level.CHAPTER 2. Pate Constants of Elementary Reactions a Hh ] IN ——> 140N 6 Potent as Ns 45 en Ioteratmie distance bstween I--ENCA) Figure 2.9.2 | Schematic diagram of the emtochemistry experiment of A. Zewail and coworkers. Consider again the reaction given by Equation (2.2.2). At thermodynamic equi- librium, Equation (2.2.3) is satisfied. Inthe equilibrated system, there must also exist, an equilibrium concentration of tanstion states: Crs. The rates of the forward and the reverse reactions are equal, implying that there isan equivalent number of species tra- versing the activation barrier from either the reactant side oF the product side. Thus, (CsCog = (CSC ea = ACs 30 where A is a frequency. Since Crs is a thermodynamic quantity, it can be calculated from statistical thermodynamics. A fundamental assumption of transition-state theory is thar ifthe system is perturbed from equilibrium by product removal, the rate of the forward reaction remains: KyCaCy = ACs 232) Where Cys is the concentration of transition-states in equilibrium with reactants A and B. The fictitious equilibrium: A+BS Ts 233) allows for the formulation of an equilibrium constant as shown below: ¢ 4 Cu ee) where R,TInK™ = —AG3 = —AHG + TAS} 235)____GHaprER 2. Bate Constants ol Elementary Reactions ______s@ and AG is the change in the standard Gibbs function forthe reaction given in Equation (2.3.3) and AM and AS are the corresponding changes in standard en- talpy and entropy, respectively. The subscript 0 i used to denote the standard state while the superscript + denotes quantities pertaining tothe transition state, By come bining Equations (2.3.5) and (2.34), Crs can be written as: Ass] [-ans Cs = eo Re Joo] RE Jescs (2.3.6) Using this formulation for Cys in Equation (2.3.2) allows the reaction rate to be of the form; Ast] [=a R, PL RT duce ators ne om th aro etn cose dort poset erent MDa. Riso Chia Prec 8 eas 14 del Joa ean where h is Planck’s constant and is Boltzmann's constant. Using Equation (2.3.8) in Equation (2.3.7) gives: i) [as [=a (ideo ee bel ‘This is the general equation of transition-state theory in its thermodynamic form, Equation (2.3.9) helps in the comprehension of how reactions proceed. In or- der for a reaction to occur, itis necessary to overcome not just an energy barTier but a free energy barrier. That is to say, a reaction involves not only energy but also re- quires reaching a favorable configuration associated with a change in entropy. These ‘wo effects can often compensate each other. For example, McKenzie etal. J. Catal, 138 (1992) 547] investigated the reaction: oH ° CH CHCH, => CHCCH; + Hy Cn 039) ‘over a series of solid catalysts called hydrotalcites, and obtained the following data: (ome) 1 43x10 m 2 23x10! 159 3 23x10" a6, 4 lex 134eo emapren 2 Rate Constants of Siemetary Reactions {If Equation (2.3.9) is compared to Equation (2.2.1), then: a) ASS, (hee esi E= AH} 31h “The data of McKenzie et al. clearly show that as the energy barter inereases (higher E), the entropy of activation becomes more positive (larger AS implies more favorable configurational driving force for the reaction, since entropy will always attempt to be maximized). Thus, energy and entropy compensate in this example ‘The Arthenius form of the rate constant specifies that both A and E are inde- pendent of T. Note that when the formulation derived from transition-state theory 3s compared to the Arthenius formulation [Equations (2.3.10) and (2.3.11), both A ‘and E do have some dependence on T. However, AM; is very weakly dependent ‘on T and the temperature dependence of i) [asi (2) on ee 23.12) can normally be neglecied as compared io the srong exponential dependence of (4) 23.13) ool 23, ‘Thus, the Archenius form is an excellent approximation to that obtained from transition state theory, provided the temperatre range does not become too large. Previously, the concentration Crs was expressed in simple terms assuming ideal conditions. However, for nonieal systems, K* must be written 3s + = So 23.14) where a; isthe activity of species i. IF activity coefficients, 7, are used such that 4, = ¥,C;, then Equation (2.314) can be formulated as: 23.15) Following the substitutions and equation rearrangements used for ideal conditions, the nonideal system yields: @) os 23.16) A) Ys [At infinite dittion were the activity coefficients ae one (ideal conditions, eam be written as 317)