Microgravity Monitoring 1H. Rymer Abstract Microgravity monitoring involves the measurement of small changes with time in the value of trvity aa network of stations with respect wo a fted base. Microgravity is becoming increasingly Focognised 48 valuable tool for mapping eut the subsurface mass redistributions that are 4330- ‘cated with volcanic activity, Is essential that relative elevation data ae obtained at the same time as gravity data for an unambiguous interpretation of results. By combining these data ses, far nore information i available than using either method alone. In recent decades systematic mi- “rouravity studies over some 20 active voleanaes in Central Americ, leeland, Italy. Japan, Papua New Guinea and the USA have provided valuable data on the subsurface mass redistribution associated with eruptions. consider here the feasibility and suitability of microgravity survey in a range of sctnie settings. Examples fom a variety of volcanoes in varying states of activity reveal that while basaltic sift-ype volcanoes undergo elastic ground deformation prio to eruption, they rarely exhibit large subsurface density changes. Large caldera structures in a state of unrest exhibit stavily and height variations that closely follow the relationship expected for an elastic medium, Deep mas increases and decreases have been observed at calders, but they have act been the precursors to eruptive activity, On the other hand, data from several andesite stratocones reveal travity changes thut ure much larger than ean be accounted for by the observed height changes sociated with a change in activity. Thus, whe combined gravity and height monitoring my be ‘sell at most volcanoes, it has proved to be particularly fuitfl at explosive, andesite constructs, 1 Background Interpretation of changes in gravity with space or time requires knowledge of the universal gravitational constant (G) and of the variation of gravity with height (the free-air gradient, FAG). The old cgs units are still used for gravity measurements. Gravity variations are measured in Gals (Sometimes written gals) where 1 Gal=1 cm s, Modern instruments allow us to measure to 10°? Gal, and since variations are typically hundreds of times this value, the units ‘commonly used in microgravity are microgals (Gal) ~ hence the term. In this chapter, I describe the various techniques used for observing microgravity changes with time on active volcanoes. Department of Earth Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, Bucks, MK7 GAA, UK 1) Sprnger-Verng Bein Hedetbers 195610H. Rymer For a conventional (static) gravity survey, observations are made at several field stations and at a base or reference station. A Bouguer anomaly map is then produced based on a comparison between the values of gravity at the field stations relative to the base or reference station, Before data can be expressed in this way, several corrections must be applied to allow for the differing Jatitude and height of the stations and the gravitational effect of material lying vertically between stations. Once these corrections have been made, the data are usually expressed us relative gravity differences either with respect to the local base station or some international gravity station. This is a common geophysical technique employed to determine subsurface density structures and has been widely used in volcanic areas to map out caldera infill thickness, ‘magma feeder pipe dimensions and the extent of hydrothermal alteration (re- viewed by Yokoyama 1972; Rymer and Brown 1986). Typically these anomalies are 10s to 100s of milligals in magnitude and often several kilometres in wavelength (lateral extent), Microgravity data are also expressed relative to a base or reference station, but in addition to information on the spatial variation of gravity, temporal variations are measured. Usually a set of gravity differences for field stations relative to a base station are measured and compared with the values obtained ‘on subsequent surveys which may be made days, months or even years later ‘The changes in gravity observed as a function of time are much smaller than the Bouguer anomalies described above, being typically 10s to 100s of micro- gals and although they may occur over large areas, they are usually confined to a few square kilometres, 2 Instrumentation and Survey Procedures Absolute measurements of gravity are usually made by the falling-mass tech. nique and the instrument takes several hours to stabilise at each location and then several more hours for a reliable high-precision gravity value (0 be ob- tained. Some preliminary measurements of this kind have been made on Mount Etna (Berrino 1994), The problem of using this technique to investigate dynamic processes on active volcanoes, however, is similar to the problem of using tidal gravity methods. Only one or (wo stations can be measured in this way and, as will be shown below, valuable information on the activity within a volcano comes from a good spatial resolution, possible only if there are nu- ‘merous stations spread over the area of interest. All stations need to be ob- served at approximately the same time in order for any variations to be modelled coherently. This is clearly not possible when tidal or absolute ob- servations are made at single locations, Measurements of the absolute value of gravity in volcanic areas may be useful for the detection of subsurface mass changes when used in combination with relative gravity observations over a wide area. The absolute measurements could, for example, be used to de-Microgravity Monitoring ITI termine whether the base or reference station chosen for the relative gravity survey really was invariant between surveys. As for tidal measurements, it may be possible to detect a ‘volcano’ tide, or a magmatic response to the tidal stresses, but again this has not yet been achieved. However, the continuous recording of gravity and the removal of the tidal effect may prove to be a valuable method for observing the rates of volcanic processes from the residual signal. This contrasts with discrete microgravity observations for which the rate of change deduced depends on the frequency of measurements, which may only be annual, For microgravity surveys, relative gravity measurements are made. The precision required depends on the size of gravity variations expected. In principle, any instrument that can measure relative gravity, that is the differ- ‘ence in the acceleration duc to gravity at two points may be used for micro- gravity surveying. In practice, the instruments such as those manufactured by LaCoste and Romberg, Scintrex and Worden are the only ones with the portability, ruggedness and precision suitable for microgravity surveys and as such they are also preferable for static surveys, ‘All these instruments function like a long-period seismograph. A mass on the end of a beam is held in place at one end by a supporting beam and is balanced by a stretched spring (Fig. 1). The spring is setup in such a way that its extension is equal to the distance between the points at which its ends are fixed. It behaves as a ‘zero-length’ spring because its length, which is defined as its real (unstretched) length minus its extension, is zero, In realty of course, it does not shrink away to nothing when no force is put onto the beam, because the spring is always under stress since it is coiled. When the torque on the mass (rom the force of gravity) is perfectly balanced by the torque from the spring, the net torque on the mass becomes zero, In this case, the mass exhibits simple harmonic motion with a period that tends to infinity. ‘The most commonly used gravity meters are made by Worden, LaCoste and Romberg, and Scintrex. In the ease of the Worden and Scintrex instru- Nuting dat Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the oper= ating ‘system of a LaCoste and Romberg _ravity meter, (LaCoste and Romberg)12H Rymer ments, the spring is made of fused quartz, but the Lacoste and Romberg spring is metallic. There are several instrument models available from each manu- facturer depending on the type of gravity survey to be undertaken, The Lacoste and Romberg instruments are usually more expensive, but suffer less from instrumental drift and calibration problems than the other types and therefore are recommended for microgravity surveying. Both Lacoste and Romberg model G and D meters are suitable for this type of work. If electrostatic feedback is fitted to the instrument (Harrison and Sato 1984) it becomes both easier and more accurate to read. It is essential that the same instrument(s) ~ whatever the type ~ are used throughout a survey and that for the repeat surveys the same instrument(s) are again used, Since there are slight calibration differences between instruments (even those of the same type and model), data from different instruments should not be averaged. Gravity changes with time should be deduced for each instrument. For both Lacoste and Romberg and Worden meters, even with electronic readout, there isa large degree of reader skill required and therefore it is important that the same operator should always read the same instrument, using the same procedures (Rymer 1989). Each reading should be made in exactly the same way. Stations should be clearly marked for easy relocation. If possible they should be large purpose built concrete blocks with foundations of several 10s of centimetres deep. Often an existing rock outcrop or boulder will suffice, and the point is marked with a nail or paint spot. The base plate must be put in the stme position on the station each time it is read. To facilitate this, itis usual to paint or in some other way mark the positions of the base plate legs on the ground. The meter should be orientated in the same way on each occasion, and the operator should sit or kneel or crouch in the same way each time. All other external factors such as trafic, spectators and weather should be as constant as possible throughout a survey. Once the instrument has been levelled according to the manufacturer's instructions, a reading is made manually — for all instruments except the Scintrex. The reading must always be approached from the same direction (i.e either always from upscale or always from downscale) to avoid whiplash ef- fects. Several repeat readings should be made, turning the reading dial off the reading line between each attempt. The exact time (for tidal correction) must be noted, and of course the station name. It is good field practice also to note down weather conditions and other factors such as state of activity of the voleano that may affect the observations. If the instrument is known to have suffered a jolt during transit to the station, the last station should be returned to and a repeat reading made, although a mechanical tare can usually be isolated if the time and location of the tare is noted and there is another instrument also being used (Rymer 1989). However, the use of two or more instruments simultaneously should not be adopted to avoid regular repeat readings at key stations.Microgravity Monitoring 173 3 Data Analysis, For a Bouguer gravity survey, data are made comparable with the base or snce station firstly by correcting for elevation differences using the free-air gradient (FAG). At the Earth’s surface, FAG=~308.6 Gal m, This means that for every 1 m above sealevel, the value of gravity decreases by 308.6 Gall Ifthe FAG is actually measured, itis often found to differ from this theoretical value. FAG measurements are easily made using a tripod adapted to hold a gravimeter baseplate (Fig. 2). The difference in height between the meter on the ground and on the tripod is measured and the observed gravity difference then divided into this value. The height of the tripod is typically about | m, since this is simple to arrange, If the tripod is much higher it may become unstable, and in strong winds a more elaborate setup would be required. On the crater floor of Poas volcano (Costa Rica) the FAG is -420 Gal m”', at the summit of ML. Etna, Sicily. itis -365 Gal m™ and at Breiddalur, SE Teeland, it is -201 Gal m' (Rymer 1994). There are two reasons for this deviation from the heoretical value, Firstly, there is a terrain component, such that a measur ment of the FAG made close to the edge of a cliff or erater wall will be less negative than a measurement made a few metres away from it. Secondly, there 's a Bouguer anomaly component, such that a region of negative Bouguer :nomaly will have a FAG that is less negative than the theoretical value, while Fig. 2, Measurements ofthe fr uirgradient are made by observing gravity om the ground and then nove the ground several times, preferably using more than one instrument. The observed gravity “irene (8a) between the ground und the elevated point is divided by the height ditference (Ah), ni then FAG Agi174 Rymer 4 region of positive Bouguer anomaly will have a more negative FAG than the theoretical value (Berrino et al. 1992). The relative sizes of the terrain and Bouguer components in the FAG will depend on the severity of the topography and the density contrasts beneath the ground. Uplift or subsidence of a microgravity station will involve the local terrain (ie. the cliff or crater wall) so that its contribution to the FAG becomes irrelevant. This means that although the effect of the terrain is to decrease the FAG, any elevation changes at a microgravity station occur also in the local topography and so the gradient along which gravity varies with height will be the theoretical FAG. The Bouguer component does not behave in the same way though, because its source is usually considerably deeper than the source of any elevation changes. So, for example, if the source of a Bouguer anomaly in a caldera is a magma chamber at a few kilometres depth and the source of zgravity and elevation variations is above it, then the rate of change of gravity With height will be influenced by the depth of the magma chamber. Thus although an observation of the FAG will include both the terrain and Bouguer components, the terrain component does not affect the rate of change of gravity that will occur during microgravity surveying but the Bouguer com- ponent may if the source of the Bouguer anomaly is not the same as the source of the gravity and elevation changes. Obviously it is extremely difficult to discriminate between the terrain and Bouguer components of the FAG, al- though where the topography is relatively quiet, such as within a large caldera, it has been shown that itis better to use the observed rather than the theoretical FAG for microgravity data analysis interpretation (Berrino et al. 1992). Thus the FAG should always be measured (ideally at each station) before micro- gravity data are interpreted. The first stage in interpretation fora microgravity survey isto note the rate of change of gravity with clevation, Often this is averaged for each station, but strictly cach station should be considered separately. Once the gradient has bbeen deduced, it may be compared with the theoretical or observed FAG. Alternatively, since gravity stations do not rise and fallin isolation, the grav- itational effect of the rise and fall of the surrounding ground may be taken into account at this stage when correcting gravity data for elevation changes. This correction is analogous to the Bouguer correction applied in a conventional static’ Bouguer survey. For a static survey, the Bouguer correction is an in- finite flat plane of material with density p and thickness A. Its gravitational effect g is given by; 9 =2nGoh where G is the universal gravitational constant (6.672x10"" N m? kg). Ina microgravity survey, small changes of gravity (Ag) and elevation (Af) are monitored and the rate of change of gravity with height will be a combination of the FAG and the Bouguer components; Ag/Ah = FAG +2nGp «Microgravity Monitoring 175 ‘Thus on an infinite flat plane assuming an average rock density of 2600 kg m > an elevation increase of I m would produce a gravity decrease of [308.6 + (0.04191 x 2600)] = -200nGal assuming the theoretical FAG. The Bouguer corrected free-air gradient (BCFAG) ranges from ~191 Gal m for a density of 2800 ky mi! to -225 Gal m* for a density of 2000 kg m-" (Fig. 3a). The source of the gravity changes is assumed to be within the infinite horizontal Bouguer slab. ‘A horizontal infinite slab is not always a good approximation to the source of gravity changes, especially in a voleanie area. A spherical point source is just as simple to handle mathematically and is often more realistic (especially when considering magma chambers). In this ease, the Bouguer corrected free-air sradient is given by Ag/Ah = (FAG +4/32Gp) and, assuming the theoretical FAG, ranges from ~230 Gal m" for a density of 2800 kg m to -253 Gal m_' for a density of 2000 kg m-°. Thus the rate of change of gravity with elevation is numerically slightly larger for a spherical source than for the flat plane, but in both cases the relationship is linear (Fig. 3b). Departures from the FAG are interpreted in terms of changes in subsurfuce mass, while departures from the BCFAG are interpreted as density changes (Brown et al. 1991). It is worth noting here that itis possible to monitor variations of the FAG with time at each field station by making FAG observations regularly at each point, In theory this is a much better way of determining subsurface mass movements as the locations of sources should be modelled without ambiguity. However, the errors involved in making these observations (principally due to the difficulty in making accurate gravity measurements on the top ofa tripod) outweigh any theoretical advantage. The changes in the FAG caused by sub- surface magma movements would be very small and so large tripod clevations would be needed to detect any variation in FAG. This method is therefore not recommended for microgravity monitoring 4 Theoretical Interpretation Departures from the predicted BCFAG fall into four possible zones, marked A-D (Fig. 3c). In practice, data tend to fall either in clusters or as linear trends on diagrams such as this. Both quadrants on the left of the Ag axis (Fig. 3c) represent deflation (negative Af). Data that plot in region A represent deflation with gravity increasing less than predicted by the BCFAG. The implication is that there is an overall eravity decrease, and points falling below the FAG in region A represent a ‘mass decrease, whereas points falling below the BCFAG represent a densityHL Rymer 116Microgravity Monitoring 177 and mass decrease. In the voleanie context, this may be interpreted in terms of magma density decreases during deflation, possibly caused by vesiculation as reduced magma pressure permits degassing. For example, a erystal-free non vesiculated magma at 1373 °K will exsolve a vapour phase as it rises through pressures equivalent to 0.2 km depth if it contains 1% water and at pressures equivalent to 1.8 km depth if 3% dissolved water is present (Huppert et al 1982). An alternative model was proposed by Jackens and Eaton (1980) to account for anomalous gravity decreases associated with a deflation episode at Kilauea (between November and December 1975) after a 7.2 magnitude carthquake. They observed a gradient of -171 Gal m' across the summit region (Falling within region A of Fig. 3c) and interpreted the overall mass decrease in terms of a magma migration from the area leaving unsupported voids. The maximum volume of the newly created voids was calculated (Daurisin et al. 1980) from the maximum Ag departure from the predicted BCFAG (using the spherical source model) to be 40-9010® m’, The depth and lateral extent of this "void" region could be modelled using contoured gravity — change data in the same way as conventional static anomalies are modelled if there were sulficient data points; however there must always be some doubt sbout the actual value of the predicted BCFAG when the FAG has not been measured. Region B in Fig. 3¢ represents deflation with gravity increasing more than predicted by the BCFAG or FAG. The most geotogically reasonable inter- nretations for voleanic areas involve the upwards movement of magma ac- companying overall deflation. This may be envisaged in terms of shallow intrusions of magma (which are now denser than their surroundings probably because of degassing) occurring concurrently with magma drainage at depth using. more regional deflation. Deflation and magma intrusion may be on sety different time seales. For example, data collected in December 1975 and April 1977 bracket a seismically identified intrusion sequence at Kilauea Daurisin et al. 1980). A gradient of -607 Gal mwas obtained which is far greater than the predicted BCFAG even for a density of 2.8 Mg m™ using either the spherical model (-230 zGal m !) or the horizontal-slab model (-191 Gal m’), Since the maximum departure from the BCFAG was only about 100 Gal, (elevation changes were only up to -20 em) Dzurisin et al. (1980) concluded that all the fracture space (voids ~ see above) created beneath the summit area in the earlier deflation sequence had been refilled, Similar ob- servations at Sakurajima (Yokoyama 1978) were made between 1975 and 1976 after an eruption in 1974, Gravity inereased by about 30 Gal with almost insignificant deflation and this was interpreted by Eggers (1987) in terms of a void-iling process similar to that proposed for Kilauea, although such small eravity changes are much less significant and the interpretation is less certain, Departures from the BCFAG may also be observed during periods of inflation (right-hand side of Fig. 3c). Region C in Fig. 3e represents inflation with gravity decreasing less than predicted, again (as for Region B) implying an overall gravity increase. Where data fall above the BCFAG and FAG, the18H. Rymer density and mass increases may again be interpreted in terms of the filing of voids, in this case created by the process of inflation, or by magma density inereases due to crystallisation or, more likely, devesiculation (Rymer and Brown 1984), Between June 1975 and August 1980, Kanngieser (1983) reported elevation increases of up to 0.7 m and gravity decreases of up to 160 uGal along an E-W profile across the active Krafla rift zone (Iceland), The rift runs roughly N-S through the Krafla caldera centre and the greatest change was observed in the centre of the caldera, decreasing in size rapidly to the east and west. A Ag/Ah gradient of -112 Gal m! was obtained for these data, which means that they fall into region C of Fig. 3c and so should probably be interpreted in terms of intruding magma filing pre-existing voids, or shallow magma density increases accompanying devesiculation. Over the same period, Torge and Kanngieser (1980) reported short-period (based on annual observations between 1975 and 1981) variations of up to 200 Gal and 1.1 m in magnitude, of -180 xGal m! close to the BCFAG for a density of 3.0 Mg m= (182 wGal m-). These variations were found to occur in the region of new fissure formation and thermal activity. Data would be expected to follow the BCFAG (no significant density changes would be expected), according to dynamic models for Krafla developed by Trygevason (1986), particularly over the narrow zone im- mediately above a newly injected dyke. The implication is that newly intruded ‘magma caused a mass change but not a density change. Measurements made at Long Valley between 1980 and 1983 (Jachens and Roberts 1985) for the most part followed the predicted BCFAG for a point source, assuming that the magma chamber is at 1.3 km depth (Savage and Clark 1982). However the changes were very small, being on the limit of re- solution, Small departures fell into regions C and D of Fig, 3¢ and were considered to be caused by mass changes following groundwater level move- ‘ments, Again there arc uncertainties in all these data sets as no measurements of the FAG were made. Of course, where departures from the BCFAG ate large, the error in the FAG may become insignificant, Region D in Fig. 3c again represents inflation, in this case associated with ‘an overall gravity decrease (compare with Region A). The most plausible ex- planation of this in the voleanic context is that inflation is caused by or ace companies growth of a gas pocket, or that magma drains away after inflation has ceased. Johnsen et al. (1980) observed gravity and height variations during several periods of inflation and subsidence at Krafla between October 1976 and March 1979. Data collected during a period of inflation between January and June 1978 revealed a Ag/ Ah gradient of ca, -250 Gal m-! which is much more (numerically) than the predicted BCFAG using the slab model but only slightly greater than the spherical-model predicted BCFAG. The changes were con sidered by Bjornsson et al. (1979) and Johnsen et al, (1980) to be caused by the inflow of magma during inflation along the predicted (slab) BCFAG (-200 Gal m ! for a density of 2.67 Mg m *), combined with shallow groundwater movements (to account for the residual gravity changes). Eggers (1987),Microgravity Monitoring 179 however, suggests that intruding magma could have been filling voids created during an earlier rifting episode. Indeed, during January 1978, more than 1m of subsidence was recorded within the Krafla caldera (Bjornsson et al. 1979) indicating that the inflation observed by Johnsen et al. (1980) was not simple and only part of the overall gravity and height changes were seen. This process of rifting and void filling might be expected to occur numerous times during the ‘months preceding @ fissure eruption and this illustrates the problem of making only a few discrete sets of observations rather than a larger continuous set Since the BCFAG is always closer to the At axis (Fig. 3c) than the FAG, it is theoretically possible during inflation for data to fall above the FAG but below the BCFAG and during deflation to fall above the BCFAG but below the FAG. Such data could be interpreted in terms of mass increasc/density decrease and mass decrease/density increase respectively. For example, in the case of inflation, a relatively low density intrusion would increase the overall subsurface mass but could decrease the overall near-surface density. Similarly, Tor deflation, the removal of (relatively low density) material either by eruption or drainage would lead to a mass decrease and overall near-surface density increase. In reality neither infinite horizontal slabs nor spherical sources within an clastic medium exactly fit actual physical situations, although both provide first ipproximations. Since the interpretation of data following (or departing from) these gradients will depend on whether the slab, the spherical or some other model has been used, itis crucial that the most realistic assumptions are made in each case. In voleanic terms, the spherical model is appropriate if itis thought that mass changes at a relatively deep ‘point-source’ magma reservoir are oc- curring (Mogi 1958), On the other hand, the slab approximation (modelling sill injection, aquifer saturation level etc.) requires that the region of change ex- tends laterally for several kilometres. Real situations involving fissures (dykes) and cylinders (feeders) fall between the slab and point-source models. According to the Mogi model, the expected gravity-height gradient Ag/Mh Ay/Ah = FAG + MFGpZ/AhX? + 22)°?, where Avy is the change in magma volume, G is the Universal Gravitational Constant, p is the magma density, Z and are the vertical and horizontal distanees to the spherical point source. From elastic theory (Johnson 1987), the change in terrain above the point source, or edifice volume (AV,) during uplift or subsidence is; AV, = 2X? +22)? h/zZ. These terms may be combined to give the gravity-height gradient in terms of changes in magma and edifice-volume changes assuming elastic behaviour; Ag/Ah = FAG + 2nGpAVm/AV..10H. Rymee Horizontal intinte ‘ntrusion AVn= Me Incompressitie () magma Yielding eatice AV = 0674V, te) sake Compressible magma Unyielding ectice BV >> My, Fig. 4. «If the gravity-eight gradient follows the BCFAG for 8 Houguer slab, then the change in esifice volume is the same as the change in magma volume. b For the Mogi model, the change in titice volume i 5 times the change in magma volume, e fn reality, magia is compressible and volcan edifices are brite rather than eas When the observed gradient is the same as the FAG then AVim = AVe and the ‘Ag/Ad relationship simplifies to the Bouguer slab formula (Fig. 4a). For a Poisson ratio of 0.25, the Mogi model predicts AVim/AV. = 2/3 for a spherica source (Fig. 4b). However, in order to explain observed gravity-height gra- ents that differ greatly from these values (Table 1), almost infinite magma volume changes are required with negligible edifice volume changes (Fig. 4) This can be achieved once the requirement for volcanic edifices to behave like an clastic half space is relaxed, magma is considered to be compressible o some ogre and pore spaces or fractures within the surrounding material are en- visaged. To date, most voleanie microgravity surveys (summarised by Rymer and Brown 1986; Eggers 1987; Yokoyama 1989) have involved only two or threeMicrogravity Monitoring 181 sets of measurements, often separated by months or years and by some form of eruptive activity. It is important to note that when such well-spaced sets of observations are made, at actively erupting voleanoes, the observed elevation and gravity change may be small or insignificant, but that separate short-term inflation-deflation cycles can be much larger. Once a microgravity station network has been established, and a set of “reference” relative gravity and height data collected, many months may pass and sometimes an eruption will occur before a repeat survey is carried out. These surveys are effectively being carried out in the ‘space domain’ with just two or three fixed times. Quality information on the spatial extent of Ag/Ah variations may be obtained, but little information is yet available on the temporal evolution of such systems over periods less than several months. A summary of rigourously documented snavity and elevation changes at active voleanoes (Table 1) shows the range of Ay ~Ad gradients that have been found. Recorded gravity changes during inflation have nearly ll fallen into zone D of Fig. 3c, each representing an overall density decrease (and mass decrease ‘shen data fall below the FAG as well as below the BCFAG). In each case there hus either been significant elevation change andjor surface volcanic activity, 1 observations have tended to bracket such events. Similarly, for the re: corded examples of deflation, surface activity has either occurred between the seis of observations, or at some time later. It is important to note that when several sets of observations are made at actively erupting voleanoes, the overall clevation and gravity change is often small or insignificant, but that separate inllation-deflation eycles may be larger With the exception of the Karkar data, for which Ag was small (MeKee et 1.1981), the data that fall neatly away from both the subvertical (Ah = O, Ag large) and the predicted BCFAG represent only two sets of readings. Inter- pretations based on only a few observations of dynamic and continuous pro- sses must be derived with great care and, although they are useful, it should he remembered that the end of a geophysical observation period does not necessarily herald the end of subsurface mass movements. The chances of the second of two sets of observations occurring during continuing mass move- ments rather than once a new equilibrium is established must be finite The Krafla data fall onto the predicted BCFAG and this is probably because the volsano erupts poorly vesculated basalt into a basaltic environ cnt. There is no significant density difference between the erupting magma and the material through which it rises, so there is no overall density change. There is however a mass change, caused by the magma movements, and this is reflected in the observation that the BCFAG rather than the FAG is followed Mihara and Pacaya may also fall into this category with large Ag/Ah gra- dient The only published record of a positive correlation between gravity and elevation changes arises from two observation periods at Ena, September 1979 © July 1980 and September 1980 to July 1981 (Sanderson 1982; Sanderson et a, 1983), After correction for the observed elevation changes (using the con-12H. Rymer ventional free-air gradient) and for the presence of newly erupted surface material, gravity had apparently increased at stations that had undergone in- flation. Although such 2 relation has not been recorded elsewhere, it is plau- sible if large mass and overall density changes are involved. Most changes were small, of the order of a few centimetres during each period and the residual gravity changes were only a few tens of Gal, and the data were interpreted in terms of fluctuations in magma pressure within hollow dykes. Since the ele- vation changes were very small, errors incurred by using an incorrect value for the FAG were also small; however, recent observations by the author have shown that the average value of the FAG in this region is -360 Gal m-'. This is due to the large positive (static) anomaly associated with the summit of Mt. Eta. The FAG has been found to vary significantly over areas of only a few tens of metres, highlighting the need to observe the FAG at cach microgravity station. Small changes in the FAG would be expected to accompany subsurface mass or density changes, although realistic changes would not be expected to change the gradient significantly. For example, an intrusion of 1011 kg at km. depth will increase the FAG (numerically) by 0.2 xGal m-', However a Im tse/ fall in water-table level assuming 50% rock porosity could increase/decrease (numerically) the gradient by ca. 20 Gal m' assuming an infinitely extensive water-table, Between 1963 and 1985 the FAG was found to change at stations on Sekurajima (Japan) by as much as 50 Gal m* and was thought somehow to reflect the frequency of central eruptions (Nishimura et al. 1988). This is a very exciting data set, but in the absence of other constraints, interpretation is extremely difficult. There is considerable experimental evidence that Ag Ak observations in volcanic areas undergo departures from the predicted BCFAG. In most cases, some form of surface eruption (lava flows, fire fountaining or fissuring) has ‘occurred between surveys and so anomalous gradients are interpreted in terms of the surface and subsurface effects ofthis activity. No information on the rate of change of the gradient, or even whether the data points always follow a straight line in Ag/Af space has yet been obtained. Of course, unless mass changes occur in the form of an infinite Bouguer slab at the same depth be- neath all the stations in a survey or within a spherical ‘point source’ body, the observed Ag/ Ah relationship would not be expected to be linear across a survey area. The gravitational effect of inclined cracks has been considered by Savage (1984), and an important consequence of such models is that the Ag/Ah re lationship is not linear The fact that Ag/Ag correlations are normally expressed in terms of a linear gradient partly reflects the precision that can be attained in this type of survey (approx. 10 Gal; Rymer, 1989) and partly the limited spatial extent of most microgravity surveys. Indeed a non-linear Ag — Ah relationship was ob- setved at Poas voleano, Costa Rica prior to a small ash eruption in 1989. The data fell into region B of Fig. 3¢ and were thought to reflect dendritie magma Intrusions into lower density pyroclastic material (Rymer and Brown 1989; Brown et al. 1991). Gravity and elevation changes associated with the 1986Microgravity Monitoring 183, fissure eruption on I2u-Oshima island (Japan) were modelled by Okubo and ‘Watanabe (1989). This work shows elegantly how the density of a fissure may bbe deduced from Ag/Ah data. Again the relationship was not linear but, close to the summit, the average observed BCFAG was approximately ~206 1 Gal m”, Using the usual FAG, this would normally be taken to represent an intrusion density of ca. 2.4 Mg m-*, However, by taking careful account of the geometry of the system, Okubo and Watanabe (1989) demonstrate that the fissure density was <1.3 Mg m7 with the important implication that water rather than magma filled the fissure and the lava eruption was an effect rather than a cause of fissure formation. Unless there is a density change, data will not depart from the BCFAG (eg. Kraffa). This means that combined microgravity and deformation studies are of limited use for monitoring and predictive purposes on voleanoes which erupt predominantly lava flows. However structures comprising a high per- centage of pyroclastic material, that erupt highly vesiculated material, or erupt 4 wide range of magma types will exhibit density contrasts when magma is intruded to a shallow depth. Similarly, the build up of gas pressure above intruded material prior to explosive activity would be observed by gravity changes and a departure from the BCFAG. Different voleanoes erupt in different ways and so the precursory gravity changes (if any) will also be different. The tectonic setting and style of voleanic eruption provide a basis for grouping precursory microgravity changes as follows; 1. Explosive subduction-related volcanoes where ash and pyroclastic deposits together with lahars are a major hazard. This is a large and important group, containing numerous Japanese, Central American and other cireum- Pacific examples. 2. Extensional rift zones where effusive basaltic eruptions and explosive, more evolved activity may also occur. Krafla and Askja in Iceland fit this cate- gory. Island voleanoes such as Kilauea and Piton de la Fournaise also fall into this category and, in a more complicated tectonic setting, Etna in Sicily 3. Large silicic calderas, where long-term unrest is common and devastating, cruptions occur very infrequently. Yellowstone, Long Valley, Rabaul and ‘Campi Flegrei are examples of this class for which recent deformation and ravity data exist Examples from volcanoes in each of these classes are reviewed by (Rymer 1994) and are summarised in Table 1 4.1 Explosive Subduction-Related Stratovoleanoes, This group constitutes the most important in terms of hazard and number on land, Microgravity and ground-deformation surveys have been carried out at umerous circum-Pacific locations. Typically volcanoes in this group have1H. 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SSEULaNRMSQNS [RIDHO UY 38 2YSW oie co? or rengre dap wry ¢ 9 re soquieys euirur pououds © una 2 og Jo asea1U Sse BJO SUI uy poadiqu soa su *, [VO gy SO (361) ro pasaiuan pauargo sem Gouey EMEA qe 19 OUtOR, siz owt kee re6l-Iv6r Biota eure sesspoud run cup pu awor (wos 804) Put Jo UonPurquies os 394 03 6861) vvsn Fuwosy9 nop sen sew aseunsgnss eea.our Sy, Tee MHS oe oro oo es6l-tu6l —__av018NORA (RO wy eo swoumes yey sumes “yyy eeu (xe) ay oem0q 28s) tuassés Yorn pouado peau on ofp aassed 0132 34 soseasuy UoreMe}9p pun [ews {a pareposse aso. AND 6861 2882077 ado yoy seaman jo au 239 Auoe pur vostas ens ag weosanne es 909190. Rymer relatively complex edifices and the magma feeding system is rather long and narrow (Brown et al. 1987). The summit region is usually characterised by low density and poorly consolidated material, and the intrusion of magma into suich a region produces a dramatic increase in subsurface density and therefore in microgravity. A build-up of magmatic gas would be expected to occur close to the surface in a voleano in this group, so that compared with volcanoes of the other groups (see below), it should be relatively easy to detect as a pre- cursory gravity decrease. It has been found that ground deformation at volcanos in this group is limited, but that gravity changes are large, so that data typically plot close to the vertical axis of Fig. 3c and not along the ‘usual’ gravity-height correlation lines, For example, observations at Poas, Costa Rica between March 1987 and April 1988 (Figs. 5, 6; Rymer and Brown 1989) revealed maximum elevation decreases of 30 em and gravity increases of > 200 Gal. These data, combined with data covering the period 1979-1989, were used to calculate the net ad- dition of mass during emplacement, stoping and degassing of a basaltic an- esite intrusion (10° kg) which was thought to have caused the ash eruption in April 1989 and the disappearance of the crater lake (Brown et al.1989). 4.2 Basaltic Shields and Rifts ‘An important aspect of this group is the tendency of the structures to become gravitationally unstable and to collapse generating rift systems into which ‘magma may intrude passively (Rymer et al, 1993). Large data sets for Kilauea {ah change in levationtem! 199 tation Fig. §. Gravity-height variations ob- served at Poas volcano, Costa Rica be tween March 1987 and March 1988, = meter @512 Ince shows station locations. (After 1987-68 eter Gros Rymer and Brown 1989)m\ x mater 519 To dot) ‘G2 “a “ae vs “a8 a7 Date of observation (vanuary) v5.8 Microgravity Monitoring m1 vd Etna in particular make this group one of the better studied, although itis, 4 much reduced hazard compared the rhyolitic and andesitic groups. Periods of both inflation and deflation have been reported, and of overall subsurface mass inerease and decrease. It is clear for this group at least that @ iwle microgravity precursor (0 activity is difficult to identify, but important information on the mechanisms operating within active volcanoes have been discovered. Some data fall on the “expected” lines (Fig. 3c), but in many cases, the large gravity changes and small elevation changes suggest that inelastic1. Postlated dendritic magma emplaced in 1986-7 Early 1980's conduct ‘thermal boundary layer not Magmate dgassing 1989-90 00 me mets =P Meteoric circulation Fig. 6. Interpretation of gravity-height data from Poas. A dendritic intrusion of ca, 10° kg is thigh hve be cod Boe 188 porto hc heron nosed 9 Com en Brown 18) processes are responsible. For example, on Mount Etna, the eruption begin- ning 14 December 1991 was preceded by negligible ground deformation and seismicity, but in an elongated region running SSE from the summit raters ‘gravity increases of over 100 Gal were observed between June 1990 and June 1991. These increases are interpreted in terms of the passive intrusion of magma into a pre-stressed fracture that had remained ‘open’ since the end of the 1989 activity (Rymer et al. 1993; Rymer et al. 1994: Rymer et al. 1995). The top of the fracture network cuts the surface in a line trending SSE for ea. 7 km from the summit. Since the intrusion was passive, there was no source for round deformation or seismic signal, 4.3 Large Silicic Calderas These are usually rather large structures where unrest has been observed, but where although the long-term threat of a devastating eruption is present, noMicrogravity Monitoring 193, historic large-scale explosive activity has been reported. Most data have been interpreted using the spherical model, and this reflects the large depth com- pared with lateral extent of the source of gravity change at calderas. A likely cause of eruptions at calderas is the development of unstable temperature, chemical, density and viscosity gradients within a cooling magma chamber (Blake and Ivey 1986), such as fractional crystallisation leading to over saturation in volatiles. This would be expected to produce an overall density decrease observable at the surface as a gravity decrease, and so microgravity decreases might be a precursor to caldera eruption. The 1875 eruption of Askja was considered by Sigurdsson and Sparks (1981) to be triggered by a basaltic intrusion into a fractionating magma chamber; this would have produced a density and therefore microgravity increase before the eruption. Since no cal- era eruptions have occured since microgravity monitoring has been used to monitor activity, it is not clear which is the better model for caldera eruption triggering. It is likely that both scenarios occur and that microgravity changes of cither sign should be considered seriously. Magma intrusions into deep spherical chambers have been identified at Campi Flegrei, Yellowstone and Rabaul, and drainage either from a magma chamber or from the overlying, hydrothermal system at Campi Flegrei and Askja (Table 1). Campi Flegrei inflated by up to 1.616 m between 1982 and 1984 and gravity decreased by up to 331 zGal (Fig. 7). The FAG was measured at several stations in the region and an average value of -290 Gal m' was deduced (Berrino et al. 1984). Using the spherical model, Berrino et al. (1984) concluded that a new mass of 1.5xl0-" kg was intruded into a magma chamber some 3 km (estimated from deformation data) beneath the surface during this period, Subsequent deflation followed a shallower gradient of ~120 Gal m' indicating that for each increment of height change more mass was Jost during deflation than had been gained during the preceding inflation ne (em) 10 do- ea 100] 200 ool wer —y908 toes 188 Fig. 7. Gravity and height changes observed during the Brady-seismic eris st Carpi Flgre (Alter Berrno eta, 1984)1H. Rymor (Berrino et al, 1992), Thus a linear relationship was observed between gravity and height changes both during inflation and deflation, but the gradients were not the same and so the sources were not necessarily the same. In the case of caldera unrest, it has usually been found that there is a linear gravity-height gradient that all data from all stations plot onto. Itis also possible of course to plot the gravity-height changes of one station through time and a change in gradient may be observed. In any case, it is important to note whether one station through several time periods, or several stations for one time period is being plotted, There are other examples of periods of inflation at calderas such as Rabaul and Yellowstone (see Table 1) but deflation has rarely been ob- served, although at these calderas characterised by unrest, it seems reasonable that both forms of deformation should be expected, ‘The only example of an overall subsurface mass increase accompanying deflation at a caldera comes from Askja in Ieeland (Rymer and Tryggvason 1993). In this case the caldera is deflating and gravity increases have been observed only in one part of the caldera and are thought to be related to dyke intrusion, possibly as a result of drainage from the central magma chamber. However, although in 1875 Askja did undergo a caldera-forming evolved ex- plosive eruption, it more naturally fits into the basaltic group of volcanoes. 5 Summary and Conclusions Microgravity is a powerful but under-used technique for voleano monitoring, It is @ relatively cheap and rapid method in terms of manpower and time efficiency. However, the technique is not appropriate to all types of voleanoes. In particular, volcanoes with products that have litte density variation may not display significant departures from the BCFAG prior to eruption if in- truded magma has a fairly similar density to the surrounding material. Vol- canoes undergoing continuous tremor or violent eruption are also unsuitable largets because of instrumental instability. The technique is most suitable in cases where intruded magma would be expected to contrast in density with ‘abundant surface pyroclastic material, or where a shallow region might accu- mulate & large volume of exsolved gas. ‘The examples given demonstrate that realistic estimates of mass and density change may be derived when concurrent elevation control is available; the precision of height determinations need only be 4~ 5 cm given that gravity is realistically only measurable to 10 ~ 15 Gal in the field (Rymer 1989) It has been shown that microgravity is broadly applicable to a wide range of voleano types, but interpretation of gravity changes is always ambiguous without elevation data. In some cases, gravity and height correlations are found to follow the simple elastic theory, but in other cases more complex but realistic models involving passive magma movements and pre-existing fr tured regions are required. Detailed interpretations depend on the local si-Microgravity Mositoring 195 tuation, but generally it is clear that andesitic volcanoes tend to exhibit the largest microgravity changes prior to eruption, basaltic voleanoes undergo passive magma migration with only limited ground deformation and rhyolitic centres tend to behave more in the classic elastic way. References Anert F, Smith RB Klingele E (1991) Temporal variations in gravity across the Yellowstone caldera. Proc Chapman Conf on Time dependent Pestoning: modelling ceusal deformation, “Anapolis, pp 14 Bersino G (1994) Absolute praity observations and gradiomtry at Centuripe and Serra la Nave (ME Etna) stations. In: Voleanic deformation and tial gravity effects at Mount Etna, Sicily Interim report for EC SCIENCE Project no ERBi0002PL900491 (90400991), The Open University, UK ersine G, Corrado G, Luongo G, Toro B (1984) Ground deformation and gravity changes ‘ssompanging the 1982 Pazzuoli uplift. 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