etn ene: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY second edition Tony WalthamFoundations of Engineering Geology TONY WALTHAM BSc, DIC, PhD Civil Engineering Department Nottingham Trent University Second Edition London and New York.Preface Civil engineering is an exciting combination of science, art, professional skill and engineering achievement which always has to rely on the ground on which its structures stand, Geology is therefore vital to success in civil engineering, and this book brings to the reader those many aspects of the ‘geological sciences specifically relevant tothe profession This book is structured primarly for the student of civil engineering who starts with no knowledge of geology but is Fequired to understand the ground conditions and geological processes which, both literally and metaphonecally. are the foundations of his future professional activites. It'also Provides an accessible source of information forthe practising ‘civil engineer. Al the material is presentod in indwvidual doubie-page ‘spreads. Each subject is covered by notes, diagrams, tables and case histories, all in bite-sized sections instead of being lost in a long continuous text. This style makes the infor: mation very accessible; the reader can dip in and find what hhe needs, andis also visually quded into relevant associated topics. There is even some intended repetition of small sections of material which are pertinent to more than one aspect within the interrelated framework of a geological understanding The contents of the book follow a basic university course in engineering geology. The free-standing sections and sub- ‘sections permit infinite flexibility, so that any lecturer can use the book as his course text while tailoring his programme to his own personal styl. The single section summarizing soi strength has been included for the benef of geology students wo do not take a comprehensive course in soll mechanics within a normal civil engineering syllabus. Preface to the Second Edition The second edition of this book has been carefully updated and improved with additional paragraphs while keeping to the format and structure that has proved s0 accessible and so popular. ‘The one new section is #37, Understanding Ground Conditions, which has been included in an attempt at Persuading the engineer to stand back and take a broader View ofthe overall g2ology at a site. Though this may seem to lack relevance in assessing the smaller details of a single urban building site, it does have real benefits in ‘assessing ground conditions and evaluating potential \geohazards on larger construction projects, The concept of the big picture is always useful, and this is very much the ‘modern approach to engineering geology. Keeping to the ‘same theme of contemporary geology, a Dax on browntield sites has been included in the new section. This book was never intended to be a handbook with all the answers and all the procedures. It is aimed to introduce the critical aspects of geology to the student of ‘engineering, though it does appear to act as a convenient ‘The sectionalized layout makes the information very ac- Cessible, so that the practicing engineer wil find the book to be a useful source when he requires a rapid insight or re~ minder as he encounters geological problems with dificult ‘ground. Reterence material has therefore been added to ‘many sections, mainly in tabulated form, to provide a more ‘complete data bank. The book has been produced only in the inexpensive sof-bound format inthe hope that it will each as large a market as possible, ‘The mass of data condensed into these pages has been drawn from an enormous variety of sources, The Book is unashamedly a derived text. relying heavily on the world: wide records of engineering geology. Material has been accumulated over many years in a lecturing role. A few ‘concepts and case histories do derive from the author's personal research; but forthe dominant pan, there is a debt of gratitude acknowledged 10 the innumerable geologists and Civil engineers who have described and communicated their ‘own experiences and research, All the figures have been newly drawn, and many are derived from a combination of ‘disparate sources. All he photographs are by the author, except for the Meridian air photograph on page 39, Due thanks are atforded to the Department of Civil and Structural Engineering at the Nottingham Trent University where the engineering and teaching experience was gained, to Neil Dixon for his assistance with the gentle art of soi mechanics, to the staff of Blackia in Glasgow who made the innovative style of the book possible, and to the many colleagues and friends without whom nothing is possible. ™. reminder to the practising engineer. To enhance its role as source book, a long list of further reading nas been ‘added to this edition. It cites the useful key texts in each ‘subject area, and also the primary papers on case studies used within the text, in both cases without any need to include conventional references that can disrupt a text ‘As in the first edition, there are no cross references to ‘other pages in order to oxpiain terms being used. The index is intentionally comprehensive, so that itcan be used as a glossary. Each technical term in the text does appear im the index, so that the reader can check for a definition, usually atthe first citation of aterm, Sincere thanks are recorded to Peter Fookes, lan Jefferson, Mike Rosenbaum, Jerry Giles and various ‘others who have contributed to the revisions within this ‘second edition, and aiso to the students of Nottingham Trent University who have road-tested the book and made the author appreciate the minor omissions and irtations that could be smoothed out. Tw.Contents Geology and Chil Engineering Igneous Rocks Surface Processes Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks Goological Structures Geological Maps and Sections Geological Map Intorpretation Pate Tectonics Boundary Hazards Rocks of Britain Rocks ofthe United States ‘Weathering and Soils Floodplain and Aluvium Glacial Deposits Ciimatic Variants Coastal Processes Groundwater Ground Investigation Desk Study Ground Investigation Boreholes Geophysical Surveys “Assessment of Dificult Ground Fock Strength Fock Mase Strength Soll Strength Ground Susidence ‘Subsidence on Clays ‘Subsidence on Limestone Subsidence over Old Mines Mining Subsidence Stope Failure and Landslides Water Landstias Soil Falluros and Flowslides Landside Hazards Slope Stabilization Understanding Ground Conditions Rock Excavation “Tunnels in Rock ‘Stone and Aggragate ‘Appendices lock Mass Quality Q System ‘Abbreviations and Notation Further Reading SSSLSHLBRASBENSORSRVVSEISTESS AS 0evoTaune Index 701 Geology and Civi ‘THE GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Earth is an active planet in a constant state of change. Geologles! processes continually modily the Earth's surface, destroy old rocks, create new rocks and add 10 the complexity of round conditions. {Cycle of geology encompasses al the maior processes, ‘which must be cycle, or they would grind to an inevitable halt Land: mainly erosion and rock destruction ‘Sea: mainly deposition, forming now sodimonts Underground: new rocks created and deformed, Earth movements are vital 16 the cycle; without them the land would be eroded down to just blow sea level. Plata toctonics provide the mechanism for nearly all cart ‘movernens (section 0). The hotinterior ofthe Earths the Ultimate energy source which drives all geological processes. | Engineering Geological time is an important concept. Earth s 4000M years old and has evolved continuously towards Its present form, Most rocks oncountored by ongincors aro 10-500M yoars old. They have been displaced and deformed over time, and some are then exposed at the surtace, by ‘rosional removal of rocks that once lay above ther Underground structures and the ground surface have ‘volved staal trough geological timo. Most surface landforms visible today have been ‘carved out By erosion within the last few millon years, While olor landtorms have been destroyed. ‘This time diference is important: the origin ofthe rocks. al the surface may beat no relationship to the present ‘environment. The classic example is Mi Everest, whose ‘Summits imestono,formod in soa 300M years ago. ‘Geological time Is dificult to comprehend but it must be accepted as the lime gaps account for many of the Contrasts in ground conditions. “Goncepie of soale aro inportantin geology: senor | Beds of rook extending hundreds of kilometres across country. Focke upited thousands of motes by eath movements Fock structures reaching 1000 m below the ground surface Strong Imestone erumpled ko plastiche by plato tectonics. = “| [ie a thon — NN seang <— Loses] ‘SIGNIFICANCE IN ENGINEERING Civil engineering works are all carted out on or in the ‘ground. Iis properties and processes are therefore Significant ~ both the strengths of rocks and sols, and the erosional and geological processes which subject them to.continual change. Unstable ground does exist, Some ground is not terra fra’ and may lead to unstable foundations. Site Investigation Is where most civil engineers encounter geology. This involves the interprotation of ‘round conaibons fotten from minimal evidence), some 3D thinking, and the recognition of areas of aficut ‘round or potential geohazarct: Untoreseen ground conditions can still occur, as ground geology can be almost infinitely variabio, but they are often unforescen due to inadequate’ site invostigation, Civil engineering design can accommodate almost ‘any ground condlions which are correct assessed and Understood. ‘SOME ENGINEERING RESPONSES TO GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS Landslides wih over 100M tons of fang rock. Earthquakes a millon times more powerul than an atom bomb, the milions of years of goological tim. ‘Components of Engineering Geology ‘The main flelds of study ‘Sections in this book Ground materials and stuctures 02-06 Regional characteristics ooi2 Surface processes and materials 18-18 ‘Ground investigations 07,08,19-29,37' Material properties be-26,40 Difficult ground conditions 27-36,98,99 Other aspects — fossils and historical goology, mineral 100 MPa UGS < 10 MPa Lite fracturing Fractured and bedded Miieal weathering Deep weathering ‘Stable foundations: ‘Settlement problems Stand in stoop faces. Aggregate resource Fall on ow slopes Flequire engineering care uary, STRENGTH OF THE GROUND Naturat ground materials, rocks and soll, cover a great range of strengths: granite Is 4000 times stronger than peat soi. Some variations in rock strength are summarized by Contrasting strong and weak rocks inthe tabla ‘Assessment of ground conditions must distinguish: + Intact rock strength of an unfactured, small block; raler fo UCS. + Rock mass ~ properties ofa large mass of fractured Tock in the ground: refer to rock mass ‘lasses (section 25), Note ~ a strong rock may contain so many fractures in a hillside that the rack mass is weak ang unstable {Ground conditions also vary greatly due to purely local features such as underground cavities, incined shear surfaces and arificial disturbance, fe vcs rok SaP ues: ye] Uncontined (or aan uniaxial) compressive Ze wy ty ‘strength load to cause failure ofa cube ofthe material crushed batween two flat plates with fo lateral restraint, (Strong and weak limits ‘aro simpliieg: see section 24 for BS criteria.) ‘sap: Sale (or acceptable) bearing pressure: load ‘hat may safely be imposed Upon rock in the | icaeng ‘ground: the estimated (or measured) ultimate 1. | bearing pressure to tall the rock (allowing for fractures and local zones of weakness) lived by a Safty factor between 3 and 5. ROCKS AND MINERALS. Focks: mixtures of minerals: variable properties. Minerals: compounds of elements: xed properties. Rock properties broadly depond on: * strength and stably of constituent minerals; * interocking or weaknosses of minoral structure; * fractures, Bedaing and larger rock structures. ‘Ail rocks fall into one of three familes, teach with broadly deinable origins and properties. Most rockforming minerals are siicates — compounds of cxygen,silcon and other elements. Fock propartes can show extreme variations. Its useful to generalize, a in the table below, in order to bulé an Understanding of geology, butt must be accepted that rocks are not engineered materials and ther properties do vary rom ste to sie For example: most sedimentary rocks are quite weak, land limestone is a secimentary rock, but some of the limestones are very stong. Rock family | Igneous [ Sedimentary Metamorphic Maloral origin | Crystalized rom maton magma | Eroioal debris on Ee wrfaco | Aller by heal andi pressure EEnvronment | Underground: and as va fowe | Depostonbasine: main Mosty dap nse mountain chains Mosaic of neiocking estas | Most granuat and coment Modal of narocking estas Nassive(eructuriess) nor igh strenath Granite, basal Layered bedded bedeng planes Variable low planar weaknesses ‘Sandstone, mestone, ey Crystal erentaton duet pressure ‘arabe high; pana’ weaknesses Seis lle ( Majoctpes 802 Igneous Rocks ‘Magma is generated by local heating and meting of rocks within the Earth's crust, mosty at depths betwoen 10 and around 100 km. Mosi compositions of rock melt at temperatures of 860~1200°C. When the magma ool, it solicifies by crystallizing into a mosale of minerals, to form an igneous rock VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. Eruptions may be violent and explosive if a viscous magma has a high gas pressure, or may be quiet and ‘eftusive f the magma is very fluid. There is a continuous fange of eruptive styles between the two extremes, and 4 single volcano may show some variation in the Vilonee of ts individual eruptions, Pyroctastle rocks (meaning fire fragmenta) are formed ‘of material, collectively known as tophra thrown into the air from an explosive volcano. Most tephra is cooled in fight, and lands to form various types of ash, tf and ‘agglomerate, all wth the properties of sedimentary cocks. Some tephra, erupted in turbulent, high-temperature, pyroclastic flows, lancs hot and welds Into ignimbrite, ot Welded tlt EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS ‘These form where magma is extruded onto the Earth's ‘surface to create a voleano, {Lava is the name for both molten rock on the surlace, nd also the solid rock formed wen i coos, Fluid basaltc lavas flow easily to form low-profile shlels \voleandes, or near-horizontal sheets of flood basal More viscous lavas, mainly andesite, ould up conical ‘composite, strato-volcances, where lava is interbedded ‘with ash and debris, that are thickest close tothe vent. INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS These are formed when magma solidifies below the surface of the Earth. They may later be oxpocod at the surface when the cover rocks are eroded avy, Batholiths are largo bloo-shaped intrusions, roughly equidimensional and commonly 5-50 km in dlameter Most are of granite. Dykes aro emaor shoot intrusions formed where magma has flowed into a fissure. Mostly 1~50 m wide; may ‘extend for many kilometres; ganeraly of dolar. ils are sheet intrusions parallel to the bedding of the county Tocks into which the magma was intruded. Forms of Igneous Rocks shield volcano prastic cone composite volcano explosion crater | ‘Molten lava ejected from the summit vont of Strombol volcan. GRANITE TPE. MINERALOGY ‘OCCURRENCE EXAMPLES ‘STRUCTURES WEATHERING STRENGTH FOUNDATIONS HYDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES ‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: clear quartz, cloudy feldspar, cleaved mica, ‘Acid igneous; coarse grained, large scale intrusive (plutonic) Coarse interlocking crystal mosaic with no textural orientation, ‘Quartz 25%, felaspar 50%, micas 15%, matics 10%, Large bathoths, exposed at surface by subsequent erosion ‘Cooled a large bodies 3-15 km benoath surface. Ban: Land's End, USA: Yosemite ‘Commonly massive and very uniform. Widely spaced sheet jointing, ‘Guved due to large extolition (caused by cooling and sress rele) ‘Siow decay o feldspar to clay leaving quartz to form sandy sols ‘Spheroidal weathering leaves rounded corestonas in soll matrix. High strength wih all physical properties good UGS: 200 MPa, "SBP: 10 MPa. Very strong rock, except where partially decayed to clay near the surfaco or along some deep join zones, Groundwater only in fractures. Excellent dimension, decorative and armour stone and aggregate. Syenite and dont: have less quartz and are sighty darker. Gaboro: basic, and is much darker LLanvite: a dark coarse syenite with distinctive internal reflections. Many strong rocks ae referred to as granite witin the construction trade, 4MAIN MINERALS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS mineral__| composition ‘colour | _H D__| common morphology and features ‘Quartz | SiO, clear | 7 ‘mosaic; no cleavage: glassy lustre Feispar | nNa.caya1si,0, | wnte | 6 | 26. | mosaicor las: pes onhodase and plagioclase rancor] aainsieion, lace | 2% | 28 feterownaenn an peretcntay Bictte | Kia.Fe)A'S,0,(0r9, | lack | 2%e | 29 | {members ofthe mee gro o minerals Mates _|Fe-Mgsicats" —‘[biack | 5-6 | 80" | lnglsnon proms: hemblence,aupte, olvne ‘Matic minerals is a convenient torm for a group of black silicates whose individual properties are of little significance inthe context of most engineering Cleavage is the natural splitting of a mineral along Parallel planes dictated by weaknesses In the atomic Structure Mineral strength is a function of hardness and lack of cleavage, slong with effects of dacay or orientation, lized, and exceptions do occur; eplayed on museum specimens of ‘most minerals, but aro rarely seen in normal rocks. H = hardness, on a scale of 1=10, from talc the sottest mineral of hardness 1, to diamond the hardest of hardness 10. Stee! and giass have hardnesses botwoon 6 and7. = density, measured in gramsiem? or tonnasim®= CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS This simple classification covers the great majorty of igneous rocks. tis based on two parameters which are Doth signifeant and recognizable. The main types of Igneous rocks can theretore be idenified by just colour and grain size. The form of occurence determines the stucture ofthe Chemical composition is determined by what rocks had ‘melted to form the original magma; siicavich magmas are referred to as acidic (unrelated to pH) ana are ‘generally low in iron, so have few black fron mine {and are tharefre lighter in colour than basle rocks, Porphyritc rocks have scattered larger, older crystals rock in the groun says whi 4 batholith may take also, lavas may coo! in hours or million years to | crystalize, and the cooling rato determines tho grain (called phenocrysts) n a finer grounémats. In fine grained rocks, grains cannot be seen with the ‘haked eye; the limit of 0-1 mms effectively the same as | crscope ve 5 mm across cea fedspar as, dark mats, ine groundinass of same minerals sizo of the rock. the imi of 0.08 mm used n sols and sediments. cccurrence form __cooing grain sue | [Fiyotto[AndosRe [Basalt [—extusions lavas fast__ fine <0. mmm Porphyry Dolerte | —smallintusions dykes medium _medum _ 01-2 mm Granite [Diorte | Gabbro | large intrusions —batholths slow coarse _<2 mm 50% ‘SiO, content basic astifeation Granite and basall_are most abundant fd ‘magma viscosity because magma viscosity determines the eftsive | voleano type ‘0350 of migration, Acid magma ls viscous, 30 12% Fe content ‘most stays in Datholts fo form granite, while 50% matic minorals Basie’ magma is so fluid that most of i {dare colour escapes tothe surface to form basalt lava. BASALT TPE Basic igneous; fine-grained, extrusive (vleanic), MINERALOGY — Fine interlocking crystal mosale with no textural orientation May have open vesicles or minerallled amygdales (old gas bubbles) Felespar 50%, matics 50%. | OCCURRENCE Lava lows in bedded sequences. Cooled ate flowing from voleano. | EXAMPLES Britain: Skye and Mul. USA: Columbia Pateau and Hawai | STRUCTURES Sheets orlonses, maybe interbedded with ash ort. Comment with weathered or vesicular scoria tops on each flow. ‘Yung lavas have smoath pahoehoe of enkery aa surfaces. Compact basat may have columnar jinting (Kom coating contraction) WEATHERING — Rusts and decays to clay sols; maybe spheroidal weathering, STRENGTH Compact basalts are very strong. UCS: 250 MPa.” SBP: 10 MPa (less on young lava). FOUNDATIONS Variable stengin, especialy in younger lavas, due 10 ash beds, coriaceous of clinkery layers, lava caves and other voids HYDROLOGY Young avas are general good aquifers. VALUE Good aggregate and valuable roadstone. VARIETIES Andes: intermediate lava, dark or light grey, olten weathered re. Dolente: medium grained inrusive dyke rock; looks similar to basalt Fhyolt: palo grey acd lava, commonly associated with frothy pumice ‘and dense black absidian glass, 503 Surface Processes Sediments largely material derived trom the weathering (of rocks on the Earth's surface (the remainder is mostly ‘organic material). ‘Alrocks weather on exposure to alr and water, and siowly ‘break down to form in situ sols. Jn most land environments, the soil material is ‘subsequently transported away from its source, and may thon be regarded as sediment; this includes the sold ‘debris particles and also material in solution in water. Natural ranapor prosesses are dominated by wator, which can sor and selectively depos ts sediment oad, Untimatey all sediment is posted, mostly inthe sea, and mostly as stratified layers or beds of sorted material Burial ofthis loose and unconsolidated sedimant, by more layers of material subsequentiy deposited on top of i, ‘eventually turns It into a sedimentary oc, By the Various processes of tification. The land is essentially the erosional environment, it is the source of sadiment, which forms the temporary sols before being transported away. ‘The sea is essentially the depostional environment, sediment is buried beneath subeaquent layers, and ‘eventually forms most ofthe sedimentary rocks Subsequent earth movements may raise the beds of sedimentary rock above sea level; erosion and removal Of the overiying rocks (to form the source material for another generation of sediments and sedimentary rocks) then exposes the old sedimentary rocks in outcrops in a landscape far removed fram contemporary eoas and In an environment very different trom that of the sedimentation. ‘SEDIMENTARY MATERIALS Most codimentary rocks are variat Mineral grains: mostly quart, also muscovite (the physically and chemical stable minerals) ] Rock fragments and voleanie debris (nol yet broken down to their constituent minerals) t Breakdown products: clay minerals (formed by reaction of wator wit feldspar or matic minerals) — CLAYS ‘Organic debris: plant material to form peat and coal (animal soft parts form ol) (Organic debris: dominated by calcite from marine shell debris ‘Solutes: dominantly calcite precipiaed ftom soa water largely due to biological activity SSolutes: including gypsum and salt, and othor less abundant soluble compounds ‘of sandstone, clay or limestone ~ SANDSTONES = minor rocks | }-LimesToNes = minor rocks. [Grading Curves particle size alerbutlons Tor pial sediments # il 7 4 eA ‘SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ‘The most abundant sedimontis clastic or dotital material Consisting of partces of cay, sand and rock debris. Water Is far the most important agent of sediment Iransport, Rivers move the majorty of sediment on lard (Coarser debris is rolled along the river beds; ner particles fare carried in suspension, Water's ability to anspor. ‘sediment depends on ts velocity larger particles can only ‘be moved by faster Hows. Sediment is therefore sorted (G0 one size) during water ransport. ‘Sediment is algo moved in the sea, mainly I coastal ‘waters where wave action reaches the shallow sea bed. (Other transport processes have only limited scope: ‘+ Gravity alone works mainly onthe steeper slopes, producing landslides and colluvium. + Wind moves only fine dy partici. + Ice transpor is powertl, but restricted by climate. ‘+ Volcanoes may blast debris over ited distances. ‘Some minerals are transported by solution in water (Organic sediments rarely caried far from its source. ee (@iuciow ana tit are well graded: une sand and scree are well sorted) that bulls a steep alluvial fan ‘SEDIMENT DEPOSITION Water on land Sorted and strattied, mostly sand and clay, Aluvium in river valleys is mostly temporary Iter ‘eroded away, except in eubsidng deltas. Lake eodimont includes salts precipitated due to desert evaporation ‘The sea Final destination of most clastic sediment Sorted and stratified in beds, mostly in shallow shelf seas. ‘Turbidity currents carry Sediment nto deeper basins. Shel debris in shallow seas, wih no land detitus, forms the main limestones, ‘Slopes Localized poorly sorted scree and side debris ‘Wind. Very well sorted sand and sit, mosty in or nea dry source areas, so only signicant in desert regions. Ice Unsorted debris dumpedin the melt zones of glaciers. Localized today but extensive in past Ice Ages. Voleanoes Fine, sorted aia ash, wind-blown over large areas; also coarse unsorted flow and surge deposits, ‘mostly on volcano slopes. Collectively known as DByrociastc sediments (= fire fragmenta)MAIN MINERALS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Units and trms as for igneous minerals in section 02 [mineral _|composition [colour | H | D | common morphology and features ae fan —fo6 cat 7 [| gouies oeeree ghoyiate Immcorteleatuayoor, ora [zt 2a| sirenecw andamee eperttcowaga ica Kaointe |1,6,0,(0%), | white) te clay minerals) [stable type; Includes china clay lime feanetngise, [ara {ramen yest oe Fs Onset PEE rl | Breelieneg termed oateretetreeee ra caste [caco, Velac | 3127) somle ad deat tno comes on pen ete [ecto vtae | | 28] moracanc one ee cecal See |sleee ea leer eee e taocme [read Ben) 2 | sa) oneness fae” [rs rotor] | 83] nacho uses fete gacs comet bes Siructures in Sedimentary Rocks = | eee SS = = LSS |_ = SS ee a === tenses sanssore jaan, rs —— oseag | ame urunexnon ‘The prososses by which a weak loose sociment fs tumed into a stronger sedimentary rock. induced by burial pressure and slighty Inceased temperature beneath & Flomete or more of overying sediment. The processes of ithification ‘are also known as diag Geologists, relrring to the changes whlch Stter depositon. The resus of ification, notably the inceaaa i stent ae rls o as caretaaton by enginoors ‘Tree main processes of itieation: Camentation Te fing ofa intrgranuar pore spaces by dopostion ofa mineral cement breughtin by culating roundwator. Rock strength Is largaly dependant on the {ype of coment, which may be silica (Strongest), on fie, cal o cay weakest, The dormant pacesin sandstones. Recrystallization Smal ecale solution and redepostion of mineral, s0 that some grains become smalier and Some become larger. Result may be simi to cemonta: ton, but may produce stronger mosaic texture, Can also include change of sate and growth of new more stable minerals. The dominant process in Imestones Compaction Resinuctuing and change a rain packing, with Gecrease in volume, due fo tural pressure, wth onsequent reduction of porsiy as wator Is squeezed ‘ut. nrease in strength is cue to more grain to grain oniact. The dominant process in cays CONSOLIDATION general refors to the inereaso in ‘Strength in clays, due fo their restructuring, improved packing, loss of water and reduced porosity caused by Sompaction under load: it aiso includes. some ‘omentation and new mineral grown. Normaly consolidated clays have never been under a higher load tan thelr exsing overburden; these clude most clay sai, ‘rer-coneadated clays have been under a higher fad in the past. imposed by cover rocks since removes By frosion; these Include nearly all clays within rock ‘Sequonces. They have lower porosity and higher strength 08 fo thei history of but and exposure. Clay sols and clay rocks related to their metamorphic ‘and igneous derwvatives. The eight rocks (and sediment Sols) n the core of tis cyiic diagram are related by processes (ehown inthe outer ring) which actin the Clockwise direction. Bulk composition is roughly Constant, except forthe water content which decreases from mud to granite. Only weathering increases the Water content, and weathering of any rock may short- Circuit the processes by producing mud. Only the main Iminerals are shown; quartz is present in all the rocks and sols, (Consolidation also rofers tothe effect of soil compaction Under structural loading, and may be applied specifically to changes taking place when clays are compacted} 704 Sedimentary Rocks CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS [A CLasTiC ROCKS B_NON-GLASTIC ROCKS | 1, Pudaceous: coarse grained, 41. Carbonates, consisting mainly of calcite ‘Conglomerate = rounded fragments. <2 mm Limestone and aled rocks Breccia ~ angular fragments 2, Nen-carbonates 2. Arenaceous: medium grained, 0.06-2 mm Flint and chert ~ nodular or banded siica ‘Sandstone and allied rocks Coal and ignite — Iihifed peat and plant material Ironstone — any onion sedimentary rock: 3. Argllacoous: fine grained, <0.08mm ‘and, clay or ool texture Siltstone ~ quartz particles ‘Salt ané gypaum ~ monominerakc rocks doposited Clay and allied rocks by evaporation of wator ovary ‘comPosiTion OF THE MAIN sondsone, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Electron microscope view of sandstone with quartz ‘grains and weak flaky clay mineral cement. An original arial calcite coment has been removed by weathering. LIMESTONE TYPE Sedimentary, organic or chemical carbonate. MINERALOGY —Vatlable sized calcite moselc, usually with shel fragments Caleit 95%, dolomite 3%, clay minerals 2%, OCCURRENCE Marina shell debris and chemical peciptate, hited by recrystaization. Upited and expased by erosion, in folded or unfolded bods, EXAMPLES: Bhan: Pennine dales. "USA: Mammoth Cave Piateau, STRUCTURES Massive or thin bedded: commonly with thin shale partings. May include large lenticular foe's of massive strong limestone. ‘May contain nodules and ienses of silica: int in chalk, chert in imestones. Soluble in rainwater, leaving minimal or no sol, and alloing formation of open fissures, sinkholes and caves. Forms distinctive karst landscapes with underground drainage dy valleys and commonly many bare rock outcrops. Karstic collapse into caves may occur, bul as rare events; limestone gorges are common, but most are not collapsed caves. STRENGTH Oidr Imestones are more completely ecrystalized and stronger. UCS: 20-100 MPa. SBP:0.5~4 MPa, FOUNDATIONS Extreme varabilty etvong rock with open fissures and cavities. May shear along thin shale beds. HYDROLOGY — Efficient aquifer wih difuse and conduit fw. VALUE Valuable dimension and aggregate stone. Burn with clay to make cement, VARIETIES Colt: consists of sand-sized spnoical calcite concretions. Chalk: woak,tiable, pure, white mestone. Travertine, tua: so, porous, banded caldte precipitated in flowing water Dolomite: recrytalized with magnesium content (in dolomite mineral). Clete: compact, strong, fine grained limestone Microscope view, § mm across: calcite forming shell ragments, in coarse and fie cement matrix.ef TYPE : MienaLooy ce) 2) occurrence OG ex.s 2 Bes "Zo wesnsenne | TSP ese Srenerh FOUNDATIONS. HYDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES ‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: mesly quartz grains, wo coment types. 8 fe SANDSTONE ‘Sedimentary, clastic, arenaceous Medium grained, with sand grains mostly of quartz, set in coment of quartz, calcte, cay or other mineral ‘Quartz 80%, clay minerals 10%, hers 10%, ‘Sand of marina rer or dese origi, Ithiied by cementation. Uplited and exposed by erosion, in folded or unfolded beds, Balin: Penning moors and edges. USA: Canyonlands. Massive or thin bedded: commonly interbedded with shale May have cross bedding inherited from deltaic or dune origin. ‘Grumble to sand, forming sandy well-drained sols. CGider sandstones tend to be better comonted and sironger. Clay cements are notably weak; quartz coments are generally song UCS: 10-90 MPa SBP! 11 MPa, Generally srong material, unless poorly cemented or with weak cement Productive aquler with dite fon. ‘Most sandstones abrade too easy for use as aggregate: some may yield good dimension stone. Flagstone: thinly bedded due to partings rich in mica fakes, Gai imprecise colloquial trm for strong sandstone. Groywacke: od, parly metamorphosed, strong; interbedded with slate Flysch: young and weak; interbedded with shale or clay Tuff voleanie ash ol sand grain sie: lied or unithie, —————SSS}j Eroded remnants In Monument Vail, northern ‘Anzona, USA ‘Amassively forms te vertical sided buttes, and vers a thinly ‘mith many shale layers. bedded sandstone ‘of once continuous eas of sandstone bedded sandstone TRE MINERALOGY occuRRENCE EXAMPLES: STRUCTURES WEATHERING ‘STRENGTH FOUNDATIONS HYDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES. Sedimentary, laste, argilaceous. Fina grained structuretess mass of clay mineral, commonly with a proportion of smal sit grains of quart Ite 60%, kaotinke 20%, smectite 10%, others 10%. ‘Mus, mainly of marine origi, ithiied by compaction and water expulsion. Upifted and exposed by erosion, in folded or unfolded beds. Britain: London Clay. USA: Dakota Badlands. Commonly featureless and unbedded, but may be bedded wth variable sit and organic content ‘May have nodules (hard rounded lumps) with stronger mineral comment Revers to mud, arming heavy clay sos. Older, more lithfied ang unweathared clays have higher strength. Younger clays have properties transitional to those of low strength sols UGS: 1-20 MPa, SBP: 0.1-1 MPa, Weak material with low, variable strength related largely to water content; prone to slow creep and plastic deformation; high potantial compaction may causa high and diferental sottoment Under structural laa. ‘Aguiclude ‘Watertight fit bricks, cement Mudstono: more ltiied, massive and stronger. Shale: more lihifed, laminated and fissile. Mart clay or mudstone wih significant calcite content Silstone: mainly quartz grains, essentially a fine grained sandstone. | mcroscope wow. 5 mm across cay acundas, sty ayers °05 Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks ate created by changes Induced at high temperature (up to about 600°C) and/or high preseures (around 500 MPa at 20 km depth). These Changes (metamorphism) take place in the sold state, The type of metamorphic rock produced depends on the orginal rock material that was metamorphosed and the temperature and pressure conditions which were imposed. METAMORPHIC CHANGES IN ROCK Recrystalization forms a strong mineral mosaic, notably inmarbie, [New minerals grow atthe expense of ess stable minerals in the new condtions of high temperature and pressure ‘Most important changes are clay minerals —> micas ~> feldspars and matics. Micas are the most significant minerals in motamorphic rocks and only chango to feldspars atthe highost grade of metamorphism, green colours typical of low grade metamorphic rocks that contain significant chiorte and epidot. Directional pressure within the solid stat croatos mineral otentation within the regionally metamorphosed rocks. New minerals grow in the line of least resistance — perpendicular to the maximum pressure ~ to cause fotation, or banding, within these rocks, Planar weaknesses in the foliated metamorphic rocks are created by the paralel micas spitting. along thot ‘mineral cleavage - causing rock cleavage (also known 8s slaty cloavage)-and schistosiy ~ both of which are Independent of ary original bedsing, Non-foliated metamorphic rocks have stronger isolropic structure, These include hornels, formed by thermal ‘metamorphism of lay without high pressure; alse marble, land gne'ss with Rte or no mica. METAMORPHISM OF DIFFERENT ROCKS Limestone —+ marble: by recrystalization of calcite, forming TYPES OF METAMORPHISM Regional metamorphism invoives high temperature and pressure. Occurs in mountain chains cue to Centipetalcoison on pate boundaries. Exonds over | large areas. ‘Thermal or contact metamorphism involves high temperature only. Occurs in metamorphic aureoles, each 0.001-2 km wide, around igneous intrusions ‘where rock has been Daked. Dynamic metamarphism at high pcessure only is rae, “Temperatures and Pressures of Metamorphism rans enna Grade of metamorphism is the overal extent of change, notably in the sequonco (within regional metamorphism) from slate to schist fo gneiss. Sequence of changes ean | be seen in the rock cycle diagram in section 03. strong mosaics. Sandstone —> quartzite: by recrystallzation of quar, forming very strong mosaics. Basalt. greenstone: by mite grown of new green minerals Granite shows ite change: stable in metamorphic conditions Clay (and rock mixtures) > homfels, slate, schist or gneiss: ‘depending on type and grade of metamorphism. [MAIN METAMORPHIC ROCKS Derived rom cay or iRtures of rocks Alteration includes various processes which affect rocks, usually involving water at ower temperatures and pressures than metamorphism Weathering involves rainfall water coming from above; a near-surface feature (see section 13) Hydrothermal alteration involves hot water esing from below, commonly rom voleanie source. Metasomatism involves chemical replacement by elements carted in solution Aeration is commonly localized win a few metres of ‘major fauits or fractures; it may occur throughout zones, a klometro or more across. [name man niverie ___[ orvae Torengn Pues vray | | Horns mica, quartz, lay minerals | uniform | very strong 200 Siate mica, quarz, clay minerals | cleavago | low shear, high flexural | 20-120 Scnist mica, quartz schistosty | very low shear 20-70 Gnoiss quartz, feldspar, mates, mica | folaton | strong 100 ROCK ALTERATION I New nate, weak minerals athe main poset of Aeration procosset normaly the cered Tock hove scanty wear fants ona heron ey be ilcted 6) tea or changes, no geen yon Chocton vary ow grade meanonie grown ot | | Wea grosn cht, Kaclrizaton: Sori leper 6 kale (day mmocra Sareitzaion: tera of elisa to sect takes {Mintaro ces masse) von aeration: sing andaecay ran neato | | enon obo iseMAIN MINERALS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS tinal eompostion calor | HB conmnan nerphotogy and Tears uanz | SiO, clearhnito | 7 | 27 | moc, no cleavage assy sre | Fottepar | (nlacaya.si,o, — | white 8 | 26 | mosaic or shor proms Muscowte| KALAIS,OW(0%,- | clear | ave | 28 [finn ance and takes; prec eavage Bitte | KIMGFS,AS,0-(0H), | back | 2% | 29 ||momborso th mica group of minerals Chorio | M5,A,5,0,(0%),." | biuo-groon | 2° | 27 | small fake; perect eave Enidote | Calairagio,'0% | green 8 | 53 | smaliahe Calcio | Cabo, wnt 3 | 27 | mosaic; mombohecral cleavage on 3 planes Kaointe | A.S,0,(0H), vite 2 | 26 | tne powcery cay mineral Limonte_| Foor trom | 5 | 38 | nastystaning (Other metamorphic minerals, such as homblonde, garnet and andalus, may be present, but have Iie influence on rock properties. Uns and terms as explaines for igneous minerals in section 02, SCHIST rye Regn metamorp, madum grade laa, THINERALOGY Couve grnedmoeae wit band ano onepicuus paral vento, Mics 8% corte 2°, quarts 25% ohare She OCCURRENCE Regenal metamorphism a cae and mxed rote aig temperate \ {nt pram acura complex cores of moun uts gr coneror ate bounces 2 pampces __ Sitain Seaton ighans: USA: ier gg of Grand Cann, STRUCTURES Promnerachitosty due to paalon ot abundant mic, Conmony wit oiaton banding and compl feng nd mpg a? WesrHEANG Sow ateaton to cays ~~" STRENGTH Anoop compressa suengh varies by lator of | trees oebiquosonsony ‘ary ow seat song weakost with higher clot or mic conten Ueki Socronea Saeco ura FOUNDATIONS Comneniy wes, easiy shared, FYDAOLOGY Aqvetute, vata O°” fn | VARIETIES Sate ter grained ith excotent rock ceavage | Pra eomecisi Btweon sw and scat ot: oa mc, mare gate ardighr sooth ‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: subparalel mica fakes, patches of quartz mosaic. & HORNFELS. | Vee a conic ie | "4 MINERALOGY Fine gralned mows, thro miner entation orf, | Wicas coe, quate SO, tere 40% aN OCCURRENCE Thermal (contact) metamorphism of clay at high temperature, es in metamorphic aureoles up to 1 km wide around major igneous ot intrusions, ~) EXAMPLES Britain: Dartmoor margins. USA: Sierra Nevada margins STRUCTURES Commonly closely jointed wth sharp tractus and local kregularti. oo ‘May have Inherited structures trom original rock. fone ~7 WEATHERING Vor slow aeration o cays, STRENGTH Fine grained matotals aro generally very strong. UCS!250 MPa. SBP: 4 MPa, FOUNDATIONS Strong rock HYDROLOGY Aquiciude. VALUE Good aggregate stone of high strength and low abrasion. VARIETIES Marble: motamorphosed imestone, consists of recystallzed calcite. (Quartzte: metamorphosed sandstone, consists of recrystallized quartz, Greenstone: metamorphosed basalt, with some new green minerals. Microscope view, 5 mm across: fine groundmass of quartz and mica; large andaluste and mica fakes. "06 Geological Structures FRACTURES Faults ae fractures which have had displacement of the ‘rocks along ther, Throw is the vertical component of faut displacements. Faults are described by reference to thelr downthrow si this is relative movement and may be due othe other side having moved up. enomente Normal fault Reverse faut + Revers FEATURES OF FAULTS. Faults commonly ereate zon9s o broken ground — weaker and less stable than the adjacent rock — with implications for foundation bearing capacity, slope siabiity and tunnel ‘oof integty. Sudden movements along faults (when tectonic stresses accumulate to overcome frictional resistance) cause earthquakes ~ vibrations transmitted through the surrounding ground (section 10). (Old faults (including all those in Britain) cannat sisplace ground surface which has evolved subsequent to any fault avement. Fault ine soarps and valeys may appear ina landscape duo to diferontal oresionagross the fault zone and adjacent contrasting rocks. 2 Fault types are recognized ty relationship of downthrow to dip o the faut plane “+ Normal faults form under tension; downttrow is on downalp side. faults form under compression; dowthrow aide is oppoate to dip. + Vertical faults are not easly distinguished as nocmal or reverse. + Thrust faults or trusts, fear faults have horizontal csplace __Tear faut + Grabens are downfauited blocks between two norm fault Earth movements involve plastic folging and brite ‘racture of rocks, as well as uplift and subsidence. These tectonic featuros, caused by large scale movements ‘of crustal plates (section 08). Under the high confining pressures at klomotres of depth, and over the long time Scales of tectonic processes, most rocks may show plastic deformation, an fractures oocur when and where the plastic imits are exceeded ‘uterop is an exposure of rock atthe surface {orthe area of arock ying diectly beneath a soll cover) Dip is the angle in degroes below the horizontal Direction of dip is down the dip. ‘Sikes erection of horizontal ine ona dipping surtace, ‘These reler to bedding or any geological structures, Fock dip is used to avoid contusion with ground slope Joints are rock fractures with no movement along ther, ‘They are formed by tectonic stressing and are developed inant al rocks, Joint densities and individual joint lengths are infinitely varable, Groups of sub parallel jints form oint systems. The dominant fractures within sedimentary rc usualy the bedding planes. Many bedding pla very thin bands or partings of shale or clay between units ‘of stronger rocks. Others are clean breaks, or jolts, {aveloped tectonicly along te sightest of contrasts within the depostion sequence. Say deavag and schists ar also efetvty Woes tots. Alloints are structural weaknesses, whose density, extent ‘and orientation are major invences on rock mass srength (Gecton 25), Massive rocks have less fractures, joints or structural waaknesses, 0 roverse faults with low angles of dip. i (with apparent throw in dipping rocks), Fault breccia: coarse angular broken rock debris in Zone (0-1 ~100 m wide) along fault; commonly @ zone ot {groundwater ow, finely ground rock paste in thin zone sturbance and folding of rock near fault Slickensides: scraiches. and polishing on taut planes, ‘and on bedding plane faults within tight olds Veins: sheets of mineral infill deposited by hydrothermal water in fractures oF fissures in rock. They octurin joints OF fauits. Most voins are of quartz or calete ~ white ‘streaks in rock faces. Larger veins (most on faults) can ‘contain valuable minerals ~ may have been mined out“strong folding weak folding antitine ara planes of stings > Thereasing compression ——e— recumbent fold. nappe Major Fold Types FoLDs Folds are upward anticines (“Yor downward syncines Sz “They may be gentle ==, maderate or strong AY Folds may be rounded /\\ o angular AY ‘Overolds and recumbent folds have dips past vertical Isoctines have parallel dips on both sides. 'Nappes are recumbent olds sheared along the central line with the development of a thrust faut, usually with large displacement Escarpments, or cuesias, are asymmettical hill of dipping beds of strong rock, exposed by citferential ferosion of weaker rocks above and below, Succession of rocks Older rocks generally lio Delow younger rocks, and are only exposed by erosion Reference to old and young rocks avoids confusion with igh and low outerops refering o topographical postion. Inlier is an outcrop of old rocks surrounded by the outcrops of younger rocks: its presence on a’ map Indicates ether an eroded antcine ora vay. mS Cutler is an outcrop of young rocks surrounded by old, due to ether an erodd syncine ora hil Uncontormity is the plane or break between two sequences of racks with diferent dips. I indicates a period of earth movements and tectonic deformation Between the times of sediment deposition. It forms a major structural break ~ the older rocks must be more lined and folded, and perhaps mare metamorphosed, ‘tan the younger rocks above the unconformity. NON-TECTONIC STRUCTURES: Localized structures formed in shallow rocks and sols, by erosion procosses and shallow ground detormation, Unrelated to regional tectonic structures. Camber folds develop in level or ow-dip rocks where a clay (or soft shale) underlies a strong sandstone or limestone. The clay is plastcly squeezed out from beneath the hil ue othe efferent loads uponit Valley bulge isthe floor it (eroded away) and the structural disturbance left beneath i. Mast clay is squeezed out ‘rom close tothe valley side (or scarp edge), co that overlying stonger rocks sag and camber towards the valley. Gulls ae open or soiled fissures in the strong rocks ol cambered valey sides, opened camberrolation and Perhaps also by slicing Postglacial cambered ground, or foundered strata, is ‘common inthe sedimentary rocks of England; it causes fissured rock masses and potential landslides along many valley sides and scarp faces. Glaclal drag: shallow local disturbance, with fold ‘overfolds and faults in solls ané weak rocks overriaden by Pleistocene glaciers Unloading joints: stross-roit fractures close to and parallel to ground surtace due to erosional removal of ‘Sverburden cover racks. Landslip fissures: open fissure and normal faults davelepad in head zones of slopes prior to alu, Contraction joints: cooling joints in igneous rocks, Including columnar basalt a | Camber ong around an English vay07 Geological Maps and Sections Goological maps show outcrops (where the rocks meet the surface). Shapes of outcrops depend on the shape at the surace and the shape ofthe rock structure. Suriace shape is known (Irom tepagraphie contours}: therefore rock structure can be interpreted. ‘An important rule: ware more than one interpretation is possible, the simplest is usually correct. ‘Map interpretation is therefore logical and straightforward iNapproached systematcaly. Maps remain the best way of epleting 3-D rock structure ona piece of paper. Oe — Relationships between a geological map, geological crose-sectione and the three-dimensional structure. ‘The north-south section is drawn along the strike, and therefore does not demonstrate the dipping geological structure STAGES OF MAP INTERPRETATION 4. Identity faults and uncontormites (structural breaks) 2 Inentiycips by Vin Valley Fle. 3. Determine succession (unless already given). 44 entity fold axes (rom alps and outcrop bends), 5, Draw stratum contours (ideal 's needed} 6. Draw cross-section to show sub-surface structure GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS 34 dip, direction, and amount in degreas $ borzontal beds 4} varical beds 7 fault, tick on downthrow side =e aniciine ‘eynctine fg sandstone. shale or day EEE limestone ary. Igneous rock alia “ol “ OUTCROP PATTERNS ‘Sx basio concepts cover all outcrop pattems, and enable ‘mast geological maps tobe intorpreted successful, Horizontal beds have outcrops which folow the contours because they are at constant alttude (limestone on the Sear Hil map). Vertical beds have straight outerops which ignore the contour (the dyke onthe Tan Vale map) Dipping beds have curved outcrops which cut across ‘and respond to the contours because outcrops shift ‘ownalp as erosion lowers the surface (sandstone on both maps) Dip direction ie rocognized by the V in Valley Rule: an ‘utero of a ipping rock bends round a V shape where i crosses a valley, and tho V of the outcrop points (Ike fan arrowhead) in the direction of dip, regardiass of tho irocton o valley slope and drainage. ‘Tris works because the outcrop is shited furthest downdip at Ks lowest point where it crosses the valley floor (see tho Tan Vale map and diagram). (The rule doos not apply in areas of iow dip, were buterops nearly follow contours, so point upstream) (On love! ground, sipping beds have siaight outcrops along the direction of stk. Suecession is recogrized by younger rocks coming to Cuterop In direction of dip. Corwersely, if succession is Known, the dip is in the crection of younger outerops = the easiest way to racognize aia on most maps. koa ‘Width of outerop is greater on thicker beds and at lower cps. RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURES Unconformity is recognized where one outerop (of & younger bed) cuts across the ends of outcrops of older beds, as does the mestone on the Scar Hill map. Faults are usually marked and keyed on maps. They ay cut out, offset or repeat outcrops of beds. Fault dip Is recognized by V in Valley Rule. Downthrow side of a fault isthe side wth youngor outerop because the oldar rocks have bean downttvown to beneath surface level. nom ke Sh — = po SS fy carmodiged Folds are recognized by changes in aip direction, and also by outers and inlers not Sue to topography. Most important, folds are cacagnized by bends in outcrop: any ‘outerop bend must be due (0 either @ fold or a topographic ridge or valley. Each outerop bend should be interpreted, as on the Sear Hill map.Fpl aS Interpretation of the Scar Hill map, using bends In outcrop to identity elther topographical features, direction of dip where crossing a valley, or fold axes it not explained by any topographical feature, ‘STRATUM CONTOURS. These are tines drawn on a map joining points of equal height on a bed (or stratum). They are Ike topographic contours, except that they show the shape of buried {geological structures. Each contour is leboliod with lis allude and the bed boundary to which kt refers, ‘They are drawn by jlning pointe of known equal height (on one geological boundary ~ where its outcrop crosses {2 topographie contour. Tho surtace information of the map is therefore used to construct the stratum contours, which provide data onthe underground gaology With uniform dip, stratum contours are straight, paralll and equidistant ‘Stratum contours have been drawn on part of the Tan Vale map, lower down this column: * they elend right across the map: * some apply to two boundaries and are double labelled; * every boundaryicontour intersection has a stratum ‘contour drawn through it + Tabols refer to the babe of a bed, ‘Stratum contours on part ofthe Tan Vale map | Information can be read from the stratum contours: * Dip direction is east, 080 (90° rom contours}; | + Dip amountis1 in (10 m contours are 50 m apa); + Sandstone has vertical thickness of 10 m (Gandstone base 20s sama contour as clay base 40}; «True thickness = vertical thickness x cosine dp: * Depths to any rock can be read of at any point. ‘The stratum contours indicate that a borehole at point ‘A would pass through 20 m of clay, then reach the sandstone which would continue to @ depth of 30 m, Below which ies the mudstone, DRAWING A CROSS-SECTION ‘A cross-section is drawn by projacting the data trom a ‘single line on the map onto a profie of the same scale (or with vertical exaggeration it required). ‘The topography and each geological boundary are constructed individually from the relevant contours, whose intersections on the section Ine are projected to their correct height onthe profile, Three stages in drening a profile across the Scar Hill map are shown bolow. The projection linos and ringed points are only included to demonstrate stages 1 and 2. Atos ater Tonpiies Section [Note two features of stratum contours only shown on the Scar Hill map: they do-not cross the fault: they do ‘ot rete to the imestone above the unconformity, 1808 Geological Map Interpretation Most published maps have scales between 1:10 000 ‘and 1:100 000. Low relict cannot be shown accurately at these scales, ‘and therefore stratum contours cannot be drawn to ‘show the geology Principles of outcrop shape, bed relationships and structure recognition (rom section 07) sill apply, but Interpretation and section drawing cannot rely on stratum contours. Geological Map of Oakunder SOME BASIC CONCEPTS Most outcrops are laterally uniform sedimentary rocks. ‘These ae in paralel beds of roughly constant thickness. ‘They are fold and crumpled into parale curves. Bed thinning and spiting is rarely seen in small ‘Beds do not form pattorniess wedges and blocks. ily fauted areas can provide local complexity Intrusions and volcanic cocks have more varied shapes. Dit sediments form thin, but variable, surface layers. ‘This is @ fypical example ofa geological map: it shows allrock outcrops, and has some dip arrows; ‘statigraphic column shows succession and bed thicknesses; topography is only shown by ver valeys, INITIAL INTERPRETATION Follow stages 1-4 (in section 07). ‘Add interpretation data to map, Dips from Vin Valley rua Dips from succession rule. ‘Outerop wiaths indicate dp. Widinthickness = dip gradient ‘Three shale beds distinguished: ‘numbered in stratigraphic column, [5 ‘and labelled on map. Faultand dyke straight, so vertical. Fault is minor ~ dies out to nort, has small outerop dsplacements Folds miror auterop sequences. ‘THREE-POINT INTERPRETATION ‘Subsurface structure canbe interpreted trom a minimum of tree isolated point (usualy In boreholes) on a single horizon ‘Assume locally uniform dip to draw stratum coat ‘Along linos drawn Botween any pair of boreholes, stribute uniform altitudes ofthe selected boundary oF bed. Lines joining these interpreted points of equal altitude ae therfore stratum contours. With three boreholes, can only interpret and draw straight stratum contours. \With more than three boreholes, can draw curved and converging stratum contours to show folding and ner. uniform dips. Reliabity depends on borehole spacing Inrelation to structural compiexty. Useful fr ital interpretation of site investigation data ‘Applicable to any rock or drift ayer, rockhead or fault Drawn sanctus ar baeale ie 16DRAWING THE SECTION ‘Sequence of stages forthe Oakunder map is as folows: {1 Ground prot is given (or is drawn from topographic map) 2 Outerops are projected onto ground sure (as in section 07), 3 Dips are obtained by using the given bed thicknesses (as on right) 4 Fault can be ignored at rst because tis interpreted as minor. 5 Oakunder Grt is drawn across bath folds, inking the tree outcrops, 8 Faultis added so base of Belvoir Git docs not outorop. 7 Cakunder Grit is adjusted across the fault within the syncino, 8 Other beds are added parallel, with constant thckneseas. 8 Parallel curves ae fitted to changing dips east of anticine 410 Slate marked below limostone thicknoss given in stratigraphic column, 11. Anlicine core is unknown beneath given slate thicknss. 12 Doleriteis added as vertical dyke cutting through beds 13 Aluvium is glven sonsibo thickness in valley floor. 14 Optional broken lines in the sky cay structure, ips tte righ, so base of the ‘Goological Gross Section af the Oskunder Area INTERPRETATION OF A STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN Data is symbolize to cover variations across the area on the map. nit deposits aro at the top; their thicknoseas are not chown, Main rock sequence is drawn to scale to show moan thicknesses, ‘Sandstone E les unconformably on the Carboniferous rocks, Middle Coal Measures include sandstones and coals marked individually. Undiferentiated MCM is a mixture of shales, mudstones and thin sandstones (this Iithological data is only obtained from an accompanying handbook), Sandstone D Is locally absent where itis cutout by the unconformity Sandstone C varies fom 6 to 16 m thick but is aWways present. Sandstone B locally spits into two, and the upper unt may thin out, ‘Sandstone A varies from 0 to 12 m thick, and Is missing in par of the map area. Coal 2 locally spits, but the upper leaf may be cutout by sandstone, Coat has to leafs, with 5 m of shale between, over most of ihe map area. ‘Base of CM is not seen on the map, an unknown thickness continues down, Igneous rocks ae atthe bottom, even though they intrude into higher rocks. ate ces ro ky thease a blow oop a2 crew neue sive gtoronh ae. EW [7] sour cay 00 sme |o/8| bond fe ey Se one ew: Poses [stanoano Gz0LOaIcAL waPs | on pry corn cho cons Sear et ea see Se ioe eet as Stcoaar emia Season eb Rasa Sas Sa a tee thine tect (ee inte ay ate tga aca Gases ee ENGINEERING GEOLOGY MAPS. xtra data is availabe for some locations, with mutiple map sheets covering the same area and individually showing selectes features; these may include major rock proporiee, slope stably, subsidence potent, mine workings, dit thickness, cit bearing capacity, tock resources and groundwater conditions. Generalized engineering geology maps may be summary compilations; mese show secondary. Interpreted, data o give usetulbroad pictures ot ground conditions, but servo only as guidelines towards spect engineering site investigations, v709 Plate Tectonics Planet Earth consists of three concentric layers: utor crust, < 100 km thick, various sold silicate rocks; ‘Mantle, 2800 km thick, hot plastic iron silcates; Inner core, 3500 km radius, largely of molten ion, CONTINENTS AND OCEANS ‘veanie crust is mainly basalt and dolerite, 5-10 km hick, ‘orming allthe ocean floor; itis created and dostoyed at plate boundries. Continental erustis mainly granite and gneiss, 20-20 km thick; of lower density than oceanic crust, floats higher ‘on the mantle and forms all the continents, submerged ‘continental shelves and adjacent istands. Is too light to be subducted, sols almost indestructible; it may be eroded ‘or added o by acretion of sediment and rock scraped off ‘subducting oceanic plates. Individual plates may be either or both crustal types. ‘Continent coasts may or may not be plate boundaries. ‘THE MOHO ‘The boundary between the crust and the mantle is known as the Mohoroviele Discontinuity (or the Moho) recognized by retraction of seismic waves. No one hha yet seen the rock beneath it. The American dling project, the Moho, was abandoned before reaching it, and the Russian borehole, 128 km deep by 1993, had et yet reached the Moho. PLATES AND PLATE MOVEMENT Lithosphere is the relatively brittle outer rock layer, Consisting ofthe crust and upper mant; tis broken Into large slabs known as plates. Convection currents circulate within the mantle ~ because it ls heated from below ~ and the convection cals have horizontal movements over their ops. Plate tectonics are tho relative movements ofthe plates as they are shifted by the underlying marie flows. Each plate Is relatively stable, but disturbances along the plate boundaries cause most geological processes. ‘The formation of igneous, secimeniary and metamorphic rocks, and their subsequent deformation oF erosion, can be identiied on the cross-section diagram through two plato boundaries. So Antarctic PLATE BOUNDARY TYPES Conservative boundary has sideways movement only, ‘8g. San Andreas Fauit. Major tear fauts are formed, and intermittent movements create major earthquakes, Divergent boundary is constructive, as new oceanic plato is formed, o.9. Mid Atlantic Ridge, Basaltic magma is produced as a silcate liquid separated from iron rich mineral solids in parvally melted mantle; this produces: humerous dykes. and submarine volcanoes, Excess magia creates istands, ¢.g Icoland, wih ofusive basal, voleanoes and high geothermal head; small earthquakes. ‘occur as rocks part under tension, Convergent boundary is destructive, as oceanic plate is subducted and melted, e.9. beneath the Andes along western edge of South America. The over-riding Continental plate 1s crumpled and thickened to form a ‘mountain chain, Involving a great range of geological processes, collectively known as orogenesis (from the Greek for mountain bulking), “Type of convergence determines the style of orogenesis: Continent-ceean: normal orogenic belt, ocean destroyed, eg. Andes. ‘Ocean-ocoan: one plate destroyed, magma creates island arc voleances, 0.9. Java, Continent-continent. colision, orogenic maximum, ‘elds pates together, e.g. Himalayas MOUNTAIN CHAINS. Upiit of mountain chains occurs because the lightweight ‘raniticcrust, thickened within the orogenic bef, ows to 2 higher level on the mantle in order to maintain the Isostate balance of equal loading all around the rolaing sphere of Earth, ‘The highest mountain chains are the youngest. Th Himalayas are < 10M years ol, formed largely of folded sedimentary rocks; top of Mount Everest is lmestone. ‘Ola mountain chains are eroded down, The Scotish Highlands nave been eroded for 400M years: they Consist of granites and gneisses, rather similar to the rocks on the floors ofthe deepest Himalayan valleys. The works major crustal pat, with arows o show relative movement (mosty afew cryear)GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS ‘The overall geological character ofa region — whether or not It has metamorphic rocks, active volcanoes or earth movements, whether the eedimentary rocks are thick or thin, folded or unfolded ~ relates to the plate tectonic processes, ‘These are the background to the ground conditions of concern to the engineer ‘Stable environments are onthe patos; the sedimentary ‘ecks,siow erosion, gentle folding, only rare earthquakes ‘and probably no volcanoes. The oldest continenial plates are the shields of strong, basement, metamorphic rocks forming Scotland's Outer Hebrides and most of eastern Canada. Britain and the eastern USA are on younger stable plates, Unstable environments are on or near plate boundaries, ‘and the geology relates to the boundary movement: Sideways, divergent or convergent ‘OROGENESIS Involves all the main geological processes except ‘basale volcanoes. ‘Strong folding, overtolds and nappes; weaker folds ‘away trom boundary. Faulis. and thrusts under compression, and major ‘earthquakes. Regional metamorphism by heat and pressure atdepth Panial meting of continental crust creates granite ‘pathlths in core of metamorphic belts Moltod ocoanie basalt mixes with continental mater {to form viscous andesite and rhyolite magmas ‘and explosive volcanoes. Minaralzation by migrating uid in hot active zones. Uplit of mountain chain; consequent rapid erosion and sediment production. ‘Thick sedimentation In adjacent subsidence zones; turbiats into oceans. | Convergent Destructive Boundary soit an erostan cf meuntin ea expects orogenic woken Stable Plate gante “SBT nance 77 continental crust__ samen At tisra 7 ara etrogt ppar arte magma generation 74 : sneargeaton eters, sonal metamerpism Divergent Constructive Boundary vole tans thus ear basse ‘oceanic crust Sheen ft ‘mara geerton epee mantle Pato boundary processes GEOLOGICAL TIME ‘THE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN Processes evolve and plate patterns change over [pencayatem a {geological time. New ooeans open up: continents cole | aeyote 7 fase My Sra wold Io one, Ary one place can terete be ina | Holocene = Recent (usternry Seres of pologta envronmants tough fs stony. | Petocene . ‘Time s an extra cimension which must be appreciated 10 [piccene > : {uly understand te geology of any area: tre geotogical | Plocene | Neogene history of sfe accounts Yor the stuctuos. and rock featonsips wricn are reevatto ground engrearng. | OWDHEr@ teria ‘ihe sgntesnoe of rock age tan engineerin any one | EOCAM®, }Peegene area, e.g. Britain, older rocks are generally stronger, better = 6s ithiied, maybe metamorphesed, and tore complexy | Cretasous feted than younger rocks. However, rocks ofthe same | Jurassic Mesozcic | fgemay be very dierent nareasot diferent patetectoic | Tassie E lo Hatori, og ho contrasts betwen he rocks ofthe east [ Perrion 1 fad west coast of ho USA, Ferri ous {Pennsyvanian ‘Quaternary sediments are so young that most have not | Devonian (Mississippian Seen dooply buted they are argo uncorsatasted ard | Sayan Paeoroie tinimaly formes. Oraovien | ‘The stratigraphic column divides geological time into | Gamonan | potods, andre samerames appiytothosystemsofrocks Perera + 5 fomed nro prod 7 aa | rhe names are international, except that Carboniferous is recamirian | replaced by Mississippian and Pennsylvanian nthe USA. (olginof the earth) 4600 1910 Boundary Hazards Earthquakes CCausod when relative movement of pats or favt blocks Srercomes shear resistance ofa fal. Movement Duds {plastic ira rocks out pure and rock rebound ‘Shoago sain enrgy ax ground shock waves. Most earhnuakes orgnate a focus <20 kn deep Surface dapiacement may be Tew mates or absent Faul breaks may exond over longi 1100 kn ‘SIZE AND SCALE OF EARTHQUAKES Ground movement is measured In afferent planes on seismographs. Magnitude defines the size of an earthquake on the Richtor scale: logy9 of the maximum wave amplitude ‘microns on @ Wood Andersan selsmograph 100 km from the epicentre (point on the surface above the focus). Moment magnitude relatos to fault aroa, movement and rock rigidity ~ a better indication of earthquake’s energy. Intensity isthe scale of earthquake damage at any ono point, described on the modified Mercalli scala, and Seating away from the epicenire IMSK intensity i similar i Maca, but with more detail Damage relates largely to peak ground acceleration, ‘also to peak velocity, requency and duration Duration usualy < 10 s for magnitude 5, may last 40 6 for magnitude 8; increases away irom epicentre ‘ereall Earthquake Intenly on nx co Nota Wt” Acobecamaged 0-0) 1h Fatetret it Meson domoges. ih Fetincoe 1% Fouaatone craged 1V Wirdowaraie (co.nz) Buidngs desoyed 2060) Fat ucor Xi Ratway ao Feanen3 a_i ate deetructive eurace waves. Velocity ciference of P and $ creates time lag on @ siesmograph, eo cistance to epicenre Is calculated at about 9 krvs ofthe lag. EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION Most are on plate boundaries; 80% on subduction Some occur on inraplate faults: Britain has up to MS, and the Mississippi Valley earthquakes of 1811 reached Ni-8 Also due to magma movement under volcanoes. ‘Some faults sip smoothly: the Cienege Winery in Caifornia has its foundations displaced 16 mmiyear by the San Andreas Fault - But no earinquake damage, ‘Tangshan quake, China, 1976, kiled > 250 000 people. Prediction: research is now greatly reduced, in favour of research into structural survivabiity in earthquakes. Side effects of ground stain before some quakes may Include foreshocks, pl, dlialion, gas emissions, ‘groundwater changes and inevease in Seismic veloc, but monitoring reveals inconsistent patterns. Historical data may indicate seismic gaps (with no recent movement) on an acive feu, where @fulure earthquake is more ikl Control: raised water pressures reduce shear strength, ‘and cause fault movement before large strain energy accumulation. Pumping water into deep wells does trigger premature small quakes, but legal complications make serious earthquake contol impossible : ‘World aisribution of earthquake: Each year there are about 20 of M7, and about 3000 of M> 6. ‘Approximate Correlation of Earthquake Magnitude, Intensity and Damage sraray sgn [Exam tran Aran nance 1 T= _| Sock esturvace, no damagi | Linted 1 ‘© |isrecense ws | vr | Stant Listed Major aang fr Sri) Ey | 5 |ta7eSan Francisco MES | Vii | Une damage to reintrced corte ‘iin earguake fr Castors) Severe damage foods houses | nny Vi sight domage fo 10 km awn soco | 6 |ro71sanFemendo Mes | ix | Severe omege to many tulsngs | inonsty Vi osage to 1Okm nay somo | 7 [rs7ocHmeein (Pen M77 | x | NMojordamege most butaoge | Ieansty Vl gamsgo 0 SO km away ‘onooto | 8 |e San Franco” mea | xi | Ttaldesruaion transty Vl mage o 200 on aay Saintes. 20CONSTRUCTION IN SEISMIC ZONES ‘Adobe and dry stone walls fall under horizontal ‘Acceleration of 0-19, but good low rise timber bullaings ‘can withstand any earthquake, Reinforced concrete structures need bracing to stop ‘hombohedral collapse; tis can be provided by massive, ‘esstant shoar wal, or diagonal steelwork. Febars must be integrated across intersections of columnsfbeamstwvalsisiabs. Plecap falures are resiainod by to beams and integrated basement structures, Buildings and bridges can be isolated on rubber spring blocks: and steel springs can act as energy absorbers to sabiize structures. Precautionary provisions add $~10% to construction Costs, Later moaifications are more expensive. ‘Avoid ornamental appendages which can fal of Use land zoning to avord areas of deep sok soils and ‘known fauit traces ~ any displacement of Holocene sais indicates modem activiy on a faut. ‘New building in Califomia is prohibited within 15 m ot ‘active faults: wider 2ones apply to larger buildings and less well-mapped faut. DEEP SOILS AND EARTHQUAKES Soft sols do not dampen ground vibrations. They amply ‘them. Bullcings on soft sol suffer much worse earthquake ‘damage than those on bedrock. ‘Wave amplitude may double passing trom rock to sol Dominant natural period of the shock waves aiso inoreases, from about 0-3 seconds in solid rock, to 14 ‘Seconds on soll. The natural period further increases with ‘Sol depth, and with distance from the epicontre. Buildings have a natural period of about N/10 seconds (N = number of stories). Maximum damage is due to esonance, when periods of building and soil match, Deep soft sols have long periods which match those of high rise buildings susceptible to more catastrophic ‘damage ~ as in the Mexico City earthquake in 1985. Compared to adjacent bedrock, soft sols cause damage T-dintensiis higher ‘Secondary earthquake phenomena ‘Subsidence due to liquetaction of low density sands Landslides and slope fares of all sizes and speeds. ‘Teunamis ~ oceanic seismic waves (section 17) Seiches ~ oscillating waves on lk Volcanic Eruptions Basaltic volcanoes lie on divergont plate boundaries (6.9. tceland), or on plates away trom boundary disturbances (¢.9. Hawai), where magma is gonerated ‘rom mantle plumes. They produce large flows of mobile lava in quiet, offusive eruptions, with only limited fountaining or expiosions. ‘These volcanoes are tourist attractions, which may ‘heaton fixed structures, but offer minimal threat to it, Prediction of eruptions is largely based on volcanic inflation (uplit) and selcmic monitoring, with succosstul forecasts of repetve basalt emissions. Scale and size ‘of explosive eruptions cannot be reliably predicted, nor ‘can their precise timing and location within the volcanic Explosive voleanaes all a on the convergent plate boundaries (eg Krakatoa, St Helens), where magma is (generates by subduction meting. Viscous magma, of lndesite or rhyolite, makes ges pressures buld up. Eruptions produce’ high ash clouds, explosive basts land very dangerous pyroclastic flows (of not gas and ash) whieh turn into lahars (mud flows) lower down vallays; ava lowe are minor and shor. Flank collanses can cause massive lateral blasts. ‘These eruptions are dangerous, largely unpredictable ‘ana totally uncontroliabl; they must bo avoided, ¢ World distribution of volcanoes ‘There are > 500 active volcanoes in the word. ‘Typically > 50 erupt in any one year. =!" basaltic volcanoes: a a explosive voloanoes. a11 Rocks of Britain Btain covers an area small enough to have its geology vlewad as a single sequence of processes, encompassing the whole country. With a single history the geology of Britain is sensibly divisible by rock ago, and with fow exceptions the older rocks are stronger and more deformed than the younger. For such a smal area there is ‘amazing diversity within the geology, and all ages are represented within the rocks. ‘The tectonic ramework of Briain has evoWved over two succeselve convergent plate boundaries and then a complexily of Europe, followed by the western breakaway of the Atlantic ‘opening and the tensile thinning of the Noth Sea crust This evolution has created major contrasts across the county The old rocks of the northwest: huge thicknesses of rack crumpled on convergent plato boundary 400 milion years old; have formed land subject o erosion ever since; ‘ow strong metamorphic rocks, intensely folded; ‘accept high bearing prossures: Yeld valuable stone and aggregate resources, ‘The young rocks of the southeast: + thin sediment soquences formed on the edge ‘of subsiding North Sea basin loss than 200 milion yoars old; ‘rostly covered by sea unt 25 millon years ago, + how woak sedimentary rocks, gently folded; * can take only low foundation loading; hhave no good aggregate resources. ‘The Carboniferous rocks of the middle: + thick sediment sequences formed on wedge ot plate between two boundary disturbance zones; Include the Coal Measures of Brain's industrial hoariand; + now stiong sedimentary rocks, wel folded ‘very varied ground conditions; {lod valuable rock resources ofall ype. Geological evolution of Britain can be seen in time sequence of changing pattorns of plate boundary processes and secimentary environments, a EQ, Leaman “The map divides Britaln into geological environments, {argely related to age but primarly distinguished by the Fock types and structures, which are the main concer of the ground engineer. The marked coalfolds include ‘concealed parts beneath Permian and Triassic cover. Treland represenis a waster continuation of the geology of Scotland and northern England; itis ‘dominated by Carboniferous and older rocks, with the ‘atrim basalt plateau covering them in the north Geological Evolution | feos Oran [eae ce : eunore ewnore_} [sexnore wanes] [nanan CPaieonsie Caledonia’ Carboniferous Heraynian Taesox0% ‘apie 500 ‘200 "330, 280, 130. 40 G0 ages mon oyoare cry pera a 2MAJOR ROCK UNITS OF BRITAIN [Tectonics and environment QUATERNARY [Unconsolidated sand and clay, alluvium and til. Coastline as now: Ice Ages. TERTIARY ‘Gente Alpine folding of al rocks. Soft sedimonts of London and Hampshire basins eta sediments in bays Poorly consolidated sands and clays, with 200 m thick London Clay. temporally flooded by Nort Sea Also basalt lavas, volcan centres and inttusives of western Scotland Voleanoas on Atlantic divergence j; Upton ad alr a today, JURASSIC and CRETACEOUS: [Thin sediment accumulation Weak sedimentary rocks forming most of southern and eastern England, in shallow seas over England. ‘Chalk~200 m thick, sft imestane with fint horizons forming Downs, Chiltems. | Sea forms shel, marginal Clays and sandstones of Weald and Midlands, with thick Oxlord Clay | to subsicing North Sea basin beneath Fenlands, unstable Gauit Clay, and Poriand limestones in south. | Scotland and Wales form islands, ‘Sandstones and ionstones of Milands ahd North Yorkshire Moors ‘with no deposition, aie imestones (oats) trom Cotswolds to Lincoln rage. atlantic opening stars Las biue-grey ciays with thin imostonos in Midland fowlands. | Submergence under sea, PERMIAN and TRIASSIC. Rod sandstones and mudstones of Midlands lowlands. Desert sediment accumulation: Food mudstones with bods of salt ang gypsum, including Mercia Mudstone. | salt playas in low relist Yellow and rod sandstones with conglomerates, including Sherwood Sandstone. | alluvial fas around mountains. Magnesian Limestone impure, sandy or dolomite imestone east of Pennines, Marine incursin from east | Granites of Devon and Comwal with associated mineralization ‘Magma from orogenic ro, eer Hereynlan foling Includes Pennine | (CARBONIFEROUS ‘anticline and coal basins: Strong sedimentary rocks forming most ofthe high groundof Northern England, | more intense with metamorphism ‘South Wales and Central Scotland, including all coalfield industrial areas. ‘| towards plate boundary in south | ‘clyde Valley basal lavas, Edinburgh volcanics, Whin Sil dolerite of Pennines, (Marginal plate boundary disturbance. ‘Coal Measures — 2000'm of repetitive cyclic sequences, of sandstones, | ntermiten swam forests ‘itstones, mudstones, dark shales and thin coal seams (up to 2m thick)... | estabished on subsiding delta flats. | Milstone Grit Series ~ alternating sandstones (gts), shales with Nagstones. | Massive delta expanding from noth. Limestone massive limestones wit chers in S. Pennines, Wales and Mendip; | Shallow shel seas and basins, thin bedded impure limestones and shales in N. England and Scotland, Convergent plate Boundary in south ‘Slates and grits in Comwall and Devon, Sedimonisin subducing ocean zone. DEVONIAN Slates, gris and imestones in Comwalland Devon. Marine seciments in southem ocean, Brown sandstones and basalt lavas of Tayside and Ochi. Red beds in desert basins, FRed and brown sandstones and mudstones of Brecon Beacons and Orkney. | ‘surrounded by new mountains. Highland granites wost of Abardeon. Mating in roger core. Strong matarmorphis of al old rks, LOWER PALEOZOIC Caledonian folding at plate colision Mountains of Wales, Lake district and Southern Uplands; repeated greywackes | Subductionoflapelus Ocean plat ‘and slates 12 km tic; include Festniog slate, WeniockImestone, bbeneathtwoconvergentboundaros, ‘hyolte and andesite lavas and tue of Snowden and Borrowdale Volcancs, | withlocalbelts ofvalcarics. Dalradlan schists, gneisses and marbles insauthem par of Scotish Highlands, |Northwestem boundary more active, PRECAMBRIAN Moine schists and gneisses forming most of Scottish Highlands. Active convergent plate boundaries. ‘Tordonian Sandstone of northwest Scotland. [Sands deposited on continental block. ‘Buried basement of England and Wales, onl expased in small iniers, |Oid continental blocks: Including Charnwood, Birringhar, Long Mynd and Anglesey. | S.E. block now largoly buried; Lewisian basement gneisses of northwest Scotiand and Outor Hebrides. fragment of N.W. block expased. ‘To follow atime soquence, this table should be road from bottom to top. ‘Sequence of racks in stratigraphic order, wih youngest at top. Ursa west ost Angin Ntingham ‘oats Wash Nonh Se 92s folds bacorent cones (underrester Pein) Diagrammatic section trom Anglesey to North Sea 2312 Rocks of the United States ‘The USA spans an entre continent and every type of ‘geological environment. Unlike Britain is geology cannot be viewed in a simple time sequence: at any one time plate boundary activity on one side could be enough to leave the oter side unaffected, Over such a large area, ago alone is meaningless ~ igneous and metamozphie rocks in the west are far younger than barely folded sedimentary rocks in the east Itis sonsible to divide the USA into geological provinces, each with its own charactor and geological hist distinguished trom its neighbours by both the types and Structures of ts rocks COAST RANGES Complex series of deformed rocks along the active pate boundary of the wast coast. In California the highly folded Franciscan greywackes and schists include a sive adjacent to the Siara Nevada containing the gold mminecalzation ofthe 1848 rush. Faults include the very actve San Andreas zone with ts associated carthquakes and break the ranges into fault blocks futher south. Inthe Los Angeles area, basins have upto 6 km of ol-bearing Tertiary sediments between older mountain blocks. The Peninsular Ranges have granite intruded ino the metamorphic rocks. Further north, the Klamath Mountains are faut slices of Paleozoic sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks, followed by Tertary basalts along the Oregon coast, and Tertiary granites end schists forming the Olympic Mountains. CENTRAL VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA Faulted basin containing 12 km of Mesozoic sedimentary tocks. Surface has up to 400 m of poorly consolidated Quaternary sands, sits and clays causing widespread subsidence probloms, The North American continent has a core of strong Precambrian basement rocks: these form the Laurentian shield of Canada, and underie the Great Plains and Central Lowlands where thin eodimentary ‘covers were deposited whon shallow seas lapped onto the basement core, ‘Thick sedimentary rock sequencos wore crumpled and ‘metamorphosed along plate boundaries and welded ‘onto both sides of the core: tho older Appalachia on the east, and the younger Rockies and Cordilera on the west. The active westorn plate boundary hae been complicated by the continental siab obliquely overriding | the rising convection plume of the East Pacific rise, In the basin and range provines ding to the volcanic activity ‘CASCADES Chain of Tertary and modem volcanoes above the active ‘subduction zone of the convergent plate Boundary. They include Lassen and St Helens with major explosive eruptions in the last 100 years. Mainly andesto and rhyolite lavas, with locally thick pyroclastics and some basa, COLUMBIA PLATEAU Volcanic province dominated by horizontal Tertiary flood basalts. Eastern extension has younger Snake River Pleistocene basalts, reaching to more varied pyraclastics ‘and lavas of Yellowstone Park with its continuing ‘geothermal activity, IDAHO BATHOLITH ‘tong, massive, Cretacsous granite forming the largest pathol in the Rockies. SIERRA NEVADA Cretaceous batholith of massive, strong granite, with slacal features on much ofthe high ground, {AN Coast Rangee {BBs} Cascavnn EE ean satnoin (5 Cerra Vay Ed Sera nace Cf Base aALASKA Essentially an extension ofall the units and provinces In the Wester Coralera. Interior mountain chains of folded Paleozoic rocks, older metamorphics. and younger intrusions separate basins with thick Sedimentary sequences. Coast ranges consist of younger metamorphics along with acive vleanoes and ‘uit, HawalL Isiands are tops of huge ocean floor volcanoes formed ‘na chain where Paci pate Is moving over a mantle hotspot. Rocks are neatly all basalt, with minor tut alluvium and reel limestones; active volcanoes are LAURENTIAN SHIELD ‘Souther tipo! the exposed Precamirian basement which forms much of eastern Canada. Complex of strong, deformed rocks, dominated by greenstones, slates, {greywackes and granites, with an extensive cover of Pieistocene til. Includes an exposed Inerin South Dakota andthe Adirondaks of New York GREAT PLAINS Flat Wing Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks on a Precamirian basement. Mainly shales and weak sandstones, with some coal basins and localized volcanics. Include the Clays of the Badlands and the Cretaceous imestones of the Edwards Plateau. Pleistocene sands, clays and Jooss in the south and contre are replaced by glacial il inthe north, [APPALACHIAN PLATEAUS. Strong sandstones, shales and limestones, mostly of Upper Paleozoic age. Gant folded with iow to moderate dps. Valuable coal seams in the Pennsylvanian rocks a extensively mined inal ofthe province except New York stato. VALLEY AND RIDGE Strongly folded Paleozoic rocks ina sequence 18 km tick. Long, steep, escarpment ridges of stong sandstone and limestone separate parallel valleys in softer shales and coal moasure rocks, APPALACHIAN BLUE RIOGE High grade metamorphic Precambrian basement rocks overthrust onto younger rocks to the west. Mainly gneisses, but with thicx groenstones in Shenandoah Mountains and strong metamorphosed sandstones in tho Groat Smokies. Includes extensions of gneisses orth of New York and ino Vermont PIEDMONT Eastern flanks and foot slopes ofthe Appalachians, formed mostly of strongly deformad Paleozoic slates and greywackes, with igneous intrusions inthe Carolinas. More the Manhattan ‘number a granites, Pleistocene sediments and glacial tis ‘orm Cape Cod and much ot Long Island, BLACK HILLS Anticinalinier with Mississippian limestones around 3 ore of schists intruded by tho granito of Mt Rushmore, wer a7 Serr Basin solorads reat Minos ! | ae | aes opus ee ee : eS ae ex Lowano Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphies forming the ‘ald core of the Cordilora. Generally sttong rocks include ‘ness, schist, greenstone and marble, most well felded, ‘with various younger intusives and voleanes. Basins in ‘Wyoming contain thick Tertiary sedimentary rocks with coal and oll shale. BASIN AND RANGE ‘Vast province of fault blocks broken by east-west tension within the crust, Upfauited ranges of strong igneous and ‘otamorphic rocks of Procambrian to Mesozoic age, and Slso the Permian limestones ofthe Guadalupe Mountains, Downfauitedbpasins contain weaker Tertiary and Quaternary clastic sediments, along with the salt sequences of the Great Basin, Death Valley and elsewhere, and some volcan along faut zones. COLORADO PLATEAU Flat lying, Carboriferous to Tertiary, sedimentary rocks, ‘overtving basement schists exposedin te Grand Canyon: Includes the strong red sandstones of Canyonlands and ‘national parks, sok imastones at Bryce Canyon, scattered ‘basalt voleanics, and somo shallow coal basins. | ROCKY MOUNTAINS Paleozoic sedimentary rocks gently folded into broad basine ané domes. Limastones of the Ozarks form the largest dome, with an exposed core of Precambrian gneiss, ‘and also host extensive mineral deposits. Furth oat ‘strong Mississippian mostonos form extensive plateaus Pennsylvanian coal measures, dominated by shales, sitstones and strong sandstones, are up to 5 km thick in the main coal basing west of the Ozarks, across Il land in Michigan. Extensive Pleistocone cover of glacial inthe north, and loess in the southwest ‘COASTAL PLAIN Pootly consolidated Tertiay clastic sediments provide no hhard fock resources. Widespread subsidence problems ‘occur on extensive sot clays, on some large areas of poat, and over the Tertiary imestones forming much of Flori. Mesozoic sedimentary rocks outcrop along the ‘Appalachian margin and thicken towards the coasts ‘boneath a Toriary cover. Upto 6 km of sedimonts undorio the Gulf Coast, containing salt domes and major oils, {ogether with extensive lignite (brown coal) resources in ‘Texas. Younger deltaic sands, clays and peals fil the Mississippi basin, 2813 Weathering and Soils GROUND CONDITIONS Top few metres of the ground profile generally consist of soll, grit and weathered rock, with engineering 38 very differant from thosa of the underying Soll material, usually <1'm thie; may divide into plantich tepsoll and clay-cn subsoil. mixture of weathered mi | debris and plant Weathering: the natural decay and breakdown of rock cor dit in contact with ait and water; generally <10 m Seep. Drift ransported, superficial sediment deposited on top of the bedrock; mostly unconsolidated clay, sand and ‘coarser clastic debris; generally Quatemary age, hence too young to bo consolidated; varies in thickness from © to> 50m. Colluvium: slope debris, moved downslope largely by ‘gravy alone; extent of sediment transport terotore dit > colluvium’> sol; includes debris from eceep and ‘Shootwash, also head and scree. Sheetwash by surace Water increases grealy with oss of vegetation Rockhead:. the duried difvrock interface; commonly a ‘conspicuous boundary betwoon weak sols and det and ‘trong rock; may be loss well defined in deop proto of ‘weathered rock; formed as erosion surface before drt deposition so its topography may be totaly unrelated to modem surtace. Engineering s I: weak material (UCS < 609 kPa) that can be excavated without ripping or dissing, theretore Including soi, dit, weak rocks and weathered rocks. ~ = graund conditions| ROCK WEATHERING Physical and chemical breakdown of rocks ator near the surface, Subsequent removal causes surface lowering: Weathering + Transport = Erosion ‘Weathering processes depend on cantact with ar and/or Water, 80 are strongly infienced by climate. ‘+ Frost shattering is important in cooler latitudes and higher aitudes. ‘Salt erystalization is only significant in deserts with Figh evaporation ‘Al chemical processes accelerate in hot wet climates, and are further increased by organic acs from donse plant cover. ‘The most Important chemical process Is the production of clay minerals from other silicates. “Temperate weathering produces ite as the dominant clay mineral Hot wet weathering of igneous rocks produces the Unstable smectite, tert: red soll high on and aluminium, low sea, formed in topics Saprolte totally decomposed rock retaining ghosts of original structure. ‘Spheridal weathering: forms rounded boulders or Corestones from angular joint blocks weathered more at edges and comers. 28 DEPTH OF WEATHERING Depends an the timescale, ock ype and climate Rocks only exposed for 10000 years (since ast glaciation) are less deeply weathered than those exposed fora milin years in ungiaciated areas, Shales, porous sandstones and weak imostones weather to greater depths than do granites and compact metamorphic rocks, Deepest weathering occurs under climatic extremes, of cithor periglacial frost action or beneath equatorial rain fovast ‘Top of zone I is effectively rockhead, but isnot sharply defined; it is usually about 1-5 m deep in Britain; but zone | fresh rock may only be found at depths > 20 m in {quarries which demand the best qualty of rock. In topical areas, sols of zona IV may reach depths of 5-20 m. Decomposed granite of weathering grade ‘commonly reaches > 90 m deep in Hong Kong shows an almost complete ‘weathering sequence in basal lavas. Grade I material is. not seen In this sequence, because a change of rock type is more significant than the weathering state ~ a layor of weak, rubbly, Scoriaceous lava has weathered much more £4 completely tan the solid Tava above it Grade | fresh rock only ‘occurs at greater depths, below this cut face. For engineering purposes, Sound rock Is found near thotop of zonot, about ém below the surtace at this Physical Weathering Unloading joints: sts roi! fractures due to ‘overburden removal ‘Thermal expansion: fracturing due to daly temperature changes. | Frost shatter; facturing as fissure water oF | porewater freezes and expands. | Wetting anc ding: movement due fo loss or gain of water n clays ot action: twee oat oxpansion in fissuros, and rootet growth in pores. ‘growth of sat crystals where | Crvstazation: ‘Chemical Weathering Soluion: mainly of calcite and gypsum. in ‘sandstone cement, veins and lestone, Leaching: selective removal of solutes or specific elements. ‘Oxidation: notably rusting and breakdown of on, Hydrolosis: most slicates react with water to form ay minENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCK ‘race — | Dessipion | Litebgy Creation Fain ane et See onprT Sn no] May reed 6am] One gal ucts a 7 Conpiaiay —] Greonponsd sol ‘ese by | Seahered | soererean stucure [ae 7] ay Party changed sl, Variable and | weathered Soil > Rock unreliable uw Moderately: Partly changed to soil, | Good for most Wea? | Bout eat | Seaaerare O Slightly Increased fractures, Blast | ‘Good for anything Seattres | Srarmberl aang xcept age dans [Freshest [Gear eck Bast [sna (Wore complex schemes, for doscriovon of non-uniform and mixed rock masses, are given in BS 6200) WEATHERING GRADE AND ROCK PROPERTIES ‘Some roprosontative values for selected meterals to demonstrate physical changes in weathered rock Gade ofwesterng Ce Granlo: ucorined sonproeie orang pay emo | 150 | B-100] 2-15 ‘fee tanta cvceines Sanpete ebongh Mea] 3 |") 8) 78] 1 Carsonieroye eanatone Te gual degaton | m| to] | 25 Grate standard onaten et weave] 233] 3] 2) Glas Ghat ste berogprensre ts] jos | 750 | 200 | 200] {ane mactne! ne beng pressure tea] ‘too | 280 | 420) “a0 Tina masta ey parts factor PE 1088 10°88 | 0-86 [vical epi in tan rare | 550 ie WEATHERING PROFILES IN ROCK WEATHERING OF LIMESTONE Jointed igneous Bodded Sedimentary Limestone is unique because It is @ physically strong rock which can be totaly removed by solution during ‘weathering, Rainwater and soil water weather the limestone surface, and also dissolve away the rock where they ‘saop down fractures and bedding planes thereby Creating wide fissures and caves. ‘This process forms very uneven ground with strong rock and large voids. Pinnacled rockhead has deep fissures, mostly filed with soll, between weathered limestona pinnactes, all Deneath sol or ait cover, t creates cficult foundation conditions prone to sinkhole subsidence (section 29) Limestone pavements with large flat rock surfaces are the result of recent glacial scouring which removed the ‘Weathered and alssectes surlace rock, Karst is a limestone landscape characterized by Underground drainage, caves, sinkholes, dry valleys, thin sols and bare rock outcrops, Cte SE DRIFT DEPOSITS AND CLIMATE Tho nature, extent, structure and properties of drift posits are closely related to the processes by which thay ware deposited. Those deposton processes are determined aro by climate Fluvial processes ~ the action of rivers and flowing | water ~ are dominant in al climatic regimes except for the parmanently frozen zone beneath glaciers and the | atialzones in desers lee Ages: During the Quatemary, the Pleistocene poriod was marked by phasos of worlwide cooling — {he Ice Ages ~ when ice sheets covered large paris of the northern continents, and climates were soverely modified across the rest of the world, The last lee | ‘shoets retreated only about 10 000 years ago. | Many deit deposits were formed in environments very tferent from those of today. They are therefore best Understood by distinguishing them on the basis of process and climate a14 Floodplains and Alluvium WATER EROSION Water isthe main agont of erosion; its power increases greatly with veloc Rivers erode by downcutting, and sides degrade to form V-profile valleys. On low gradients downeutting reduces, so latoral erosion dominates, notably on the Outside of river bends, Sediment is transported as rolled bedioad and in ‘suspension; particle size increases with velocity Deposition is due to velocty lass, on gradient loss and inside bends, so seciment i sorted by size. pe | soxon Le me, | tame sn atte eee ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS ‘Alluvium: rver-deposited sediment; sorted and bedded, but any grain size from clay to boulder; laterally and Vertically variable, with wide range of engineering ropertes. Floodplain: zone of alluvial deposition along valley floor, ‘subject to periodic tooding, The alluvium builds Up over time, much oft formed as overbank flood deposits which aro mostly fine grained and horizontally bedded. Meander scrolis: cross-bedded, crescentic lenses of sediment, mostly sand or gravel, lef on insides of migrating river bends or meander Channel fills: abandoned river channel ‘sediment, commoniy clay or peat. Alluvial fans: coarser, poorly sorted sediment (in. fanglomerate) on stooper slopes and at mouths of hilside gullos and tibutary steams. Fiver terraces: remnants of any older, higher oodplain, abandoned when river cut to lower level; formed of alluvium, though may be rock-cored; eraded away as ‘modem floodplain enlarges. ‘Tufa and travertine: weak, porous calcite Gepost, forming ‘hin layer or cementing gravel; may overle uncemented ‘alluvium and canbe confused with rockread, Les Cheuras dam, Algeria, was built 1885 on tula crust, and faled by piping on fst impoundment. Peat: black organic sol, formed in small lenses or large ‘areas of upland bog or lowiand fen; extremely weak and Compressible (section 27) Lake deposits: simiar to fine alluvium (section 15). led with Sue Sale * RewmPered years eee) ‘Maximum annual flood flows on a fiver over 24 years; retum period = (number of records ~ 1)(rank) FLOODPLAINS Flooding Is natural and inevitable on fooeplains, Flood size (expressed as fow, stage, height or area) is descrbeaby its saliscaletum period, e.g, 2.50 year flood which has 2% chance of oourring in ary year, From existing data, plot of tow against tum time (based ‘on rank) gives straight line (oten except for the highest flood) which allows predictions of rarer events. So food zones can be identified and avoided, and channel sizes an be designed Floodplain hydrology may be changed unintentionally: Urbanization, deforestation and levee construction all raise height lood peaks. ‘CONSTRUCTION ON ALLUVIUM Alluvium thickness may vary 1~>100 m: dificult to predict but goneraly compatibe with local hl rel. Some alluvium is lateraly uniform. Other has channel fill, scrolls and fans, making site investigation and borehole coraation sifcul, Non-cohesive sand alluvium has SBP = 100-600 kPa, depending on density, uick or running sands fom with high water pressures or seepage flows in loose material Cohesive ciay aluvium generaly has SBP = 0-200 KPa, depending largely on consolidation history (eection 26). Bearing capacity of unconsolidated alluvium can normaly be increased by effective drainage and consequent accelerated consoldation, Heavy structures on soft alluvium may require teng-bearing piles to rackhead, or friction piles in thicker sequences. Each phase of Yorkshire's Drax power station required over 12 000 end-bearing, pre= test concrete ples, each 22°m long, driven threugh Cay and sit allivium to sandstone bedrock or a dense aluval sand just above rockhead,sme Zena FLOOD CONTROL MEASURES: ‘evees are linear ridges alongside river channels. Natural levees are formed by Dank overtiow and pid depositon, and may build up to channel a river at level above tha main floodplain: China's Yolow River ‘5 8 mabove its floodplain for over S00 km, Artificial levees are earth (or concrete faced) bankments built to prevent floodplain inundation, “ney must be continuous ~ roads must go over them oF ‘rough Tloodgates: the Mississippl levees are 10 m sh and >1000 ke long. Canalization can shorten a river course, creating a aw sleoper gradient to transmit flood peaks mara ectvely. vees and canals prevent a river flooding its natural Fodplain, and so ariically increase flood peaks 2ermsiteai. Flood control dams can capture floodwater pd act asa substitute fr lost floodplain storage. Floodways are zones of undeveloped land between ‘sv2es designed to transmit floodwater when required ‘CONSTRUCTION ON FLOODPLAINS rotection by levees permits wider use of foodplain, a undefended floodplains, construction is normally voided inside the 100 year flood zone (in Brain the 47 flood limit provides a Usetul guideline). 'F 1972, the Rapid City flood, in South Dakota, cost 237 3. Al the destroyed buldings ware on the floodpsin, “soognizable on existing maps as the area of alluvium: ‘sconstruction nas lef the floodplain asa park jeroachment is construction on the fleodplain which rinders food flows; it causes upstream ponding, and ‘ereased flows and scour round the structure, which thorefore self-destructive and must be avoided. arkland and buildings with unenclosed ground floor parks do not encroach, and are acceptable in active Soodplains and foodways, “ransport routes need to cross floodplains: bridges ‘nUst have extra flood arches to avoid encroachment: “al bridges with no parapets can survive overloading sath no damage and only short-term loss of us, Freeway bridge over Schoharie Creek, New York, failed In 1887; approach embankment had ‘encroached on floodplain and increased flood flow beneath oridgo so extra scour undermined pad «foundations on grave. RIVER CHANNEL ENGINEERING ‘The natural processes of iver flow include +" Erosion on the ouside of bends, * Channel migration as a consequence of bend + Bed scour between encroaching bridge piers: + Sediment deposition in slack water, notably inside bends and downswveam of obstaces; *+ Catastrophic channel rerouting across floodplains, ring rare flood events which averton levees. Bank erosion may exceed 1 my and protection may be ‘sential, using wall of concrete or gabions ((oage rock in wre baskets) and wing dams to tap sediment, Repeated dredging may be needed to counter mid Missisigp! Fiver has continuous levees to protect [Now Orieans and othor cies. Floodway sluices can be opened to take flood peaks thal threaten 10 ‘overtop the levees. The 1933 flood overtopped the 100 yearleveos. Since then, more farmiand has been left unprotected ~ a limit to. sustainable economic floodplain development is now recognize. Eneroachment bare 1052 ‘The 1952 Lynmouth flood disaster, in Devon, was duo to encroachment by bridges and buldngs which civerted Hoodwater down the streets and through the vilage. New larger channel has longer brdgas and floodway park ‘New Charnes ater 1052 2915 Glacial Deposits Pleistocene Ice Ages Ico Ages were crested by a series of phases of worldwide ‘cooling, when average temperatures fell 8°. In each Ice Age, the largest Ica shaals centered over ‘Canada (reaching into USA) and Scandinavia (extending ‘over most of Britain). Smale ice caps formed on most igh mountain ranges. Glaciated landtorme and depasts sill remain over these very large areas, Last lee Age ended about 10.000 years ago; known as Deversian in Britain and Wisconsin in USA; features dominate mountain landscapes today, also extensive ‘deposit eft on glaciatod lowlands. Earior Ice Ages had ice sheols more extensive than during the Last Ice Age, leaving lowland deposits in parts of Britain and USA Maxim extent of Peisiocen ice sheets GLACIAL EROSION Glaciocs form where winter snowall exceeds summer mal; snow layers accumulate, compressed lower zones recrystalze and are squeezed out as flowing ie. Most glaciers move about a metre per day Pleistocene glaciated areas are most easily recognized by erosional ianatorms, Alpine glaciation: valley glaciers in mountain areas of high reli ce further deepens U-shape valleys between high uneroded aréto ridges. ‘Sheet glaciation: thicklos moves over entre landscape: ‘greater erosion of high ground reduces rele can erode ‘while moving pil, to create ivegulat topography with ‘ver-deopened rock basins GLACIOFLUVIAL DEPOSITS. Meltwater ocours on, in, beneath and downstream of al Glaciers; it orodes transports and deposits various 'ypes of glacofuvial sediments, Sediment is mosty sand and gravel, th moderate sorting land bedding; fines have generally been washed out, ‘commonly non-cohesve and highly permeable, with good bearing capacity and low setiemont. ‘Outwash: tracts of aluval sand and gravel deposited by meltwater downstream of glacier snouts. ames and eskers: ill and rdgos which were sediment fils in glacier caves: may be buried inside tl Glacitiuvial sediments are also known as strated ti, or glacial sand and gravel 30 Prestocens io shoots fy Meese bon Z Ice Agos had other fa-eaching ofects: Periglacial conditions extended over large areas, including allo southorn tan and the USA as far south as Oregon, Wyoming and Tennessee. ‘World Sea levels fell 150 m as water was locked in ee shoots; Brtain was joined to France, Alaska to Siberia, Weight of ice’ caused crustal sag beneath ie-sheets, followed by slow isostatic upit after ioe melted. GLACIAL DEPOSITION Debris of al sizes is pickod up and transported by glaciers, {and then dumped at glacier edges, along ther bases, of ‘mosti in terminal melt zones. TH Moraines: morphological unite of glacial til — layers, ‘mounds, ridges er any shape of deposi on, o let behing bya glad Sheet moraines: extensive til blankets of variable thickness; typically hummocky surfaces may be ‘streamlined into drumtin landscapes, Valley moraines: tilridgas along or across glaciers or et ‘bohind in glaciated valleys: * lateral moraines: along glacier edges, fed by debris ‘rom higher slopes; + mecial moraines: coalesced lateral moraines wnere ‘lacirs converge (not 89 common}; + terminal, end oF retreat moraines: til banks across valleys where ice mating reacnos maximum at the Sacer snouts; «sequence may bel up a valley Dy 2 glacier revealing regulary es OE eT ee fee eeBURIED TOPOGRAPHY ockhoad rele: features of an eroded landscape buried peneath dt Burial Is consequence of deposition after erosion ~ Sammon with Pleistocene climate changes, “Topography of old buried landscape (reckheac) may not “elato to modern landscaps epth to rockhead may be variable andiereguler: greatest and least predictable under post-glacial drt in over- deepened glaciated valleys and where subglacial ‘meltwater channels entrenched bedrock beneath ie, Buried valleys have det of locally greater of unknown sickness, causing addod costs and potential hazare for ‘oundations designed to bear on rockhaad. May lle deneath, oF be unrelated to, modern valloys. Imegular Subglacial channels in rockbead commonly have very 599p sides; often known as tunnel valleys, GLACIAL TILL “ls unsorted and unstattied glacial sediment consisting 3a miture of any oral of cay, sit, sand, gravel, codbiag and boulders ‘Composition relates to the cocks which were eroded. by slacier before deposition, so known as boulder clay ~ but this term can be “isleading asa tl with a sandy matrix may have no clay semponent ‘+ Lodgement tit carriod and deposited at base of ce; ‘Generally over-consoliatedby overriding glacier, anc vith clay content of 10-40% ‘+ Ablation tt: deposited as ice melted from beneath. poorly consolidated, commonly with lay content of +<10%4, as fines removed by meltwater 21 may be locally variable, with lensos or zones of sot slay, running sand or large Boulders. Terminal moraines Say be structurelly complex where glacial readvance has ‘ished tilinto ridges. ‘Bearing capacity may vary trom 400 kPa for ol, sti ‘edgomert tito <100 kPa for ablation ti. Compressibility is generally ow except for clay-rich 2olaton ti. + Excavation costs on St Lawrence Seaway, on USA— Canada border, doubled when dense lodgement ti was found instead of loose ablation til (wich was at outcrop and wrongly expected at depth). ‘Temporary cut faces may be vertical in cohesive ‘dgement i, bu need support in sandy ablation til Permeability is goneraly low but variable, related to ‘hatrx, Ejgiay Dam in North Wales faled in 1928 due to ‘ping through a sandy zone in foundation tit, Erraties: isolated large boulders; may exceed 10 m slameter; may be confuses with rockhead in site -avestigation, Test bores for Sllent Valley Reservoir, ‘sland, stopped at rock at~15 m, but all had hit erates “oekhiead was ~60 m. Driven piles and sheet pling cannot 2 used intl with erates Yee ee eee BY ie eeetisy LOTSCHBERG TUNNEL DISASTER, 1908 Swiss tunnel heading drove through rackhead into Saturated gravels 185 m below valley loc, after falso assumption of sediment depth..No allowance for any reverse gradient on rack floor of glaciated valley | buried beneath alluvial il In realty, prediction of rock profile was impossible without boreholes. Horizontal probes ahoad of tunnel face would have provided ‘waming,Inrushkiled 25 men; tunnol was rerouted KNOCKSHINNOGH MINE DISASTER, 1950 Scottish mine heading broke through rockhead into ‘lacal til beneath hollow tiled with saturated peat on hummocky sheet moraine. Piping fallure of tl alowed Peat inrush to mine, leaving surface sinkhole 100m ‘across. Flat area on ground profile indicated some ‘sont of tl ~ and potential hazard: needed checking belore heading was advanced to reckhead, ein msc a LAKE SEDIMENTS Most lakes are created by glaclal processes — ‘damming behind terminal moraines, and post-glacial flooding of Ice-scoured rock basins, over-deepened lacated valleys and hols on sheet moraines. Lakes of Engish Lake Distt are in glaciated valleys with end moraines. Great Lakes of America are in 2 scoured basins, partly dammed by moraines and onded by post-glacial isostate uplift of ous, Fivers destroy lakes ~ by sediment infil at upper end draining and by erosional lowering of ‘outlet. ‘Thousands of lakes lett at end of Pleistocene nave since been filed andlor drained, leaving areas of ake sediments, Lake (lacustrine) sediments are like alluvium, onerally wth more sis and cays, and loss gravels, 50 commonly nave lower baaring capacity with higher | setloments en recognize lake sediments by fat ground ‘Small ponds in sheet moraine commonly filled with ‘mosses to form pat Sensitive ciays were deposited in inland seas along Pleistocene ico margins in Scandinavia and eastern (Canada (section 34), = ei16 Climatic Variants Semi-Arid Environments Deserts have low rainfalls ~ less than potential evaporation — and may be hot or cold. With the lack of Surface water, wind erosion an transport become effective but periodic water erosion is stil the dominant process, except in rare totally arid deserts. Wadi, or arroyos, are desert valleys, normally dry but ‘subject to fash floods trom isolated rainstorms. Flood fows decrease and eodimont loads Increase downstream, Roads across wadi floors which only rarely flood can be designed to be overfiooded; built on gabions to stop ‘downstream scour and undercuting, Selective erosion is by slow weathering, wind transport {and isolated flood events; leaves residual inselberg ‘mountain, fla-topped mesas and pillar butts in layered rocks, and natural arches where weathering breaches thin rock ribs. Desertification is the slow loss of vagatation and ‘expansion of the degen, asin the Alcan Sahel. [tis {ue 10 any oF all of climatic change, deforestation, ‘vercropping, overgrazing, and soll salt increase by evaporation of irigation war. ‘ARID LANDFORM ZONES BLOWN SAND Wind moves dry sand by sliding, roling or bouncing (Galtation). Sand abrasion undercuts rocks and Structures cose to ground level, Dellaion removes sand leaving desert pavements of polshed pebbles, Dunes are bull by cepostion in sack alr, n edies anc in the foo of obstacles; thoy may be longitudinal (sof) oF transverse to prevailing wind, iregular in shape or crescentic barchans. Active, depositional slopes of dunes have loose sand at angle of repose of $2-24°, while the flatter sides aro eroded by the wind infirm dense sand. Stabilization of migrating dunes may bo achioved by trapping tho sand with Induced vegetation cover, of fences and shelter bets; but impractical if sand supply Is too latge. Sand accumuiatas downwind of structures, walle exposed areas are cleared by the wind; sell: Clearing roads must slope gently upwind. = SS. Corrugations on dit roads develop on gap-graded ‘material (eg sity sand) as the fines aqueeze into voics ‘betwen the larger grains, Well graded sol is stable. zone ‘slope _[wictn | process | sediments crainage hazards 7 [Mountain erosion | (ek) gorges lash foods 2 |Pedenent t2km | steep fans | coarse unsorted | entrenched wadis | “hydrocompaction 5 | Alluvial Plain 4-510 km | gente fans | sand, gravel, tines | shallow wadis | and own sand 4 [Playa basin at | sit,mud, salt | temporary lakes _| salt, blown sand DESERT SEDIMENTS Alluvial fans: banks of flood sediment and debris tows from mountain wadis. May coalesce into bafada, forming the mountain footslope with a sediment apron over stoning bedrock pediment. Sediments rapidly ceposted, unsorted land poorly consolidated. Alluvial plains: extensive lower reaches of fans; mainly ‘sand and gravel in shallow, braided wadi channels; coarse Cobble beds commonly remain from wetter Pleistocene climates. Playas’ at floors of inland basins with temporary ‘evaporating lakes. Mostly fine, sof, weak, sits and clays, ‘often tixtropc, wih sat and gypsim evaporites. Coastal fsabkha zones are sina, Salt: may form thick beds, with cther evaporite in playa ‘and sabiha zones; leo let by evaporation as component of caste sediments, Capilay rise In ine sols may it salt '3 m above water table into road and building structures. ‘Salt erytal growth is major form of desert weathering — of rocks and concroto. Danse, impermoable concrete sufers loss from sat breakdown. Durlerusts: surface layers of cemented sediment, mostly sand or gravel, mineral cemant deposited by evaporating (Groundwater. Most common duricrust Is calerete, oF Caliche, cemented by calcite, about 1 m thick, over Unconsdlidated sediment; should not be confused with rockhoad as bearing capac i low. EA = Profle trough the typical desert landform zones COLLAPSING SOLS: These are mainly the fine grained, low density sols that restructure and compact duo to the additon of water a process known as hydrocampaction, Loess is structureless, yellowish, calcareous sit, of ‘grain size 0.02-0.08 mm, common inte interiors ofthe Forthem continents; much of t was derived by wind 200 m; deeper freezing is prevented by geo-tnermal ‘eat: permafrost < 50 m thick, it may be discontinuous; “nay include lenses of pure ice within Sol and rock Active layer: zone of summer melting and winter ‘efreezing, generally 0:3-6 m deep; frozen ground ceneath prevents drainage, leaving it saturated and ‘sestable in summer, causing widespread slope falure and subsidence. ‘STRUCTURES AND SEDIMENTS {Landslides and sotfuction common in acve layer. ‘Camber folding, valley bulging increase (section 08) Jee heave and collapse forms Irregular cryoturbated ‘xound, sedimentfiled ice wedges, pattemed ground with tone polygons; all create disturbed and vertical oundares in sol active layer. Deeper dit-iled hollows London Clay relate to freezing around artesian roundwater flows. Frost shatter is extonsive, commonly to 10 m deep in ak of southom England Seree, or tals, is coarse, angular slope debris, with angle repose equalte 37", maskin ci foo profile. Many fossil “leistocene serees are inactive In magem climate and so Zain vogelation cover ‘owland periglacial sediments include outwash gravels, Bwial and blown sand, and extensive loess, Clay with flints is solflucted mincure of residual soils and “efiary clasties, widespread but thin on English chalk aterops. SOLIFLUCTION This isthe downslope movement of saturated debris — a type of wet soll cregp moving about 1 metre per year. It ‘can occur on ary saturated slope, but is most common in the summer-thawed acive layer of periglacial slopes ‘which cannot drain through the deeper permattost, Head is unsorted, soltucted debris t may appear similar to glacial tis formed entirely of ocal upslope materia Head can flow by plastic deformation, butis typically wel sheared, with basal, intermediate and circular slip Surfaces. The shears reduce the strenght lw rsd. Solifluetion flows, up to 1000 m long, may move on slopes as low as 2°; commonly 2-4 m thick, but may accumulate in ayers to depths o> 1m on concave slopes and as valley infil, Head forms most easily on slopes of shale, mudstone, clay land chalk: coombe rock Is chalk head. Most slopes in Britain, steeper than 5° on these rocks and outsige the Devensian ce limits, can ba expected fo have a veneer of shoared, unstable head. ‘Carsingion Dam, an earth embankment in Derbyshire, falled in 1984 before the reservoir was filed. A slip surface developed through both the weak clay core (of lunusual shape) an¢ a layer of head left on the shale bedrock beneath tne placed fil, The head was wrongly imorprated asin stu weathored shale, and the design assumed an undisturbed angle of friction ¢ = 20°, but Shear surfaces reduced its strength to.a residual = 12°. This mistake, and the rebuld, cost £20M, yet Periglacial head is widespread on the shale outerops of Derayenire and could have Been expected PERMAFROST ENGINEERING Subsidence, flow and heave occur on poorly drained sits and clays when ground ice Is melted; sands and gravels are generaly thaw stable. Conservation of tno pormatrost is gonraly best. Any disturbance of natural insulation (by soll and vegetation) 5 summer thaw and depresses permafrost beneath buildings and roads. Block supports or hated bullaings, with lear airspace beneath, can be stable on gravel active layer over proserved permafrost Plies into stable frozen ground generally need to reach 2 tons), concrete Tolrpods, or massive wall faced with celular concrete Fellected waves off sold face may induce scour. Sea walls may cost $54Mkm. Economical altornative on Jorg eroding coast (eg Holderness) is to create hard points ~ short sections of stable, fully defended shore ~ ith intervening coast le unprotected, Down-drit. of 2ach hard point, erosion creates a shellow bay which irape Beach eodiment, Eventual, crenulalad coast Should become stable, but compensation is needed for ‘hort-tarm accelaralad land oss between hard points BEACH CONTROL Groynes aro timber, concroto or stool balers across each which prevent or reduce longshore drift by 1g sediment. Groyne spacing should be double igh to effectively stabiize beach, Offshore breakwater, parallel to shore, absorbs wave gy and causes beach accumulation in its leo ~ similar to on a natural tmbolo. Beach may be stabllzed of expanded by pumping Seawater from a buried porous pipeline. Wave upwash adds sand to foreshore, but a drained beach absorbs and feducos wave backwash ~ 60 that sand le not swept back ut to sea. Aetive spits, bars and barter islands migrate inland mainly by wave overwash. Any development, with trosion defences on the exposed outer face, causes thinning due to continued sediment loss from the inner face. The Spurn Head spit, England, and the Carolina bartior islands, USA, aro now precariously thin; they shouldbe allowed fo break up and reform ata stable sito further inland, as artificial defences will become increasingly expensive, CHANNELS AND HARBOURS Harbours, cut into the coastine or bull out between breakwaters, are stable on a coast which Is an erosional source area of overall sediment losses, Harbour mouths may develop obstructing sand bars if longshore drit is strong. Jeties deflect sediment dri; they may develop spits off thelr ends and cause downarft beach starvation, Natural clearance of harbour and lagoon channels relies on tidal scour, which must exceed deposition by beach dit; larger tidal volumes and flow velocities BEACH STARVATION ‘Sediment inout and output, by Iongshore dit, must be In balance to maintain a stable beach. Many artificial ‘measures ~ trapping drt on a groyned beach, reducing erosion with @ sea wall, deliecting sediment at a harbour mouth ~ reduce onward dhit, and therefor cause beach starvation at downs sos. ‘This may cause beach loss or renewed erosion (as at Folkestone Warren, section 36) at now sites downdrit of ‘engineered sections. Beach nourishment by artificial Input of sediment is an expensive alternative to downer extensions ofthe intlal contr! measures. Hallsands village stood on a rock platform with a | protective beach infront off, 0n the Devon coast. In | 1897, ofshore shingle dredging steepened the seabed | sediment profie. Natural response was lowering and Femoval of beach within fve years: so houses were ‘exposed to waves, and destroyed in a storm in 1917 SEA LEVEL CHANGES Pleistocene sea lovels fell by about 150 m when water was trapped in continental ice sheets, and some land 1s wera depreseed as much as 60 m by loe weight. Drowned valleys (ras) were flooged by sea level iso al the lee Age end, after having beon cut by rivers ‘raining tothe lower sea levels; some now form natural fours, as Milford Haven and Plymouth; others have diment fils, leaving doop coastal buried valleys Raised beaches have abandoned cits, dry sea caves and fossil beach sediments; many wore cut in ice- opressed coastlines at end of Ice Age after sea evel nad fisen but before land had Isostaticly rebounded; Scotland's raised beaches are due to its Pleistocene ice burden; California's are due to plate boundary upit Unconsolidated ralsed beach sediments may be clays, sands andior gravels, typically with lateral variation, improve scour clearance, so larger lagoons and narrow be aay eae Serta a cat ap Gar ———etoat_| eS an betes | Meggan ‘These are large waves generated by seabed | ‘oarthquake movements; they form in series of 1-8 | ‘waves. In the open ocean they are long and low, but they slow down in shallow water, and can bull up to 10 m high approaching a shoreline; they reach ‘maximum heights in tapering ines, Most tcunamis occur inthe Pactic Ocean, and take up to 24 hours to travel from the eartnquake locaton to distant shores. The practical defence for such rare ‘events is warning and coastal evacuation; the Pacific Is covered by an efficient international warning systom. Modern sea level rise is about 1200 mm/100 years worldwide, due to glacier molting which may increase vith artificial global warming. Local tectonic movernants may greatly increase or reduce the local eftect. Rising sea levels, or ground subsidence, accelerate coastal erosion, cif retreat, coastal flooding, beach losses and barrier island migration. Greatest effect is ‘on low eastern coastlines of both Britain and USA, 3518 Groundwater Rainfall (precipitation) is the ultimate source of all {rash water, and when it lands on the ground surface it 's dispersed in three ways: Evapotranspiration: combination of evaporation from ‘open water and transpiration by plants, both returning water to the almosphere; in temperate climates It may ‘ary from 20% ofthe rafal on open ils to 70% fom ‘wooded lowiand. Funott: surface water flow into streams and svers; Increases with low rock pecmeabilly, steep slopes, intense rafal and urbanization Infiltration: seepage into the ground to become Groundwater; important on permeable rocks, and wher Funot i sow. Grounawater is all water flowing through or stored within the ground, in both rocks and soils, i is derived ftom infitration, and is lost by flow to surface springs. and seepage out trough the sea bed Water budget isthe balance of flows for any part or the whole of a combined groundwater and eurtace water system; a natural budget Is easily disturbed by man’s activities, notably where land drainage or urbanization reduce infitration and groundwater recharge. PERMEABILITY OF ROCKS Permeabilty Is the abilty of a rock to transmit water ‘through its interconnected voids, ‘Aquifer: rock with significant permeability, sutable for groundwater abstraction, eg, sandstone. ‘Aquiclude: impermeable rock with static water held in poorly connected voids, 0.9. cay. Aquiluge: impermeable rock with no voids, €.9. tnfractured granite ‘Agutara: rock with very low permeabilty, unsuitable for ‘abstraction but significant in regional water budgets ‘2g. aiistone, Permeability (= hydraulic conductivity = coefficient of ‘permeability = K) » How through unit area of a material in Unit time with unit hydraulic head. Kis expressed as a velocity, correctly as metres/second, mare convenianty ‘3s metresiday (in America as Meinzer units = gallons{day/ ‘square foot = 0.0408 m/day) Intinsic permeability (kK), exprossed in darcys, is also a {uncton of viscosity, only sigaiticant in considering oll and {985 flows through rock Groundwater velocities are normally much lower than the K values because natural hydrauile gradions are far less than the 1 In 1 of the cosfcint definition. Typical ‘ground-water low rates vary irom Im/day to Imiyear, but are far higher through limestone caves. Porosity: % volume of voids or pore spaces in a rock ‘Specific yeld:% volume of water which can grain freely fom a rock; it must be less than the porosity, by a factor related to the permeabiily, and indicates the ‘groundwater resource value of an aquifer ‘Typical hydrological values for rock % | % (Granite 1) 0s shale ait \Ctay so | 3 [Sanstone (ractured) | 5 1% | 8 [Sane 20 so | 28 \Gravet 300 2s | 2 Limestone (cavernous) | erratic ce Iona 20 a | 4 Fracture zone 50 0 AQUIFER CONDITIONS ‘Water table (= groundwater surface) Ig the level in tn rocks below which all voids are wate-fild: ie genaral follows the surlace topography, but with less rele, an ‘eels the ground surface at lakes and most rivers. Vadose water drains under gravity within an aerate: aquiter above the water table. Phreatic water flows laterally under hydrostatic prossur beneath the water table; ts the resource for all high-yek ols; there is less at greater depths and pressures, anc ‘most rocks are dry af depths > 3 km. Capillary water isos above the water table by surtace tension, by very itl in gravels, by upto 10 min clays Hydraulic gradient is the siope of the water table Created by the pressure gradiont necessary to overcome {rictional resistance and drive the phreatic low through the _2cuiler rock. Water table is steeper winere permeabilty it tow or fow s high typical gradlentis 1100 in good aquifer Groundwatar flow is in direction of water table slope, ‘dented in unpumped wels. Rivers normally have water table sloping towards them with groundwater fow into them. Ephemeral rivers le ‘above water table, and leak into the aguler Perched aquller les above he regional water table, Uncontined aquifer has vadose zone in upper part Confined aquifer has artosian water hola beneath an ‘overlying aquiclude, with a head of artesian pressure tc ‘rive the water above the aquiler, pernaps to nso to (rund level; artesian wator Ie common in aluval sand lay sequences and In complex landstigas. Q = Kbwi, whore K permeability, b = aqulter thickness, w = aquer width land i= hydraulic gradient. This is Darcy's law, easly | Calculated for a simple geological stucture or as | Tough guide for flow through a cut face: tne maths is more complex for convergent flow to a well or spring ‘where the water table steapens to compensate forthe decreasing cross-sectional area of the aqui Groundwater flow EP rate eset a SAREE areata ee pesion Lotoraeaarae tenes Aquifer Conditions‘TYPES OF PERMEABILITY Intergranular: dituse flow, between grain, in sands and gravels, poorly cemented sandstones and young porous limestones, Fracture: through joins, in nearly all rocks: erratic flow in fault zones, but dense joint systems provide aiffuse low in sandstones, chalk and young basalts; most fractures are tight at depths >100m. Secondary: groundwater flow increases permeabilly by solution, notably in limestones; non-ailuse condu flows eralie through enlarged fissures and caves, GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT Springs are natural groundwater overiows from aquitrs many aro capped or ponded for suppWy: a large spring yields 0-1-1-0 mls; Smallor springs aro usod in "ural areas; imestone caves may feed larger springs. Ganats are ancient, orzontal adits hand-dug to a sloping water table and freely draining to the surface Wells are hand-dug or driled to below the water table; hand-dug wells may have Morizontal adits to intersect productive fracture zones; wells need pumping unless thay are artesian; well yield depends on depth below water table, diameter and aquifer permesbilty: a good wel yields 0-1 ms, or about & lres'sim depth Below Water table; Improve yield by blasting to raise fracture permeabilty near wel, or acd injection in limestone, Cone of depression in water table is formed where pumped flow canverging on a wall creates st hydraulic gradient; the depth of the cone ‘tawdown, related to permeability and flow. Reservoir impoundment raises the local water tbl ‘groundwater leaks through a ridge if water table slope Is {eversed in an aqui tat reaches a nearby valley. Pump testing of a well determines its potential yield, and aso the regional permeability of the aquller. CinaTAR a KARST GROUNDWATER Cavernous limastones do not conform to normal ‘groundwater rules because caves carry water in erratic ‘and unpredictable pattorn. Limestones have complex water tables unrelated to topography, Karst groundwater is dificult to abstract or control, as ‘wells and boreholes can just miss major conduits. | Cave streams transmit undiluted pollution to springs. PORE WATER PRESSURE “The groundwator head provides the pore water pressure (p.wp) in saturated rocks and sols, Increased p wip. may cause slope fallur (section 33) Decreased p.w.p. may permit or cause subsidence in clays (section 28) In fractured rocks, joint water prossure is equivalent to wp. and is extical to slopo stably (saction 22} GROUNDWATER CONTROL Dry excavation below the water table is possible within ‘coalesced cones of doprassion from pumpod well points ‘ound a ste perimeter. Groundwater barriers permit dry excavation without lowering the surrounding water table; barriers may be steel sheet pilos, concrete diapheagm walls, grovted Zones or ground freezing, in order of rising cost: ‘grouting or freezing can aiso Control ising groundwater in thick aquiers, Slopes may be drained by ditches, adits or well Capillary rise in embankments is prevented by a basal gravel layor. Packer test measures local pormoability of rock and aquifer properties between {wo inflatable packor seals in'a Borehole [k= oinevoyente His measured to water table ne ‘orto midpoint of test zone i this is above water table. me] Faling head testis beter or low permeabities, GROUNDWATER RESOURCES Aquifer stablly only ensured if abstraction < recharge. ‘Abstraction > recharge is groundwator mining ~ aquier is depleted; water tablo fails, springs and welts may cry up, pumping costs increase, artesian wells may cease to low, resource wil ulimatey be lost Aquifer recharge is possible through intake wells or leaky rosorvoirs Artesian water emerges unpumped from @ flowing artesian well Large resources may tein synctines. Groundwater quality is ensured by aquifer filtration and the underground residence time in contact with absorptive clays and cleansing bacteria in sol. Potton is most likely in shallow alluvial gravels and cavernous limestones; major pollutants are tank leaks, land hydrocarbons trom road dans in recharge zones. Waterhardness is carbonate {imestons) and sulphate, Villa Farm disposal site, near Coventry, separated liquids In lagoons in old sand quarry 50 m across. Fluid iss of 7000 my was infitration to sand aquifer Poltion had litle radial spread, But formed plume 1600 m long in drecion of hydraulic gradient. Saltwater intrusion near a coaatine fe caused by overpumping which disturbs the saltwater interface beneath the freshwator ions fed by land infitration. As saltwater has a doneity of 1.025, the reshwater fons floats ont tke an Iceberg and the inverted cone inthe interface is 40 times higher than the matching cone of depression is dot a719 Ground Investigation Ground investigation assesses ground conditions prior to slariing a construction projet Site investigation includes legal and environmental ‘speci, in ation to the ground investigation Objectives of @ ground investigation vary with the size and nature of the proposed engineering works, but Usual include one or more of * Suitabilty of the site for the proposed project; + Site conditions and ground properies; + Potential ground cificuties andor instabilities; + Ground data to permit design of the structures Planning of the investigation then has to be dvected Towards ascertaining data on three diferent aspects ofthe {ground conations: * Drift and soll conditions, which, especially in the cease af cohesive clay soll, Involves laboratory tests ‘and application of sol mechanics techniques; + Rockhead, whose depth is commoniy significant to both excavations and foundations; + Bedrock, whose sttength properios and structural variations and lkelhood of cortaning buried caves are all relevant. (COSTS OF GROUND INVESTIGATION ‘The extent and cost of ground investigations vary ‘enormously depending on the nature ofthe project and the local complexity and/or diicuities of the ground conditions Expressed as percentages of project costs, the tabulated guideline gues ilustrate he contrast between project types but cannot show the contrasts due to ‘tering ground conditions. ‘Typical Ground Investigation Costs Project __| ‘Total costs _| Buldings | 005-02 | Roaes 0215 | Dame | ‘The principle of any ground investigation has to be hati Is continued unt te ground conditions are known and Understood well enough forthe civil engineering work to proceed safely ‘This principle can and should be applied almost regardless ‘of cost ~ even a doubling o the ste investigation budget will generally add < 1% fo the projet cost = but aftor an inadequate ground investigation, unforeseen ground conditions can, and frequently do, raise project costs by 10% or more. Some recont statisti rom Britain clealy demonstate the Importance of adequate ground investigation "One third of construction projects are delayed by {ground problems. ‘+ Unforeseen ground conditions are the main cause of pling claims, ‘+ Half of over-tender costs on road projec are due to inadequate ground investigation or poor interpreta- tion of the cata Savings on the ground investigation budget generally Drove to be false economies. You pay for a ground investigation ‘whether you have one or not ‘SEQUENCE OF STAGES Initial stage "Desk study of available data Site vist and visual assessment + Praliminary report and feldwork plan Main stage + Flelowork {Goclogical mapping # necessary Geophysical survey appropriate “Tal pits, trenches and borenoles + Laboratory testing, mainly of sols * Final report Review stage ‘Monitoring during excavation and construction ‘These slages are in order of ascending cost so they should form the time sequence 1 be cost-etectve. It's essential to start with the desk study. As a bare minimum, this is the examination and interpretation of published geological maps, and itis @ basis for planning all further investigation. [Any tendency to start an investigation with boreholes is both inefficient and uneconome. ineficient because itis ten vory dificult to Interpret borohole logs without tho Context of some knowledge of the local geology as broadly interpreted from a desk study. Uneconomic because the boreholes may only yield data already avalladle and cannot address any ground problems ‘hat should have been identfied by a deek study DIFFICULT GROUND CONDITIONS An efficient ground investigation recognizes, during the Inia desk study, the possi or probabilities of any specie dificult ground conditions eecurring within the project sit Itinen directs the fieldwork exploration to either ‘eliminate the considered possibilies or determine the {extent ofthe ground dificult. ‘The mast cornmen dificult ground conditions ar: Soft and variable drt materials; ‘Weathared, weak or fractured bedrock; "Natural or tical cavities within bedrock; ‘Active or potential slope failure and landsiing; ‘Compressive ancfil with or hour son spots Flowing groundwater or methane gas: * Unexpected old building foundations UNFORESEEN GROUND CONDITIONS Construction of a multi-storey car park in Plymouth Provided a good example of a project delay due 10 Lunoreseen ground conditions. ‘The site extended over 200 % 70 m, wih a complete layer of drit and therefore no bedrock exposure, 1S boreholes found rockhead at 5-10 m deep. Piling work then found @ deep rockhead gully with steep sides; his extended across nearly 10% of the ‘te: al the boreholes hac misead i Project was delayed, while 100 probes were used to further explore roekhead, Bored ples wore needed over sloping rockhead, The guly had been formed by solution of a narrow unmapped imestone band: it had been impossible to foresee. Inthis case, the need for more exploration probes was only apparent with the benetit of hindsight. 38WALKOVER SURVEY [An early site visit combines with the desk study to recognize any possiblities of difficult ground Conditions, so that a planned feld exploration is cost- effective, Check-lst of aspects requiring only observation: Correlate groun ‘vegetation may relat Local exposures: check stream banks, road cuts ‘and quarries for geological details and sol profes Land use: signs may remain of past use for mining, ‘ld tips, backil, quarries, buildings, basements, Physical features of ground may be interpreted; ‘oscarpments, morain Moodplains, peat fiats easily recognized, Breaks of slope: all must have a reason: edge of ‘erosion profile, geological boundary, or artifical Lumpy ground: created by hollows or hummocks or a ‘combination of both. May be caused by any of a vanely ‘of conditions: sinkholes, crown holes, mine subsidence, rmineshafts and waste heaps, quarry waste, moraine, fandslip, solitluction. all except moraine provide potential appropriate engineering hazards and require Investigaton. Existing structures: check for distress in buldings and stabilty of old cut slopes. Landslip: cisturbed ground, displaced or damaged Stuctures, deformed treas. Groundwater: sinkholes, springs, seepages, soltional features, stream lovols, flood potential PHOTOGEOLOGY Geological interpretation of alr photog valuable part of the desk study of some sites. Interpret from verical air photographs, scale normally about 1:10 000 on contact prints Photographs taken with 60% overlap along fignipath, ‘0 view through slereascope to see 3-0 image with vertical exaggeration of ree, Use in ground investgton to identity local contrasts, anomalies and roll features visible on photos and vwtich ola to ground condone Black and white photos: widely available and usualy most cost effective. Colour photos: expensiva, and colour may disquise some features. Infra-red photos: sensitive to temperature, so useful to trace emerging groundwater from eeapages and small springs. ‘Multi-spectral Images: not widely available at large scale, and neod specialist interpretation. All photos ‘oveal litle of the geology in urban areas and beneath thick wee cove, Interpretation of geology Photographs show vegetation and soll; generally these are related to dit and bedrock therefore conrasis fon photos can be Interpreted as contrasts in ground consitons, Interpretation is largely based on three factors: Tone: generally related to water content of soll and plants; dark = wet clay; light = dry sand, Texture; includes drainage channel density and patterns, rock banding and lineations, and patchy oF motted ground, ‘rend: single linear features or correlated anomalies, may trace geological boundaries or structures. Geomorphologial features can be directly identified, notably landsips, moraines, sinkholes, old channels, terraces, breaks of slope, etc Distinguish man-made features by association, 0.9. ploughing pattems relate to field boundaries, Land use may relate to rock or sail ype. Ground types on photographs ‘Alluviun: light sand an dark clay tones, level ground, cchannals, meanders. Glacial tit: Irregular roliet, hummocks and drumiins, patchy tones. LLandslips: arcuate head scars, concave slopes, debris. hummocks, tobate toes. | Bedrock: angular jointed textures in stronger rocks; most bare rock has lighter tone, notably white limestone. Flock permeabiliy: relate to drainage channel density: many = clay; few = sandstone; none = limestone. Structures: may show by linear trends, tonal zones. Faults: straight features, may disappear under dni (Old shafts, active oiled sinkholes: spot anomalies with dark or ight tonal contrast Air photograph trom the Yorkshire Dales "North i top left: scale bar is approx. 300 metre. Flot cannot be seen without stercopair valloy at lower "ight has high ground to both NW ana NE. ‘A: bare limestone pavement with clear jointing bare screes and grassed lower slopes. ‘scars along contours in horizontal limestone, tongue of glacial tit buries limestone scar spring from limestone feeds stream flowing over impermeable rock. valley floor in sot slates wth dit and sol cover bands of greywacke form small outcrop scars. {toe planation, tarm and gravel road Qn moQB Ey20 Desk Study Every site investigation should begin witha desk study. ‘This ie an office-based exercise (Heretore Inoxpensive) In gathering published and availabe information. {An inital site visit is made during the desk study: ‘ground conditions are more readily visualized once tne Ste has been seen, and potential ground problems can bottor bo appreciated (section 19) Sources of data vary with type, size and location of site But generally fal into five groups, as below. ‘They also vary between countries: Britain has a greator variety of historical and recorded data than mary and Provides a comprehensive example of the desk study fmateriat which ean be sought GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND RECORDS British Geological Survey (BGS) has published and Unpublished data which is eadiy avaiable Published geotogical maps are normally the fist desk study target; fora small investigation oa uncomplicated ground they may provide all the data required. Printed material avaible from the BGS includes: ‘+ Map and 200k series tabulated opposite, ‘Reports on applied geology related to planning and evelopment, with multiple. derived” maps and engineering data summaries; avalable for 60 urban faroas, as valuable guides to dificult ground. Digital data is now the main BGS output, over the web forlicensed regular users, orto single requests, Dightap has digtlzed map for the whole of Britain at scales of 1:10 000 or 1:50 000 data always updated (so botter than paper copies), avaiable on demand as digital fle or printout with appropriate descriptive ted. Layers of data include geology, drift thickness, landsip, made ‘ground, and outine geotiazard potertil Geoscience Data index al wirn.bgs.ac-uklgeodata has, uline geological and surtace maps to locate sites of borehole records, maps and reports coverage and ists of all availabe data, with an ordorng tact. Enquiries @ibgs.ac.uk wl produce on request- "Maps, reporis, borehole logs, mining records, ste investigation reports and laboratory tast data Hold by the National Geological Records Centr, ‘+ Rports on spocilied areas, sites oF geohazards based on intrpretatons by a geologist, these are Consultancy reports produced at commercial rato. National surveys. on mining instabilly (1962) and on natural caves (1984) wore produced for DoE and aro ‘avaliable In hard copy; useful guides to potential hazards In unfamiliar areas, Data trom the landslide survey (1988) is now incorporated in BGS database, [BGS library and borehole core store, near Nottingham, fare acoessiie at nominal charges for cormmercal use, LOCAL SOURCES ‘Much detail on ground conditions from local residents, farmers, historians, societies, universkies and council authorities. Difficult to trace without local knowledge, fften for diminishing returns, but can yield usetul pointers. Data Sources in USA US Geological Survey (USGS) publishes a huge list ‘of geological maps, reports, topographic maps, air Photographs and digital data; accessible through | tww9.u898.gov or at the offices of State Geological | Surveys (which also have their own publications). 40 MINING RECORDS Coal mining has lett large areas of undermined, Potentially unstable ground in Britain and in many other Counts, Coal Authority is obliged by law to keep and provide dala on all aspects of Goal mining In Briain, Manstiels oie, at 01625 427162, or chock wwr.coal.gov.uk Mining reports for engineering enguires cost £34, and oly known past, present and future underground and ‘opencast mining, recorded shaits and adits, and claims ‘or subsidence damage since 1984, ‘Current mining: recorded on seam plans at 1:10 000; these show recent mining and directions of working, and {are avalabe for inspection on request. ‘Subsidence predietions are nol provided, but advice ‘may be gained from a consultant or the mine operator Past mining is incompletely recorded, records are ‘only complete since 1947, and seam maps before then fare generalized and incomplete. As old records are Unreliable, assume al workabie seams (nolably < 100 m ‘deep, above war tabo, > 0.6 m thick) have been worked, Unless proved otherwise (normally by boreholes) ‘Abandonment plans, required by law when a mine ‘losae, have offen B60 lost; many with Coal Authoiy at Mansfield, available fr inspection; can give useful deta, ‘out may be cifcu o relate to present locations. ‘Shaft register records al known shafts in coatfields, on 1.2500 maps with fles noting death, size, capping and treatment if known. Sites are noted in mining report and ‘xtracs of full data are avaliable at £11 per shat ‘Opencast mining sites, and the baciled areas, are regarded on 1:10 000 maps. Mining other than coal nas no controling authority, so records on old slone and motal mines ae extromaly ‘orraie in coverage and relabilly, and can be dificult 10 trace. Prime sources are county authoriies (out BGS in ‘Scotland); some wth many mines (ine Derbyshire and ‘Comwall) nave systematic records and search fits; ‘thors have litle or no data submerged in archives. Records from a nationwide searc after the Lofthouse mine disaster in 1972 (due to forgotton workings) is now held by the Coal Authorty or the counties ‘The lost shafts of Wigan. in 1958, 500 old mine shatts wore known within boundaries of Lancashce town of Wigan in 1980, after years of redevelopment and ste claarance, 1700 shafts were recordedin the same area How many more shafts remain unmapped? TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS. (Old maps show features no longer visible on the ground ‘and theretore omited trom later maps. Best aro lest fdiion ordnance surveye (6"= 1 mile) of about 1870; ‘mostly in local ioraries for reference. ‘Simple comparisons with new maps may show (Old quaries, mines, bulcings, past land use: + Old streams, ponds, valloys lot due to lanai * Erosion changes in rivers, coastlines and landsip. AIR PHOTOGRAPHS Black-and-white pholographs, around 1:10 000, widely avaiable, bout £16 per pint, covering 2 km square. Useful for sito detail and shotogestogical interpretation In certain conditions (section 19) Source: National Air Photograph Library at Swindon, wvw.englsh-hertage.org.ukknowledgonenrBRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - MAIN PUBLICATIONS. Gaverage and avaiabiiy Trfoaraon OB Maps 150000 | s20 shoots forEnaland ans Was; | Separata sole ana dt combine, eons; ‘most now avaiable 3s paper eapies; | ouerop boundaries and dps ony: no underground data: ‘Complte coverage in dig fr, ‘sth bef desrptlons of rock an ci ype! ‘valble os extracts on comand Iendsip, camber and oto eatures on newer maps. 125000 | 25 eels only. ofaroas of gasogcsl | Information as on te 50 000 maps orlecalineresi ine some new towns, _| sath benefit of lrger scale T7005 | 753 af Bains avatsble on demand’ —| Sold and ari geology, shown wih minal coeur as digital fle or pin-out some underground data and boreal dens | paper shesis onsale wile stocks ast._| show landsps, made ground, dockfl snd some shat Texts Regional | 20 guides coverthewhole of Stain, | Sxoad ovenaws wth rock descriton Keyed to gecogica history ues 22ch wh 100-150 pages, sel where 150.000 maps donot nave ancugh ack descrpion, rinimal data on drift mato, and sone on engineering ology, ‘Shear ‘Be pages Te aah FEO 000 aS, ‘aluabe fussed eviews ohalpinerretaion of map data Explanations | excent wnereolt'argor memoria rint_| only evalaie for recently puoiened maps Techniat | Sheel devarpions are d@ ar more ‘Compronensive reviews of mapped and enarded godly Reports pages, each for one or mere 110.000 | masses oF cesenpive geological cla, Keyed saboraphcal ‘maps shee, or 150 000 map ‘captors on crit Secimens ard mining are usualy shot ‘most ony printed on demand, or data is_| late atone have use summaries of hyerope009y, supoled sped toa map exact ‘geological zara, slop stably and made Grune, ince old 1350000 set memois, _| but ack ne cea inthe urban geology tanning reports ie 190 metros [1864 Mine Abandonment Plan séteet_| [1052 Toposraphy Gaby % = 2 Yo oY ° 2 2 [ise2 Low Main Seam Pan 110560 | [igi0 Teposraphy e om ° Yossi ‘a Casogy 10008 ~ os fe Lao Longe Be sew wwintes | be 500 engine Geooar ‘zsc00} [iam mined Secon Desk study information ona level site with dificult ground conditions within a Midland coalfield Extracts tom rallablo old and madem maps, each redrawn to cover the same area, rom criginals at stated scales. “121 Ground Investigation BOREHOLE DRILLING METHODS Holes may be driled with a great variety of avallable rigs; mathods fall mainly into Gictated by the need for soll or rock per required sample or core recovery. LIGHT PERCUSSION DRILLING Mobile Atrame, easily erected, with power winch Stee! shell is drven Into ground by weight repeatedly dropped 1-2 m and ied by cable over Avframe (hence ‘cable and too! rg) Only for shallow exploration of sols and sot clay rocks. In clays, smooth shells driven by welght cropped onto itand soil acheres ins {In sands, whole weighted shell may be surged and ‘dropped, and soil is held inside by hinged clack valve. {Gan add light rotary dive for auger dri in clays (hence ‘shell and auger rig) but less sultable for most site Investigations as sample is cistubed. May use chisel head for limited rock penetration. Widely used, a all skes need sol investigation; usualy with 100 mm sampler inside 180 mm casing, raaching Co ag a opis of 15-40 m. L Alterative sels for ight Alternative di bits for rock percussion ots ‘penetration TRIAL PITS and TRENCHES Cheapest mothod of shallow soil exploration Dug with any site excavator with oackhos. Usually 2-5 m deep; may need temporary support oF safely cage 1 allow ful inspection of exposed wale. Espocially useful in variable man-made fils, Valuable in cistutbed or slipped material, including solflucted head, as shear surfaces may be recognized In clean cut walls and notin borehole cores Can cut block samples, of drive in U100 sample tubes with backhoe, or test load a plate on pit oor. Trenches can expose rockhead In search for tractures or outcrops. ‘Avold trenches precisely on foundation sites; backfill with compacted sol or lean concrete, Pits and boreholes may noed sealing to provent groundwater movement through breached aquiclude 2 Boreholes Light percussi ‘construction project in ROTARY CORING TTruck-mounted rig with ful rotary dive which can be applied with downward force. ‘Air, water oF Bentonite mud flush, pumpes down inside dll string, and washes chippings back up outside. Tip of cylincrical dri bit is tugsten carbide or with diamond inserts (hence ‘siamond ailing). Normally ‘double tube barrel holds full core in inner non-rotating barrel about 1-3 m long. an penetrate any sailor rock to =100 m deop. Commonly use N size, providing 5@ mm ciameter core from cased hole of 89 mam diameter. Larger diameter is better In weaker rocks. Continuous fight olow-stam auger ean be used in lays; ‘at common in exploration. Derbyshire ROCK PROBING Rotary percussion rig with hammer action capable of rock penetration, “Ticone roller or drag bits with alr or watar flush to remove chippings (hence ‘open hole dling). “Truck mounted to provige rotation and downward force large rigs can reach >100 m deep. No core recovery (honce ‘destructive driling) but much ‘cheaper than diamond ering, Penetration rate incites strength of rock, sll or voids; flushed chippings can be examined; llush loss also Indleates cavities, Wash boring uses water flushing in driven shell to probe sells (common in USA but rare in Bai). Hand held pneumatic dil can reach 8 m in uniform rock. Used mainly to locate cavities In rock and rocknead beneath soilsBOREHOLE RECORDS [Al boreholes must be logged as completely as possible to be cost stfecive. Bost to use conventional symbols for ease of reading. Log must record atleast the data on this example, on some style of ‘conventional prepared booking Sheet, though there is no single al-purpose format Deseription, thickness, depth, anc the scale pictorial log provide a basie understanding In sity tests quantity ground Properties, Standard Penetration Test is easiest borehole strength test for solls; N value increases with strength (Section 26). Or use Cone Penetration Test (section 26) Point Load Strength is fild test on borehole core of rock (section 24). Fock Quality Designation is measure of fracture density in rock (Gection 25), and core recovery is measure of woak broken 20n: both values increase with quality and integrity of rock mass, Water table andintlow points should be recordod, and permeability may be determined by packer tests (ection 18), Sample points noted. Trent Oriling| ‘sonny cop reece Fa 2 © [ae | aro 2 |S [otal SS [too FS onsen : | ale pore en a a fe) 2 se tas St = / |“ * 12a [Perse gey-yotom saree, calaiiamiaee—| seo. yy merore SDSS LE LLY IE o i aan $e [aie Isao HOW MANY BOREHOLES, HOW DEEP? Spacing: buildings 10-30 mapart eadines 30-300 m apart; landsies at least Sn line for profile. Depth: 1.5 x foundation width, Below founding depth, plus at least one deeper contol holo to 10 m below foundation unless rockhead found: ‘3m below rockhiead to prove sound rock; robes to 3-10 m to locate rock caviies. These are only rough guidelines, Spacing and depth may be varied considerably n ight of local conditions and appropriate to size of structure, Cavernous rock may need probes at each column base. Old mine working may need proving to dopths of 30 m, {and location of id shafts may need probes on 1 m gid BOREHOLE COSTS Driling costs are best estimated as accumuiation o: + Cost to supply rig onto site + Costof set-up on each new hole + Cost per metre of hae dled Table shows approximate relative costs (2001 figures in£) [ene + parnale + perm Lightpercussion, sol-<1omdeep| G00 9014 Sromoeep| 300 9016 Probing in ook oreo 04902 Roary coring i rock 304040 ial pis, 4m deep, backlog | 250 or 4 Costs vary with numberof in situ tots requires. Aolary rig coring dit and rock to a depth of 30 m for a Probes afe cheaper on close-spaced grid and in uniform road briage in North Wales rocks which do not require casing of hole, “622 Geophysical Surveys ‘The techniques of geophysical exploration involve the remote sensing of some physical property of the ground Using instruments which in moet cases remain on the ground surtace, Passive methods accurately measure earth proportios {and search for minute anomalies (local dstorions within the overall pattern). These include gravity and magnetic surveys (and radioactivity which is inapplicable to site investigation). Induction methods send a signal into the ground and pick it up again nearby. These Include seismic, electical, leetromagaetc and radar surveys. Interpretation of geophysical surveys invariably requiros somo borehole data, either to callrate profes or to testi anomalies. ‘Geophysical surveys have two main uses in ground investigations: + iling in detail between boreholes: + Searching a large area for anomalies belore dling ‘Gaophyscs is low cost compared to multiple boreholes. Ican be cost-effective in site investigation in certain lificut ground conditions where a particular type of ‘geophysical survey may be appropriate; there Is co Single geophysical system applicable to all problems, GROUND PROBING RADAR (GPR) Trotley-mounted transmitter and receiver record microwave electromagnetic radar signals reflected from {ground contrasts. High cost equipment, needs trained Operator and assistant {Ground cross-section is produced as computer output; some outputs are complicated by. reflection interference, but many are realistic deplays. Calibrate ddopth and materials with borehole, United depth penetration Is main restriction: 10-20 m In dry sand, only 1-3 m in wet clay. Gan tow behind car at 5 kr for continuous profile Gan use to map shallow drt profi, fled sinkholes, shallow void. Ground radar rote of drift and rockhead ora road project in Scotland. Transverse length is 200 m ELECTRICAL SURVEYS Numerous methods applied successfully to mineral ‘exploration. Resistivity aurvoys with Wenner arrays of four ground lecrodes can be used to map lateral and vertical changes In ground conations. Difficult interpret; imited use in ste investigation. ‘SEISMIC SURVEYS ‘Shock waves, produced by hammer-blows, explosions, tc, ae rellected or rotracted on gociogical boundaros. Reflection seismic ‘Soismic waves ‘ellected from deep strata boundaries. ‘Successfully used forall prmary oll exploration, Dificult and litte usee in shallow ground investigation. Refraction seismic Selemic waves. refracted at shallow geological boundaries and returmed to surface. Drop-nammer or 3 kg sledge hammer adequate fr 20 m penetration; deoper with explosive shock source; small ‘Geophones detect wave arrivals: ow cost equipment, 2 fan operation, FRtracton relies on faster layer at depth: rockhead is Ideal boundary to detect, with slow sol over fast rock. Graphical plot of first wave arrivals reveals both Velocities “and boundary depth. Other simple felationships apply to S-layer situations and dipping or stopped boundaries ‘Graphical Plot 4 ‘nets ipa meet Ground Protte 2 4f MENT - 18 [2500800 Hea Vvesvr 7 2 V-2s00+ 800 Seis prof over alluvium above mudstone (ross Hole Selamic Selsmic waves ansmitied betwoen boreholes have cope for detection of isolated voids and complete temographic profiling, but require trained operators. Selsmic velocities (speed of shock waves through rock) increase with strength of rock, and decrease with more fracturing (related to RQD, see section 25) ‘Typical seismic velocities (VP) alt and soi '300=1800 (ws) Shale and sandstone 1500-4000 Limestone. 3000-5000 Granite ‘4800-5500 Fractured rock unfractured Vp x ROD!100MAGNETIC SURVEYS: Record distortions of Earth's magnetic fil. Proton magnetometer measures total isl; ow cost, robust equipment. Measures to 1 nanoTeslar (1nT = ty + about 1/50 000 Earth's fel). Simple to use, 10 seconds per station, 1 man operation. Dipole anomalies ~ positive next to negative, so easily recognized ~ are due to vertical linear features, 2.9. buried mine shafts. Unlined shafts with fil whichis magnetically similar to wallock may go undetected. Fences, drains, powerlines, ron-ich fl prohibit uso. on a site in the Derbyshire coalfield. Stations are on ‘31m ord; contours are at 100 nT intervals above @ base ‘9f 48.000 nT. Dipole anomalies lle over one known Shaft and indicate the location of two more shafts USES IN GROUND INVESTIGATION ‘The now geophysical techniques can be, and have ‘been, applied effectively to certain spectic problems in ground investigation: ‘+ Search for unknown cavitles: GPR if depth < 10 m, or gravity survey if depth < sizo ‘Search for suspected mineshatts: magnetic survey. Trace lateral contrasts, notably botwoon sand and clay, in shallow drift: GPR, electromagnetic suny. + Rocktiead profling between boreholes: retraction seismic survey. + Estimate rock fracturing ahead of new tunnel dive ~ seismic survey, reflection or retraction depending on depth of cover Magnatic searches for buriod mineshafis are simple {enough for operation and interpretation by untrained personnel with low-cost rented equipment Al other geophysical surveys aro bost interpreted by specialists working as part ofa ground investigation team GRAVITY SURVEYS FRecocd minute variations in Earth's gravitational force. Gravimeter measures length of internal weighted ‘spring; high cost, dolicate instrument, Measures to (004 gravitational unt (1 gu = 10-° ms = 4 mga), ‘Ton minutes per station, one man operation. Negative anomalies due to underground voids (cave or mina) of low density sal or rock (in buried valleys Dr sinkholes); both significant to engineering, ‘The limt is set by Background nolso, but microgravity surveys wlth computer analysis of closely spaced data points can recognize voids with diameter much less than thalr cover Gepth, Can trace small mines to depths of 20'm, and larger mestono foatutos to much deeper. Depth ang sizo of vold may be interprotod trom shape of ‘anomaly, but normally dll all nagatve anomalies, Gravity P ‘Ground Protile Gravity surveys over sand mines in Nottingham ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEYS Non-contacting terraine conductivity meter creates ‘electromagnet field In ground and measures field Intensity 3-7 m away; low cost equipment, simple to use, similar to large metal detector. Measures mean ‘conductvily a nemisphore of ground reaching 6 m deep (deeper on some meters) ‘Continuous reading, 1 man operation. High conductwvity-6f clay, basalt and water, contrasts low conductivity of sand and imestone. Can usa to map shallow lateral changes: clay-filed fissure zones, filed sinkholes, rockhead steps, alluvial channel fils, high pormeabiliy fracture zones. Conductivity Profile Electromagnetic traverse over faulted mudstone and sandstone with variable alluvium cover GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY COSTS Comparisons of costs are tenuous because each method is best applied to only certain ground problems. Rough guide is given by approximate overage which can be achieved for a given fee ~ in this case £500 at 2001 prices. Microgravity survey 0-1 ha on 2m grid Magnetic survey 0S na on'3 mand Elecromagnetc suey Sha on 3m grid Ground probing radar” 600 m of line profile. Selsmicretracton _S-souncings to 20 m deep Borehole 1 cored hale 10 m doep 4s23 Assessment of Di Each ground investigation must be tallored to the local potential problems Overview of possible hazards recognizes the geological consitions which determine the scale of each: for any ne site, many potential hazards can be efminated in the desk study phase, while othors demand specific Investigation techniques. GROUND SUBSIDENCE Beyond the acceptable limits of structural settlement on sols, this can only occur on certain rock types. Limestone with solution cavities provides the most difieut ground (section 20), ‘Can also occur on clay, peat, loess, chalk, salt gypsum, basalt (sections 27, 28} Major potential! hazard over any mined ground. ‘SOFT GROUND Mostly provided by alluvial clays, lake sediments, ‘organic Sols, young clays, artical made ground. Laboratory testing to find bearing capaci CAVITY SEARCH Natural and artical cavities in rock are notoriously ‘unpredictable in their locations Local building codes may require probes for § m at ‘each column bae, with central vertical hole and Holes splayed out at 30° on each comer. ROCKHEAD RELIEF ‘May inftuence foundations and tunneling Buried valleys are most likoly in areas ol glaciation and ‘meltwater erosion; larger features may be traced by Seismic survey. Solution features and pinnacles dissect limestone fockiead; may need many oreholes or sol tipping Tunneling up through rockhead is major hazard; rely fon boreholes from surtace and probing in advance of heading. Latter would have averted Lotechberg tunnel lsastr (section 15). ifficult Ground SINKHOLES Notable hazard in soll or ditt cover on cavernous or fissured limestone (section 27). May need gri of probes to rockhead; case wash borings te prevent using and sinkhole inducement SPT values can sometimes give an incication of incipient collapse of soils into an enlarging void beneath: N@=5-10fornormal sols; N=0-2 for soils in tonsion and about to fl SLOPE FAILURE Potential threat of landslides depends on ground slope, Fock type and incinations of rock structures; mit angle for stable slopes may b6 around 10° In clays, 3040" in wal fractured rocks, and up to vertical in strong, massive rocks (section 97) {Local data, inclucing water conditions, allows hazard zoning based on inese factors Trenches are useful to assess shallow slide geometry, and are the most relable methd for recognizing solfluction shears ~ they were not used prir te the Carsington Dam failure (section 16), Monitor potentially active slides through a wet season. EARTHQUAKES: Destruction can be minimized by appropriate design. Active faut zones recognized by displacement of recent sediments; mapping permits some authorities to iit new bullings within 15 m of known Tauls (35 m for larger structures), with extra 18 m setback on faults not accurately races. Geological mapping constructs 4 zones of ground with respect to vibration amplification in sediments: recent ‘muds (most unstable); trick drt cover, thin dit cover: bedrock outcrop (relatively stable) Uguetecton hazard mapping records well graded, low density sos with high water table ~ the least stable. Full earthquake hazaré mapping also includes landslide potential, tsunami threat and dangers fom dam failures. ROCKHEAD PROFILE UNDER MOTORWAY Ske investigation for motorways round Birmingham. Pre-construction boreholes were spaced 30150 ™ ‘along propased roadiine, 5-40 mdoep lo sample Sols and prove rockhoad. Found deep buried valley, offset 300 m from modem fiver course, filed with sits, sands ard sot clays. Photograph of the viaduct and profile ofthe ground where tne MB molorway crosses the buried valley revealed by boreholes beneath the River Tame aluvium a Tome ‘made ground alacionuvil gravels lake sits.clays and sands art borehole 200m beo‘CAVITIES UNDER REMOUCHAMPS VIADUCT Motorway viaduct in Belgium buit on folded mestone, shale and sandstone Desk study showed cavemous limestone. Microgravity survey gave indefinite results. 4-8 cored boreholes on gach of 13 pier sites; found ‘tong sandstone, soft weathered shalo, and irregular Fockhead oversold limestone. Footings on shale redesigned for low loading Flomouchamps Viaduct Excavation found caves beneath 2 of the 5 footings on lieestone; had been missed by all he boreholes. Grid pattern of new probes on all limestone footing ‘Stes; 300 holes found no moro caves. First borehole programme inadequate, second ‘excessively cautious. ‘Caves were filed with concrete; one pier was relocated by 15 m'o avoid largast cave, Ground conditions inereased contract cost by 15%, including delay costs when caves were found. sandstone: | site for housing within old Derbyshire coatil ‘Stagod ground investigation revealed dificult ground. Desk study: coal outerop, old brick pt, shalow old ‘mines, approximate locations ofS shafts Site visit recent fil on whole site, one sinkhole probably over old shat Boreholes: 4 light percussion holes showed 4~12 m salt fil over weathored shale, 2 tal holes found edge Of fil. Methane tests gave low values. Magnetic survey: § dipole anomalies, 3 of them within Sm of recorded shat, Probing: needed on 1 m gr on all shat locations and ‘magnetic anomalies unt shafts are pestvely located, deep cover offi made costs prohibitive forthe value of the site, so project temporarily abandoned. ‘Site Map (© shat in mine records ‘Amante anomty © beret, desthot Conjectural Section om {ater elapaed shan borate S58? al MINED GROUND Best guide to potential hazard Is historical data obtained ‘on desk study (section 20). Coal measures are the most extensively mined rocks; granites and limestones have the most mineral veins. ‘The 30 m guideline: mines <30 m deap are mostikely to collapse and endanger the surface; mines > 30 m deep ‘are generally, bt ot abvays, stable. Backfill in apencast mines i usually prone to high ‘compaction; highy variable and best lad tested insu Redevelopmont of second-hand ground neary always finds ‘unforeseen ground concitions; areas of mining and fil provide worst case, HAZARD ZONING OVER OLD COAL MINES Coal outerop positions, cp directions and dip amounts le enough to ently zones on geological map where shallow ming could occur. : SN 4 ote BURIED SHAFT SEARCH Must check every suspected site before construction ‘Shaft register of Coal Authority (or local counci) ‘generally gives location only within about 10 m. ‘Chock for any disturbance of ground or drainage. ‘Chock old maps and air photos, ask local residents, H soi cover « 2 my trench or stip with backhoe. 1 cover Is thicker, geophysics may be useful; magnetic survey is generally Dest and cheapest (section 2). Last resort is expensive probing to rockhead: slart at ‘Dest. guess' location, then spiral out on a gid; probe spacing must be 0.5 m fess than the suspected shaft ameter, so 1.0-1.5 m for small old shafts, and 2-4.m for larger, more recent shat Many searches have needed more than 50 probes, av24 Rock Strength Strength of intact rock depends on component minaral Strengths and the way they are bound together — by Intertocking or cementation. Rock mass strength applies to a mass of fractured rock tin the greene anaiargely rates tote acti Hardness is not crect related to strength; normally only relevant to ease of ailing Flock failure is normally in shear; unconfined Compression in laboratory test produces ebiique failure shears. Compressive strength of most rocks > applied lenginsering stresses; exceptions are weak clay, and any heavily weathoved or doneely fractured rock. (UCS concrete Inereagootsengih wih neeased coneing sess sega) 0 See ayes fu nore ‘au | Seenatn and are rlatonstins on Mohr gram Tensile Strength To, S) Rarely measured or applied sirecty Generally about UCSI20 to UCSIE for rocks. Flexural strength relates to tensile strength on the outer surface, and isnot easily measured or defined. Elastic mica plates give slat high flexural strength, Strength Properties of Rocks. ‘Stress Strain Relationships fr Typical Rock Aggie sess eageny siete Unconfined Compressive Strength (qu, UCS) ‘Strength under uniaxial load in unconfined stat. UCS cf cry rock s standard for defining rock strength Broadly relates to porosty, and theretore to dry densi. Most igneous rocks have porosiy <1%, UCS > 200 MPa, ‘Sedimentary rocks with density <2. tin® generally have Ucs <70MPa, LUGS increases with age In most sedimentary rocks cue to increased Ithiication and reduced porosiy. Modulus of Elasticity (E) Stress increment per strain inerement, therefore directly felated to strength. Known as Young's modulus. Ductile failure staris where contining stress > UCS. Modulus Ratio is E/UCS. Around 200 for most rocks: 3500 far some strong, stiff limestones, <100 for ‘deformable rocks, clays, some shales. ae pt aus] muss aes, [ocuaas | sin Ys, [rm [emmy | ter |S? | alte [aaa | ce | cee 27 7 ‘30-350 200 ee 5 s | se sf [says mses clasts 22 2 39-100 7m 2 2 5 Ww) 4s Limestone =Carboniierous | 26 3 wo ” o 0 | ae ‘Mussione —Carborerous | 23 ry o @ 10 1 cam = To = 4 Sat 24 5 2 5 24) = zl = & | | = Bi 2] efs = Blt : Sle ‘These are mean or typical values, which can only be taken as approximate guidelines. All values refer to intact rack which has not been weakened by weathering. Unquoted valves indicat extreme variation related to orientation etc, or lack of Adequate data. 48 ‘Secimentary rocks become stionger with age and tectonic ‘ross; these values re typical or Britain and eastem USA; ‘most rocks of similar ages are stronger in areas of plate ‘boundary deformation such as Alpine Europe and western Americ. Values of ¢ aro for ntact rock, ignoring fractures.‘SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCKS — May bo regarded as having two components ‘cohesion (and tensile strength) duet interlocking + intemal reton, inereasing uncer confining load Confined Triaxial Strength Fock strongth greatly increases where confined in the ‘ground, to values generally beyond significance to engineering loading ‘rial testing relatos shear strength to normal stress. Farely measured in rocks (but important for sols). ‘Angle of internal Friction ¢ Relates confined shear strength to applied normal load, by the Coulomb equation: s =e + dntane, meaning * shear strength = cohesion + normal stress x tan ¢ [ERreers or waren ‘The presence of water and any increased pore water pressure signitiantly reduce rock strength ‘Water interupts the bonding between minerals, and allows the break-up of clay cements in some Sedimentary rocks, Pore water pressure acts in opposition to confining stese; this reduces effective normal stress in triaxial | situation, and therefore reduces confined shear ‘Strength. important in clays and sols. ‘Saturation slightly reduces @ and greatly reduces | apparent cohesion. Water greally reduces strength of weak, porous | sedimentary rocks, but has minimal eect on strong | rocks wih low pores. ‘Strength Recognition and Description ahatoeseee [OS RPA] ap ‘Shear Strength (Sj, Ss) ‘Very strong rock 2100. | tiem hammering to break Resstance lo ec shear when unconfined aed Seger Gonetlclateretipaptes UGS 23y an 45 «9m. | He soa Shere ps Soares USE metengecs te ucSearcot day,” | Metra ee ne Beat'eengih ont Shdtng docinos ie vegual | TW an Eretg etho'ine enewodauace inrerierne | SUSE Se wera asada See eelarane pocutene deobe | Seat a ‘Shear slrength equates with cohesion (c) of soils. ees ee eres STRENGTH TESTING es Laboratory tosts of rock strength sulfer because of rock variation (notably in weaker secimantary rocks), 80 all values recognize aror ol + 20%. ‘Also, tests of intact rock ignore the fractures which ‘dominate the lava of rock mass strength In practice tis therefore ofen adequate to identity the rock and read strength values trom tables. Unconfined Compressive Test ‘Cube or cylinder of rock with lt, cu, pavalle faces, loaded uniaxially betwoen flat steel platens; sample diameter 2 54 mm, ‘Most common and easiest test of rock strength ‘Tiiaxil Tost {finder of rock loaded axial (3) with equal confining ‘05808 on racial axes due to fic bath pressure (3). Pot on Mone diagram fo determine ¢ and ©. Ring Shear Test ‘Transverse shear on 2 surfaces across rock cylinder. ‘One of a number of shear tests, which can also be applied with confining pressure to determine ¢. Generally restricted to soils and woak rocks. Cylinder of rock loaded across its diamoter between ‘wo fat stee! platens. Easier than erect tonal tost Point Load Test Cylinder of rock loaded across its diameter betwoen two 60" steel points with ip radius of 5 mm. ‘Standard portable apparatus ideal fr rapid, direct field testing of borehole cores, Can also apply multiple tests on Iragular rock lumps with aimensions close to 1:1:2 Use 54 mm core or apply correction factor (as larger coFe gives lower values) and ignore low results due to fracture fallures, Point Load Strength (I is thon close to UCS/20. ‘Schmidt Hammer Hand held, spring loaded hammer measures rebound from rock surface; rebound values correlate with UCS ‘and decline significant in ractured rock. ‘Schmidt hardness 20-30 40 50 60 Ucs (MPa) 42 25 50 100200 Vary rapid fold tost may identity weaker or weathored rock, of loose fracture blocks, n exposed rock face. uss | Point Load | Brazilan eee | Ring Shear Teaxial se aece confined Draw Mone's eles with diameter trom hear ‘moro maior principal sess values along "toma sre ax civ agt__ Envelope tangent to test ckcas25 Rock Mass Strength ‘Strangth of a rock mass largely depends on the densiy, nature and extent of the fractures within Rock mass strength also relates to rock strength, ‘weathering and water conditions. FRACTURE DENSITIES Rock fractures include merotissures (spacing mostly ‘tmm—tem), joints (Tem=tm) and faults (tm) Also bedding, cleavage, schistosly Fractures allow inelasic deformation and reduce rock mass strength to 15 to 1/10 of the intact rock strength. “This fraction may be known as ine Rock Mass Factor. Assessing fracture density Is subjective, except by RGD. Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is a tracture quantification ‘on borehole core > 50 mm diameter, lengths of core pieces are measured as they come trom the oil bare, and ROD = 5{core lengths >10 em) x 100borehole length ‘Values of ROD > 70 generally indicate sound rock. FRACTURE ORIENTATION Influence of orientation is only assessed subjectively in terms of favourabilly with respect to potontal failure by sliding or rotation ata particular site or pat of a site. Importance of orientation is shown by UCS variation in blocks of slate with well-defined cleavage. FRACTURE TYPES Fracture roughness influences its shear strength. ‘Shear of very rough fractures requires dlaion of rock ‘mass as kregulailes override each otnor Roughness le df cut to acess and quantly. Fracture inflls include clay gouge, clay rom weathering, breccias, and slickensided gouge ‘Typical ction angles (@): clean rock 20-50° clay fil” 10-20" breccia 25-40" Cohesion across ractures varies 0-500 kPa, ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION ‘Assessment of rock mass strength recognizes cumulative effect of ferent geological features. Classification is therefore an accumulation of weightes values given to selected parameters Two most widely used systems are Geomechanics RMR. system which adds ‘ating values (below), and Norwegian Q system which muhplies rating values. Both systems are dominated by fracture properties. Applications to specific engineering problems where rock mass class gives approximate guideline values of ground parameters, as inthe lower table. Geomechanics System of Rock Mass Rating (FMA) uses parameters and point scoring in table below. en Seer Sa Norwegian @ System successfully mutiplies rating Uelvumio Fetugie| UES Pratt Clere | values to determine the rock mass qual (Q) as: |oretaior® Sass | = (RODIUn) x (Ida) x (W/SAF) | Factor wth ating ranges rom good to bac are ae | ROD= Rock quay designation 100-10 E st LI | an 4-20 EB = x a — | a 1-20 SS Seems ow 104 | cecucsnaroacaig || Eg fp | SAF =Swess reduction tctor due te excavation 1@20 tecuesina Fond Cutng | {Q values range from < 001 to > 100 System i tabulated inthe appendix (page 82) Geomechanics System of Rock Mass Rating 2 side ce arama ‘Assosemon’ of values ard ating Trac rock UGS, WPa 2250 100-250 = 100 25-50 1-25 ating a 2 7 4 1 FOD% 320 790 Is 750 <5 ating 20 7 9 ® a | Mean acre spasina 3am a Rating 2 18 "0 6 5 radius condone | Taught] openinm | weaitered | coupe émm ating 20 25 2 0 ° ‘Groundwater sate o am wel ‘ening Toning | Rating 15 0 z ° Fria ovation wiaveuabie | avourae Tat atavorabie | « oavourabie ating ° 2 “5 | 225 Fock mass rating (RUA) le cum oth a ralngs ‘Note tat etalon ratings are negative Guideline Properties of Rock Mass CI Crass fa : ii 7 v Besetoton ‘very good ck tar rock pootrock | very peor rock Fir 20-100 40-00 20-40 £20 GVave S40 ‘S10 ct a Fionangiee() | > a8 35-45 25-36 15-25 <8 Cohesion hs) | > a0 00-400 200-300 100—200 my 5 “3 <8 ‘Tinnel suppor one spot bots paternbots | bots + shoterte oe Standvptinetorspan] 2oyriorssm | syetoriom Factors | t2nte2m. | somintortm 50Foundations on Rock ‘SAFE BEARING PRESSURES Guideline values for maximum loads that may safely be Imposed on unditurbed ground, May be estimated in many ways, all based on past ‘experiance and Incorporating ample safely factors to allow for variable ground conditions. Values are useful preliminary design guides, as it is normally unaconamic to compote meaningful field tests fn fractured rock massas. May be based on rock type: [Safe Bearing Pressure — typical values Feck yous Ioatnered) tated or fang mage f Sreng igneous rom goosses | 10a [Szong imestonee and sanétores | MPs Sensis ane sates sues Seong mudstones, sot sandsines| 2Mpa | MPa [Shia sound chak, sok munstone | 750KP2_| 400 KPa (Or based on rock strength and facturing [Safe Bearing Pressure - guidance values wo [4 ]s |e ues 2 [1 [3 [5 | ser (way (wPay wo [oe[s Te Roo 2570-80 Fracture spacing 60 200 600mm Improved estimates of SBP can take account ofthe rock ‘modulus rato (E/UCS); less deformable rocks wih high ‘modulus ratios, such as limestone or granite, can be ‘assassed higher SBP than soter rocks, suchas shale, or the same values of UCS and ROD. 'SBP values are also adjusted by conventional factors with respect to foundation shape; reductions for lage, shallow ‘or eyelcly loaded foundations, are generaly of ite direct ‘lgnicance due to tne high bearing capacies of rock (as ‘opposed to sol). ‘Settlements on rock are generally small, and are rarely ‘constraining inluences once bearing capacity criteria have been satisfied (They are normally the limiting factor for foundations on clay sos) UPB = Ulimato Boaring Pressure = load at fallure SBP = Sate Bearing Prossure = UBP ~ Safely Factor, Usually 3: similar to Prosumed Bearing Value {quoted for sols. [ABP = Acceptable Bearing Pressure = SBP further reduced to satisfy specific. structural requirements such as settlement; reduction factor may be significant on sols, usually close to 1 for rocks. FOUNDATIONS FOR TORONTO CN TOWER Works tallest froe-stancing structure is 550 m high, weighing 110 000 Founded on shale, UCS = 10-25 MPa, E = 3:7 GPa, QD = 60-80, wth some thin weak bands which were mapped and avoided, Slab foundation 7 m below rockead, beneath 10m dit ‘Mean oad on shale is $0 kPa, with pak stass in igh wind of 2.89 MPa; compared to design SBP for deep caissone ol 72 MPain the came rock. Settlement was & mm, afte 6 mm heaven excavations. FAILURE OF ROCK Sound rock is capable of bearing most normal tangineering loads; he same cannot be said for sols. Normal variations in rock properties are covered by {generous factors of safoly in engineering design. Major zones of significant weakness, including Underground voids, can cause failures; should be ‘voided by adequate site investigation ‘There are our possible modes of fallures: +" Shear failure and upward displacement of the rock, due to imposed loading > rock strength + Compaction of porous rocks (causing extreme Settiement), also Gue to loading > rock strength + Flock failure info underground cavity, whore rock root falls in shear or flexural tension, + Candatiging and lateral cisplacoment, where siope Proflles ae too steep, sempacton sense avy rte INFLUENCE OF BURIED VOIDS Plug or beam fellures of rock under structural loading ‘vet underground cavities depend on the rock strength ‘and fracturing the cavily size and depth, andthe applied Joads and stresses. Natural and mined cavities can vary greaty in size, shape ‘and stabilly, and each one requires individual ‘ascassment if itis relevant to engineering works. Fisk of ground falure inorgases if any one of the folowing uideline extra is met: *" Cover thickness = cavity width; Cover thickness underneath ond bearing ples < 5 times pile clameter, + Loading to SBP above < 3 m of strong rock; Cover of weak rock or soil (wth progressive fllure ‘and cavity migration) = 10 tes cavily height. up ture ryan tate pleas GROUND IMPROVEMENT ‘Treatment of fresh rock's rarely necessary or economic for structural foundations, Weathered and weak rock near surface is better removed or pled through. Injection of cement grout to fil rook pores and increase strength Is limited by low permeability of intact rock. Grouting can double mass strength of fssured rocks. Underground eaves can be filed with grout injected through 100 mm boreholes; may need 3-4 m grid of holes if cavities are parially blocked: use fuid mixture Of 1:10 ratio of coment:PFA or fines; nood sti grout With sand or gravel form perimater barr to avoid high losses away from site Alternatives to cement grout are foamed concrete or luncemented rock paste il need Is only to prevent progressive roo fall, 5126 Soil Strength Properties ofa soll depend on the grain size, mineralogy ‘and wator contort, all of which aro inter-related. Clay minerals can hold high water content; for ine grained soll, criieal concept Is consistency related to water ‘content SOIL CONSISTENCY With varying water content, @ soll may be solid, plastic for liquid. Mast natural clays are plaste ‘Water cantent (w) = weight of water as % of dry weight Consistency limits (Atterberg limits) are defined as: Plastic limit (PL) = minimum moisture contant where € soll can be rolled into a cylinder 3 mm in diameter. Disturbed soll at PL has shear strength around 100 xPa. {Liquid limit (LL) = minimum moisture content at which soll lows uncer lis own weight Disturbed soll at LL has shear strength around 1 kPa. Plasticity index (P))~LL-PL. This refers tothe coisa {and is the change in water content required to increase: ‘Strength 100 times; iti the range of water content when the sollis plastic or stexy High Pl sols are less stable, with large sweling potential ity Index (LI) = (WPLYPI, This Is a measure of soil consistency and strength ata given water content. Clay Mineral | Aeiwiy [Pr @ Kaolinite o4 | 30 | 15 ite os | 7 | 10 Smectio >2_| 40 | 5 i values are for Sol with 75% clay Wacton SOIL CLASSIFICATION Soils are classified on grain size and consistency limits. ‘cine distinguishes visual similar clays and sols. More subdivisions exist na ful sol classification. CLAY MINERALS. Pasty and properties of clay soils depend on amount and ype of clay minerals, ‘Sols with < 25% clay minerals are generally strong, with fow Pl and 9 < 20%. ‘Activity of clay = PI/ % ines (< 0.002 mm diameter) ‘Sols with high clay fraction and high actviy can retain igh water content, giving them iow strength, and also hhave iow permeability ‘Activity is mainly due to clay mineral type; smectite (montmorilonte) clays are the most unstable. ‘SHEAR STRENGTH All oils fil in cheat. ‘Shear strength isa combination of cohesion and intemal friction; expressed by Coulomb failure envelope Css Gohesion (c) derives trom interparticle bonds: = ve significant n clays, 270 in pure sands, Fine Sige war | Angle of internal friction (9) 's due to structural a Soe roughness; higher in sand than in cay. + "Shear strength = cohesion «normal tess xtan Normal stress is citcal to shear strength but pore t water pressure (pWo) caries part of overburden load on Pasta Sol thereby redcng normal sess, ise ae * "Etfective stress (0) = normal stress (o)— pw. ¢ ° Shear strength is correctly defined in terms of eifecive assur YEE ‘tess, 60 tat: seal ot Shear strength (2) = + 'tan 9! Soil Classification | orainsize ‘ypical values ‘ype__| ass mm Lee ere ste ere Gravel ¢ 2-60 ] >e2 s Sand s 006-2 | 332 20 sit mt | oooe-0.006 | 30 | 5 | ge cohesion Giayey si | wri | ooce-006 | 70 | 0 | 25 ena a Cray cL soe | 3) 2 | 2 oy Praste clay | CH 600 ‘Cohesion (6) is equivalent to shor teim shear strength 82‘STRENGTH DECLINE IN CLAYS Drainage progress of a loaded clay is critical as any increase of pore water pressure may lead to faire; significant in new excavations and embankments Peak strength declines to residual strength due to restructuring, notaby alignment of mineral plates, during dislocation along a plane. Change is due to almost total loss of cohesion and also reduction in friction angle. Significant in all lays, notably those with higher PL. + Britloness = % dactine from peak strength CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT) Ina site investigation borehole, a 60° cone (= 36 mm in diameter) Ie divan into soll at 15-25 mm/second, followed by @ concentic outer sheath. End resistance and shoath resistance are moasured: Friction rato = (side tictionlend tricion) | 100;, fatios on stacdard electrical systems differ on less commonly used mechanical systoms. Values relate to sol types and packing state, and give indication of Accoptable Bearing Pressure Pesk uergm Resale uma ssn sea ne sare ‘Sensitive clays lose great proportion oftheir strength fn restructuring of entire mass; they have high LI anc ‘small grain size, s0 cannot drain rapidly and load Is takon By pwp; shear strength approaches zero, + Sensitivity = rato of undisturbedtalsturbed strengths ‘and alates to undrained britleness. CONSOLIDATION This is decrease of volume, under stress. Primary consolidation is large and fast; due to expulsion ‘of water unt excess pwp is 20r0 ‘Secondary consoldation is small and slow; due to ‘restructuring and lateral movement; same as drained creep. Normally consolidated clays are those compacted by ther present overburden of sadiments ‘Over-consolidated clays are those rore compacted in ‘he past by overburden sols since removed by erosion (or by glacor Ico); they can bear loading up to ther previous ‘overburden siress with only minimal compression and settlement ‘Compression costicient = my = reduction of thickness with increase of stress; correlates closely with LL. Non-cohesive Soils Sand soils, and gravels have no cohesion, except that derived from any clay matrix ane water suction. ‘Sand stands in steep slopes when wel due fo negative pore pressure (ertieal In building sand cactos), but will Not stand when dry of saturated. Strength, slope stability and bearing capacity all derive from internal tection; 6 for granular soils (sands ‘and gravels) range 30-45" increases due to grading, packing deneity and grain angularly Settlement is small and rapic; not usually considered, ‘except on very loose sands and artifical il Properties are best assessed in situ by SPT;N values are @ function of packing density and grading. Baring capacity of sandy soils may be improved by ‘dynamic consolidation (with a 20 ton weight repeatedly ‘ropped trom a erane) or by vibrocompaction. ACCEPTABLE BEARING PRESSURE ‘ales relat largely to sol water content and consoldation history. Depend on SBP and acceptable settlement. +” Setloment = m, x thickness x imposed stess. Rate of eatlemant depends on permaabiity; slow in clay sols which cannot drain rap. Satiomonts on clay may 06 large: then referred to as subsidence, along with other processes which affect clays (section 28, STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) | Ina ste investigation borehole, a 51 mm pit tube | ‘sampler is driven for 150 mm. | Using 64 kg hammer dropped 760 mm, number of Diows (N) Is counted to drive the tube the next 300 mm, ‘Asimpla, effective fost, N values clasely relate to sand properties; should be used with care in clay soll (At'shallow deptn N may be multiplied by empirical Correction factor, Fo allow for low sts; ‘350/250 4°70), where D = depth in m) Rolativo Density isa measure of grain packing ona | scale trom loosest to densest possible states of compaction [SPT relers to corrected N values. CPT values are ond resistances, in MPa, for fine ‘and; values are lower in sis and ligherin gravels. | Properties of Sands Fretion anges are for average sand acd 2 fo | rack [RO [S| GAT 9] SSP | gu sar act rounded gn a8 | { forgave Mossi leepes | feenie | etoasl coon teens| Sr Cee cue teose 02-04] sto | 24 | 30-32 | 30-80 | Sor senament 26 ment manipy by 14 lor eo medenso [04-06 | 11-30 | 4-12 | 92-38 | 80-300] foundations tm wide, values are halved for sand Gane” [6-08 | 31-30 | 12-20 | Se-a0 [so0-soo| ouraaton 1 m wide: vai tedeneo_|°S08"| “s50° | 'Sa0° | °Sa0 | Seo fo 5327 Ground Subsidence Subsidence is only possioie where the ground materia! ‘can be displaced into some sort of underground voids, ‘which can only occur in certain rock types, ‘Macrovoids, large caves: solution caves in imastones (section 28)’ much rarer natural cavies in other rocks, including salt and basalt mined cavities in any rocks of economic value (sections 20, 31). Microvoids in very porous, deformable racks: most important in clay (Section 28); in peat, some sits and ‘some sands; in made ground and backill (section 80). SALT SUBSIDENCE Rock salt may occur as extensive beds in sedimentary sequences. It issolves in cculating groundwater rapidly {enough to cause slow natural subsidence. Most solution takes place at the rockhead beneath permeable drift; thus creates a residual breccia of the Collapsed mudstone which was interbedded with the Sal; caves collapse before they bocome large. Linear subsidences are localized over ‘brine streams’ = ‘ones of concantrated groundwater flow along rackhead, ‘commonly guided along salt band outcrops: typical ‘subsidences are 5 m deep, 100 m wide, km fang os, basa a Subsidence cannot occur on solid, unmined rock — sandstone, granite, mudstone, slate ~ except by shear failure and rotational displacement to the surface under excessive load, or by landsliding where slope profiles permit (section 32) Hazard of potential subsidence can therefore be recognized by rock type on geological maps, All rocks do compact under load. Weak mudstone or Sandstone can compact enough to cause sottoment of structures, bu normally well inside acceptable limits COLLAPSIBLE SOIL HYDROCOMPACTION Some fine sols collapse due to restructuring when salurated for the frst time; thls fydrocompaction may ‘cause subsidence by 15% of the sol thickness. The Callaps Is due to total loss of cohesion, after ciruption ‘fragile clay bonds or solution ofa soluble cement. Loess colapses most easily where it contains about 20% clay; with more or loss clay, iis less unstable, Alluvial sits deposited by flood events in semiarid basins, some tropical sols and soma artical file may all exhiitcolapse on saturation Collapse potential is highest in soils with dry density <1.5 Unt, liquid limit < 80, and moisture content < 15% in dry climate zones. Potential can be recognized by Consolidation test with saturation part of the way through the loading cycle cr wecimaeney ee | eget ‘Some colapsing soils only hydrocompact with loading. Subsidence hazard is highest in irigatod ard areas, 29. Contral Vaoy of Califor. Soil colapse may be induced por to construction by pre-welting through flooding; thin soils respond to ‘dynamic consoldation oF violation Ba ‘Wild brining is uncontrolled pumping trom the brine streams; greatly accelerates formation of the linear ‘subsidences, which may form in tons al yous, Deep solution mining (controled brining) and modem ‘doep mines in dry salt are bath stable: no subsidence, Pumping brine ftom oid shallow mines (oastard brining) ‘causes serious collapses; now ilegal in Brain. Most surlace movements are small and slow: ‘engineering pracautions are similar to those for tongwall mining (Section 31). Cheshire has the worst salt subsidence in Britain houses and structures in Northwich all have timber or seo! fremes or concrete rafts thal ean be jacked uo. Now that wild brining has almost ended, subsidence due to natural solution is very slow ~ but does continue, GYPSUM SOLUTION Gypsum may be dissolved and removed naturally. Solution i slower than of sal aster than of imastone — Tock can issolve within tha time ofa ult structure, Fockhoad pinnacles may be dissolved by grouncivaler, ‘so may not be safe for foundations Inthe long term Caves are smalior and less common than in the strong limestones, tut may create @ signiicant hazard where weak roof rock collapses easly fo create sinkholes, Plugging o° filing cavities in gypsum requires care, as ‘diverted groundwater may rapidly create new caves, NATURAL CAVES ‘Common inimastone and gypsum: rare in other rocks ‘Basalt may contain lava tubes on shield voleanoes, ‘Open fissures hidaen beneath soll cover may develop by siope movement ~ round heads of landslides and as gulls on camber folds. Soil pipes, sea caves and rock arches are all of imitod extent latter are conspicuous as surlace features.SUBSIDENCE ON PEAT Peat may contain ten times its own weight of water t can shrink by 10-75% under load. When loaded to exceed is very low shear strength, peat also creeps and spreads; so vory high sottiements are formal cbeficlent of compressibilty, my > 1.5 m!/MN. Drainage of peat causes surface subsidence of up to 80% of the groundwater head decline; ess on lates rearainage. Wastago, by oxidation of biomass above watertable, continues at low rate dependant on climate; causes ‘surface lowering, and major loss of agricultural land; reduced by maintaining high water table. Strength of undrained peat is nogligibe, drained peat may be UGS = 20-30 KPa, and & = 100-140 kPa. Peat consolidated by structural load gains strength; may reach SBP = $0-70 kPa. Primary consolidation takes place in days; secondary stage may last years. Laboratory testing and consolidation prediction are hinderes by variability of peat and difficulties of sampling; full scale fled tasts may be worthwhile for major projects CONSTRUCTION ON PEAT Removal is economical i peat is ess than about 3.m thick, Displacement of thicker peat is possible by end- tipped sand, purely by gravy, oF aided by jetting to 6 m ‘deep, oF peat-blasting to 8 m deep. Piles through peat are often economic, and roquired by state law in some of USA; house foundations may be lett above ground It drained wastage continues. Pre-loading is successful with surcharge of 1-9 m of sand of fil for 1~12 months; rebound Is about 5%. Sand draine aze of Imited uso as peat permeability is high; wick drains have been used to accelerate Consolidation in English Fenlands, Embankments on peat may cause more setlement than their height. So ightwoight fils used; polystyrone blocks ‘bos; savcust, Brushwood and peat bales have bocn Used in Canada and Ireland, and are stable when depressed below watr table. Rafts can be used for light, contaly loaded buildings, with Undorrim to reduce peat spreading: houses on rafts in northern England setied 800 mm on 2.5 m of peat With imposed load of only 15 kPa, Basemants to gve nina bang arly economic orhouses.. fae loading co Pumped drainage and ground subsidence recorded over 150 years ‘against the Holme Post inthe peat ofthe English Feniands EARTHQUAKE LIQUEFACTION Sand may Iquely due to a temporary loss of effective sess during pero of earthquake vibvation tis: + Uniformly graded, with grain size < 07 mm + Poorly packed with low relative density * Below the wator lable at shalow depth. Hazard zones may be defined by SPT, notably where Nevalues < 20 at 10 m depth Liquefaction causes total loss of strength during the period of vibration, as in the 1964 earthquake at Niigata, Japan, when buildings subsided rapidly Into ‘alurated aluval sands Stabilize sand and reduce hazard by dynamic ‘consolidation, drainage and water table decline, or ‘Surcharge to rase internal sross. ‘etepaconen naa Loading and setfement ofan embankment fora read over peat in Canada ‘GROUND IMPROVEMENT ‘Surcharge: consoldation accelerates under a few ‘metres of placed fil and almost stops when surcharge ‘removed, usualy alter one yest, pre-construction. Drainage: accelerates water’ expulsion, 50 accelerates consolidation; may allow settioment beneath embankment to be completed during ‘construction ime, Sand or fixe drains spaced at 1-3 ‘moat effoctve at depths < 15 m, Grouting: cannot penetrate clays; 10% coment mixed inte clays of LL < 45 Increases etrength {ming adging 5% lime creates stronger sol reduces plasticty and shrinkage: stapizos montmorionite by Feplacing sodium with calcium, ‘Vibrocompaction: densi sandy, non-cohesive soils with erane-supported vibrating poker. ‘Vibroreplacement: teed crushed store deside poker ‘create stable stone colurns in eohasive solo fil Dynami consolidation: drop 15 | weight, 3-5 tas, 20'm from crane, on 5-10 m gid, to density sandy ‘cit May fissure 2 cla to aid drainage consoldation. Ground freezing: expensive temporary stabilization of ‘excavation. Geotextiles: along with coarser geogrids increase shear strength, but can only be installed in placed Solis, not undisturbes ground,28 Subsidence on Clays Clays have high porosity with deformable grains of clay mineral; so high potential compaction. Compaction = volume decrease = consolidation. Due to water expulsion (primary consolidation) followed by restructuring (secondary consolidation). Consolidation of clay, subsidence of surface and settlement of structures increase with Imposed load or drained water loss Subsidence is greatest on thick clay, with high smectite Content, low silt content, and of young age with minimal history of over-consolidation. Bearing capacity of clays ranges 50-750 kPa, largely related to water content; generally imited by settlements ‘which exceed acceptability lng before threat of failure. Older clay, shales and mudstones are stronger and less compressibie; strong mudstone may have SBP = 2000 KPa: hard shales deteriorate by slaking SETTLEMENT Clay is consolidated by imposed structural load. All clays cause some degree of settlement, Water Is equeezed out by applied stress. ‘Subsizenes of ground and setiement of sttuctute depend fn initial water content of clay and stress applied; laboratory assessment by consolidation tet Flemady is to avoid loading the clay of to wait for settlement to stop (or reduce to acceptable ra). Modest sattiement beneath buildings. may fracture brite deaing; eubsequent leakage may remove mineral soln piping failure; this also causes subsidence but involves a diferont process, Poona in| Eee ceosctnion | fa \sinaraltcorars SHRINKAGE, Consolidation of clay is accelerated by water loss. All clays exhibit some degree of shrinkage, ‘Water Is drained out, causing volume decrease of drained sol: also loss of pore water pressure suppor. ‘Tiee roots cause eivinkage in top 2 m of clay sol, but ‘reached 6 m in London Clay in recent dry summers Britain's insurance elaime for damage to houses on Shrinkable clays are approaching £500Miyear, Pumped drainage of ste may cause shrinkage nearby. Remedy is control and stabilization of pore water pressure in clay, one DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT Settiament ofa structure most serious vinen diferent Commonly due to uneven loading, lateral cnange ot sit Content in soll, rockhead slope or uncontroled drainage. Titing ofa tal structure creates differential loading, and then accelerates diferential settiement ‘ranscona grain elevator, Canada, tited 27° in a day in 41912; clays under raft base compacted unevenly over sloping rackhead, then sheares and dispiacad laterally. LEANING TOWER OF PISA Cathedral bel tower, 88m high, 4 m out of vertical weighs +4 000; imposed 500 kPa on clay wih ABP ~50 KPa. Main setiement is due to compaction and deformation Of soft clay at depth of 11-22 m. Differential movement probably slaried due to clay varaton witin overying sit layer; subsequently it was due to eccentric leading Stabilization in 1993-2001 was by controled induced subsidence of north side. Temporary counterweight, of 600 tof lead, ited tower back 15 mim. Creep closure of 41 uncased boreholes, each 225 mm In diameter, with ‘opeated dfiling to romove a total of 35 m? of sol ited the tower back another 425 mm; so kis now stable, Cable bracing was just for securty during dling Temporary tondons confined masonry 10 reduce risk of bursting ‘allure unload was reduced by tt radution Lt mcr ee ge i cuecenn ‘Seren Tower ofa SS mo | a0 | toy yr yt ger 56‘SEVERE SETTLEMENT: MEXICO CITY CCty Is built on drained lake bed in basin ringed by ‘mountaine of voleanie rock. Young, porous, highly compressible clays are largely ‘montmorilorite; water content around 300%. All buildings on shallow foundations settle severely. Palace of Fine Arts was bull on a massive concrete rat; imposed load of 110 kPa caused 3 m sattioment, Heavy rafs create their own subsidence bowis and damage adjacent buildings. Stable foundations are pled to sand. Latino Americana Tower has buoyant foundations with basements to reduce imposed Toad, and piles to upper sand, Designed s0 that setlemont by compaction of lower clay equals ground subsicence due to pumped head dectine in upper clay (see below) REGIONAL SUBSIDENCE Groundwater abstraction which exceeds natural recharge causes deci of water table. loss of pore water prassure within clays causes ‘widespread subsidence; significant where overpumping Is trom sand aguiorsintorbedded wih clay aquttards. Pumping trom sand causes small, instantaneous, ‘lastc, recoverable compaction of the sand, Fepressuring of aqullers has caused elastic rebound (of Sand ~ but < 10% of original subsidence. Compaction of clay is greater, inelastic, non- recoverable; occurs as groundwater pressures equalize between sand and clay, with time delay due to low permeability of cay. ati of subsidence to head loss varies with clay type: ‘+ 1:6 on young Mexico City montmoriloite, + 1:250 on old consolidated London Clay ilite Subsidence stops if water tablos rocover. ‘Venice has subsided on clay, t now floods on 100 high tiges por yaar. Subsidence has stopped since pumping ‘of groundwater was controlled, but rising sea levels ‘demand new barers and raised perimeter frontage, Moxico City has 9 m of subsidence on mantmarlonite clays interbedded with over-pumped sands; founded in the sande, well eaings now protrude in the steels. Bangkok is now fastest eubsiaing ely, al >10 orvyear ‘Santa Clara: Valley. California, shows correlation of water table decline with 4 m of ground subsidence, ‘now stopped as pumping has been reduced. EXPANSIVE SOILS Clay sols which exhibit major fee sweling on hydration ‘and similar contraction on desiccation, Montmorillonite Is the cause - unstable clay mineral which associates with water causing crystal expansi with force of 600 kPa, but easily loses water by ‘drainage or dessication. Sodium varity is most unstable, ih ii it up t 800, and actly > 5; caleum varity Is mare stable, ‘Smecit = unstable clay mineral group Montmorilonte = main member of smectite group Banton = cay col wit high smectite content ‘Montmorilonte clays form primarily by weathering of vyoleanic rocks in warm cimates; so few expansive sols in Britain; annual costs of uplift damage on expansive solls In USA exceed combined costs of earthquakes {and flooding, Highest swelling is in any soils which are: rich in ‘montmoriionte, fine grained, dense and consolidated, dry, remoulded, ight loaded, with righ plasticity index. Fleld recognition of expansive soils: sticky when ‘wot; polished glaze on cut dry surfaces; dry lump roped in water expands so fast that it breaks up explosively. Remedies for expansive soils: liming to torm stable ‘calcium variety; control of grounciwater, as sols are stable i they remain wet, or are Kept dry under buldings by ‘contol of drainage, ‘SOIL PIPING A throughfiow of water washes aut the finest soll Particles, 0 increasing the porosity and then washes ut progressivly larger partcles to create a pipe. Cavity may reach a metre diameter betore colapse. ‘Gan develop naturaly tough terraces in siy sols. Piping is common in any type of soll which is caried by seepage water inte a broken dain pence feet? a. pire. Py tr ; ay at] we ty 4 Santa Clara 5729 Subsidence on Li Limestone isthe only common rock soluble in water. It dissolves in rainwater enriched by carbon dioxide ‘derived from organic sols so the processes and results ‘are on a largor scale in aroas of warm, wet climate. Karst features ar erosional forms produced by solution ‘on bare rock surfaces, boneath the Sol at rockhoad, and, within the rock. ‘Solution is highly selective, so that most joints aro ‘etched outto create fissures, gulles and caves, they may be full of ai, water or sol, between remnant blaces of sttong, unweathered rock. This creates the highly varlabla {ground condtions which yptyimestone areas. Pinnacled rockhead describes # highly fissured limestone surface beneath a soll cover. Tall, narrow, Unstable or lose pinnacles may be supported only by the oll, and fissures may extend far below into caves. Frockhoad rele! n ropieal areas may be > 20. mestone SINKHOLES These aro any form of closed surface depression with drainage sinking underground, Ditferent types have lkoly eave width; may need splayed borings to prove that pinnacles are sound. ‘Subsidence sinkholes account for 99% of ground Collapses on limestone. They form in soil cover, Above cavernous rock, due to downwashing of sol (Tavelling) into bedrock fissures, Sinknoles may be 1100 m acrass, Locations ate unpreditable; mostly In sols 2-15 m thick In sandy solls surface slowly subsides, In clay solls cavity forms first at rockhoad, then grows In size until cohesive soil bridge fails, to cause ‘Sudden dropout collapse of surace, i ne ge Poe ‘st Lp Lissa Induced subsidence sinkholes are more common {Ran natural falures caused when and whore drainage through reckhead Increases, so washing away more fal most events are tiggere by ra = Water table decline effectively IndUces sinkholes, mostly when i cecins past rockhead: lage areas are . fas in Florida, and ome mine or ste dewatering it ont ivetaana on conitction so Foading, excavation, devegetation, igation and Boreholes ona site in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, wih an leaking pipelines. Unlined drainage ditches and Interpreted geological profile reflecting solution along fissures in the massive limestone 58 soakaway drains must be avoided on limeston especialy in alluviated valley ors,FOUNDATIONS ON LIMESTONE Driven piles may lose integrity where they bear on rock ‘over a cave, are bent due to meeting a pinnacled Fockhead, or are founded on loose blocks oF unstable pinnacles within the soil. Concrete ground beams may be aligned or extended to ‘bear on rook pinnacles which have been proven sound ‘aggregate pad, siffened with geogtid, may actin same ‘Way and avoid loading the intervoning sol Can inoct sti compaction grout or polyurethane foam to site soll over limestone, and lita structure, but a flid ‘r0Ut injected Into limestone can incu large losses into ‘djacont cavas before sealing karstc fesures. Essential to contol crainage over or into sols above limastono, to stop new subsidence sinkholes forming ‘Srp or raft foundations can be designed to span any small failures which develop subsequently May be best to avoid small imestone outcrops. Sinkhole repair must prevent soil entering the Dedrock fissure while allowing drainage without diversion of water to another unprotected fissure. ‘Coarse rook fil wth Titers and reinforced soll over is. effective. Uncontrolled filing always leads to subsequent renewed falure. ‘aca alae ase NL male " a sae CAVES IN LIMESTONE Fissures are opened by solution, until they take all available drainage underground, and evolve info an infnte diversity of cave passages and chambers. in ‘many limestones, most caves are < 10 m across, but some tropical areas have cave chambers > 100m wide. Bedding planes and fractures influence the shape of most cave passages. Cave locations within a imastone are unpredictabe. ‘They commonly have no surface indication; though Isolated cavities cannot exist, entrances may lio hidden beneath sol or be only small tontuous fissures, Cave root collapse is only likely where the sold Cover thickness Is fess than the cave width but small Individual cavities can pormit punching falluro and threaten the integrity of individual piles or column bases. Statiscaly, most caves are deep enough to have no direct ifluenee on surface engineering [ FOUNDATIONS ON CHALK Chalk is weak, friable, pure limestone: when fresh, USC = 5-27 mPa; but porosity is 30-50%, so UCS reduces to 50-70% when saturates. may have solution features, caves and sinkholes, but {generally on a smaller scale than in strong limestone. Weathering of chalk by fost action ts severe, 10 produce weak rubbly debris. This commonly reaches: pth of 10 m in Britain due to periglacial weathering ‘uring the tee Ages. Putty chalk anc fine grained rubble chalk are thixotropic whan saturated, and tuen into slurry when disturbed. Should not be excavated or handled in wet ‘winter months, but can be used as fll when dry. Plie driving ta chalk creates slury attp; this stabilzes when left undisturbed, so piles may carry higher ‘Working load fief for atime after driving. Settlements in chalk are often lower than expected, as rock strength Inoreases under steady load. Driven concrete piles Rave ultimato end resistance of Nid MPa, where N = SPT count. Rsk of solution Cavities below pile tip means that load is best aained by shaft resistance with ullimate values of 30 kPa on ‘displacement piles and 150 KPa on casti-place ples, i Failures beneath roads in Bury St Eamunds, due fo chalk liquefaction between soakaway drains and old mines. Liquefaction failure of putty chalk occurs where It Is Saturated along route of Concentrated drainage and can fall into a cavty beneath, usuallya mine, gullor cave Ground collapses at Norwich and Bury St Edmunds (i East Anglia) and at Reading are mosly related to old mines below soakanays or drain failures; some are Collapses of cay-iled pipes within the chalk Good surface drainage and ban on soakaways are necessaryin chalk areas, especialy where voids may exist = where thore is a history of mining, along cambered ‘scarps with guls,or on valley floors underain by caves. [esse eles Fe [pew tiie] Weathering | Dessipion Creop [ser oF grade [evtookea_ | N Wea = patie [_ significant | —<15 | s0-125 | Chalk properties relate to inable rubble | significant | 18-20 | 125-260 | Cire of Serial ‘blocky rubble small 20-25 250-500 |) falues are typieal for Miacle || Beeornpble | snat_| 20-25 | 250-500 | Chalk, Porous Upper Chalk is | mest hare negigible { commony weaker itis | nage | 5930 Subsidence over Old Mines Ground stabilty ultimately depends on the style of ‘mining utlized, which is gonerally dictated by the shape, ‘size, depth and value ofthe ore or extractable rock. 'STOPING Conventional deop mining, of mineral vein of ‘any shape of orebody, creates large open underground ‘os kriown as stopes. Subsidence threat is localized, but may totaly sterize narrow strips of ground directly cover the mines; a wider potential hazard is laure of hanging wall left above inciined stopes. C SBOE Be PILLAR AND STALL Deep mining of thin iow- 50 m deep, whore any imposed structural Toad Is slight in proportion to existing rock overburden load and where pilar erosion Is generally lass than itis near to the surface, pir uncing repartee perened = FAILURE OF OLD SHAFTS ‘Thousands of old mine shatts are a widespread hazard. ‘Smal old mings had far more shafts than large modern mines; records of old shaits are very incomplete, and Site investigation must pursue any documented or physica indication. Shafts are mostly 1-8 m diameter, 10-200 m deep: may be lined with brick, conerate of dry stone or may Be Unlined in rock; may have loose or compacted fil to bottom of shaft or above unstable stopping, or may be ‘empty; may be covored with timber, vagetaion, stool or concrete, or may be well sealed and capped. ‘Shaft cap should be reinforced concrete slab of lameter 2.6 times that of shaft, founded on sound Fock. Coal measure shafts usually reque filing, o- {rout injection of old tl for development within 20 m; remedial costs may exceed £10 000. oes eave ea dg al ‘TREATMENT OF OLD MINES Excavation and backill is normally only feasible and feconamic to < 5m depth. Ping is normally limited to 30 m depth, and only through rit or shale, as boring Uwrough sandstone is Uuneconomic; cannot be used whore dip is steep, where there Is any risk of siiding, or whore doop ‘mining subsidence Is active or anicipted. Grouting may need 100 mm bored holes on 3-6 m gr to ensure complete filing. Must include marginal zone of ‘width that is 0:7 times: depth to encompass zone of Influence, Perimeter ie sealed ret: grout etifened with ea gravel forms cones around holes bored on 1-5 m Contes, that coalosco to create a wall within the mine. Caan fil with low-strength foamed concrete or lean rock paste to prevent roof colapse between sound pilars. Founding on raits or reinforced strip footings may be ‘good for low-iso buildings over mines of marginal depth, ‘where risk does not warrant expanse of filing. ralounatone ‘SAFE COVER FOR OLD MINES Guideline figure is 30 m for old coal mines, so this is also the min mum depth for borehole investigation. ‘AL> 80 m depth, pllarfalure is rare because imposed load is small compared to overburden load, and root ‘stoping rarely reachas the surface ta form erown hole, Even within coal measures, local conditions may vary, ‘with strong sandstone roo! or eld weak pillars eroded by Water; some mines 10 m down are stable for houses; fathers have needed fling at 80 m depth, Sale depths are diferent for rocks athor than coal measures; buldings are sale 3-5 m above old mines in Notingham sandstone; pillar falur in imestone mines. 145 m down near Walsall caused surface subsidence attr stoping collapse of mainly shalo cover. Remedial costs may exceed £50 000 per hectare, but should be < 5% of project costs; shaft fling or major grouting exercises incur maximum costs, ‘le rough wos a gi Se Bll pits are shatts usually < 10 m deop fo old coal worklngs reaching oniy @ few metres from the shalt fang not interconnected. Generally occur in dense {roups, and must be filed or excavated it development ‘verthem cannot be avoided, et31 Mining Subsidence Total extraction mining removes all the minora from a bad, allowing the unsupported roof to fal and cause inevitable and predictable surface subsidence. It is Used worldwide in a large proportion of modern underground coal mines. Longwall mining is the method used in Britain Extraction is by & machine coal cutter moving back and forth along a single migrating coal face up to 400 m Jong, After a slice of coal about 1 m thick has been cut {om the whole length of the face, the hydraulic root ‘supports are advanced, the root behind is allowed to fall, and the provess is repeated. Panel of coal is removed: about S00 m wide and maybo ‘over 2000 m long, with no suppor beyond the working face and access roadways. ‘Alternative method isa version of plar and stall mining followed by pillar removal on the retreat. Surface subsidence effect Is same as for longwal SURFACE SUBSIDENCE Tha ground surface is detormed above a working coal nce wave Which migratos al the samo advance ~ usually 10-20 m por wook. ‘This subsidence wave has a number of effects Subsidence must be less than seam thickness, so usually about tm; may accumulate to > 15 m by ‘multiple seam working overtime; causes ite structural ‘damage but has impact on drainage and piped services. Ground strain develops first as extension (on the ‘convex part of the wave), then a return to neutral, {allowed by compression (on the concave part of the wave). This causes most of the structural damage due to mining subsidence. Total strain is the sum of ‘extension and compression values and Is typically $=10 maim oF 0:001-0.01 Angular movement occurs as tit on the subsidence wave; usually minor and only significant to tall chimays and sensitive mactines, Micro-earthquakes may occur due to movements in stvong, massively jointed rocks under stress. ‘At any one site, subsidence movements are generally ‘completed within ne more than one year. PATTERNS OF SUBSIDENCE Mining subsidence folows a well defined pattern. Depth and lateral extents of the subsidence bowls and stain protles, can be predicted on the basis of many past measurements, and the empirical data conforms ‘losely with theoretical calcvatons. Critieal parameters which determine subsidence movements are the depth of working (h), the panel ‘width (w), and tho extracted thickness of coal) Above an extracted panel, the ground moves Gownwards and also inwards, so that an area of ground farger than the panel Is affected. The angle of draw is ‘normally 30-5, increasing slighty in weaker rocks, ‘Area of Influence extends 0:7h outside the pan ledge is not clearly defined as it tapers to nothing. Subsidence wave has @ length of about 1.4h, with a ‘midpoint of maximum tit and neutral strain, close to Vertically above the coal face. It migrates with the ‘advancing face and also develops to @ similar shape ‘ver the panel sides. ‘Atany one point onthe surface, movement occurs over ‘he time taken for the wavo to pass, typically 38 weeks for a 560 m long wave over a 400 m doop face advancing at 15 miwook ‘Layout of panes in atypical modem coal mine wae pall ined oa Strain profiles show outer zone of extension and inner zone of compression; line of neutral strain is roughly above panel edge, varying slightly with changing w/h rato, Maximum strains are close to panel edge. Residual compression falls to 2670 over contre of panel where win > 1-8 Subsidence and strain are most sevare ovor shallow, ‘wide panels i thick seams; they are also complicated by geological factors (laults, strong rocks, steep dips) and multiple workings.PREDICTION CALCULATIONS. ‘Approximate predictions can be read from graph on the right which shows maximum values. of subsidence sain and tt related to h, w and t. These are typical values only; better predictions are made with graphs for pectic coallaiée based on thelr own records and rock characteristics. This graph oniy gives maximum values; partial strain and eubsldence, which occur outside side edges of panels can be read off more detailed graphs. Example of calculations using this graph: Site factors (from mine plans): thickness = t= ‘anel width = w = 160 m; depth = h = 400 m Fatos: wh = 160/400 = 0-4; vin = 12/400 = 0.008. + Roading off graph for valuo of wih = 0-4 ‘Subsidence factor (direct from graph) = t= 0-3 Subsidence = s=0.3.1= 03x12 =096m= = 0.28 (rom graph) =n (028 x 0:003 = 0-00084, (0.62 (rom graph)» eh 0.62 x 0.003 = 0.00186. + © = 0.00084 + 0.00186 = 0.0027 = 2.7 mim. “(rom graph) x uh = 1-4 0:009 = 0:0042 = 1 in 298, CONSTRUCTION IN SUBSIDENCE AREAS Concrete atts are simplest and cheapest foundations for bullings; smooth based, formed on polythene ovor 480 mm granular sand to’ absorb horizontal str reinforced both top and base, maximum 20 m long or ‘wth sifening beams on top, Structural unts should be at small as possible, or may be articulated to tolerate strain, ‘Alternatives are deformable structures, some wih sliding panels and spring bracing Piles need care as ting can diminish integrity. Pipelines need flexible joints, and gravity flow drains need slope greater than predicted tt. Bridge decks may be on three-point roller or spherical bearings, with hinged piers, and bitumen or como expansion joins, ‘Jacking points for bridgas, machines or buildings are ‘cheaper builtin than added later. PRECAUTIONS FOR OLD STRUCTURES, Most structural damage is under tonsil stain; tebars ‘can be added to bullaings. ‘Ground compression can be halved by digging trenches ‘around @ building to isolate @ rat of soll beneath it Bridges may need temporary support or deck removal Pipelines can be exposed and placed on sliding chocks. ‘SUBSIDENCE COMPENSATION Longwall mining nas compensation for inevitable subsidence damage incorporated In its budget, but ‘compensation law varies between countries. In Britain, Coal Authority pays costs of damage repairs, except to recent structures where precautionary ‘measures were appropriate but were not stalled, ‘Coal Authority does not pay cost of precautionary works, ‘evon i these are required by local planning law. Subsidence may be reduced, but not eliminated, by slowing waste belore roo! collapse, by leaving support pillars, or by harmonious working (where one panel's ‘compression cana out a sacond panel extension), where compensation costs may exceed ‘are not now undermined in Brain. When mining in @ region ceases, drainage pumps are ‘switched off; then groundwater ‘rebound raises. joint Water pressures and re-actvatos over-strossed alts; ‘may cause new phase of localized grouné movement 2m: ST ‘STRUCTURAL DAMAGE RELATED TO STRAIN ‘Damage rlates to both ground strain and structural size. Potential dstorion = strain x structural atrongth "Typical features of damage Glass of mage ‘and dstorion Vary sight 20mm Barely noticeable hair cracks in plaster ‘Slight intemal fractures, doors and windows may stick Sight extemal fractures, service pipes may fracture Floors slope and walls ean, doors trames distorted ‘Severe floor slopes and wall bulges, floor and roof beams lose bearing, ‘needs partial or complete rebulisng Sight 20-60 mm ‘Apprecablo {80-125 mm Sever 125-200 mm Very severe 200 mm GEOLOGICAL FACTORS ‘Some ground conditions create very variable subsidence land make detailed site predictions vary dificult; these ‘geological factors account for 25% of movements and ‘damage boing outside predictions, ether above or below. Fractures. (omts and gulls) n strong, competent rock at outcrop lecalze movement, creating zones of very high Strains between stable areas whore blocks of rock act as natural rafts Sandstones, and the Magnesian Limestone Cf northern England, develop open fissures under tension, with subsidence sinkholes in sol cover. Faults localize movement with zones of high strain and {round steps due to displacement. Steep dips cispiace the subsidence bow! in downdip

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