Air Conditioning Principles and Systems AN ENERGY APPROAC Edward G. PitaCONTENTS ‘An Air Conditioning Fable xv 1 THE SCOPE AND USES OF AIR CONDITIONING 1 Ml 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1.10 LiL 112 113 ‘Scope of Air Conditioning 2 Components of Air Conditioning Systems 3 All-Water (Hydronic) Air Conditioning Systems 4 ‘The HVAC System as Part of the Building Construction Field 10 Designing the HVAC System 10 Installing the HVAC System 11 Operation, Maintenance, and Service of the HVAC System 12 Employment in the HVAC Industry 12 Description of Job Responsibilities 13 Energy Conservation and Computers 14 Review Questions 15 Problems 15 2 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 24 2.2 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2.10 211 242 2.13 24 215 2.16 2.47 Units 18 Conversion of Units 18 USS. and SI Units 19 Mass, Force, Weight, Density, and Specific Volume 19 Accuracy of Data 21 Pressure 21 Pressure of a Liquid Column 23 Work, Power, and Energy 26 Heat and Temperature 27 Enthalpy 28 ‘The Energy Equation (First Law of Thermodynamics) 29 Liquids, Vapors, and Change of State 30 Saturated Property Tables. 36 Refrigeration 36 Calculation of Sensible and Latent Heat Changes 37 Latent Heats of Fusion and Sublimation 40 ‘The Ideal (Perfect) Gas Laws 40viii. CONTENTS. 218, Energy Utilization (Second Law of Thermodynamics) 41 Review Questions 42 Problems 43 3 HEATING LOADS 46 3a 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 3.1 3.12 33 3.14 ‘The Heating Load 46 Heat Transfer 47 Rate of Heat Transfer 48 Overall Thermal Resistance 51 ‘Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ©, 51 Heat Transfer Losses: Basement Walls and Floors 53 Heat Transfer Losses: Floor on Ground and Floot over Craw Space 54 Infiltration and Ventilation Heat Loss 56 . Design Conditions 59 Room Heat Loss and Room Heating Load 60 ‘The Building Net Heating Load 61 System Heat Losses 62 ‘Summary of Heating Load Calculation Procedures 63 Energy Conservation 66 Review Questions 66 Problems 67 4 FURNACES AND BOILERS 71 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 41 412 Warm Air Fumaces 71 Furnace Controls 74 Heating Boilers 75 Boiler Controts. 79 Boiler and Fumace Draft 80 Fuels and Combustion 82 Gas and Oil Bumers 88 Flame Safety Controls 92 Boiler Applications 92 Boiler Rating and Selection 94 Boiler Installation 98 Energy Use and Efficiency in Boilers and Furnaces 98 413 Energy Conservation 100 Review Questions 100 Problems 101 Computer Solution Problems 101 5 HYDRONIC PIPING SYSTEMS AND TERMINAL UNITS 102 Sa 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 5.10 Sad 5.2 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 Piping Arrangements 102 Series Loop 102 One-Pipe Main 104 ‘TwoPipe Direct Return 104 ‘Two-Pipe Reverse Return 105 ‘Combination Arrangements 106 Three-Pipe System 106 Four-Pipe System 107 Hydronic Terminal Units 107 Radiators 108 Convectors 108 Baseboard 109 Fin-Tube 109 Radiant Panels 110 Unit Heaters 110 Fan-Coil Units 111 Induction Units 112 ‘System Water Temperatures and Flow Rates 113 Selection of Terminal Units 114 System Design Procedure 115 Review Questions 118 Problems 118 ‘Computer Solution Problems 119 6 COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS 120 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 ‘The Cooling Load 120 Cooling Load Calculation Procedures 120 Room Heat Gains 122 Conduction Through Exterior Structure 123 Conduction Through Interior Structure 130 Solar Radiation Through Glass 130 Design Conditions 137 Lighting 13769 People 139 6.10 Equipment and Appliances, 140 6.11 Infiltration 140 6.12 Room Cooling Load 144 6.13 Room Peak Cooling Load 145 6.14 Building Peak Cooling Load 145 6.15 Cooling Coil Load 146 6.16 Ventilation 146 6.17 Heat Gain to Ducts 147 6.18 Fan and Pump Heat 148 6.19 Duct Air Leakage 149 6.20 Supply Air Conditions 149 6.21 Summary of Commercial Cooling Load Calculation Procedures 149 Residential Cooling Loads 152 6.22 Cooling Load from Heat Gain ‘Through Structure 152 6.23 Cooling Load from Heat Gain Through Windows 153 6.24 People and Appliances 154 6.25 Infiltration and Ventilation 154 6.26 Room, Building, and Air Conditioning Equipment Loads 156 6.27 Summary of Residential Cooling Load Calculation Procedures 158 6.28 Energy Conservation 160 Problems 160 ‘Computer Solution Problems 162 7 PSYCHROMETRICS 164 7.1 Properties of Air 164 7.2 Determining Air Properties 165 7.3. The Psychrometric Chart 168 7.4 Locating the Air Condition on the Chart 168 7.5 Condensation on Surfaces 172 Air Conditioning Processes 173 7.6 Process Lines on the Psychrometric Chart 173 7.7 Sensible Heat Change Process Calculations (Sensible Heating and Cooling) 174 18 19 7.10 TL CONTENTS ix Latent Heat Change Process Calculations (Humidifying and Dehumidifying) 177 Combined Sensible and Latent Process Calculations 179 ‘The Evaporative Cooling Process and the Wet Bulb Temperature 181 ‘The Air Mixing Process 182 Psychrometric Analysis of the Air Conditioning System 184 712 713 74 TAS 7:16 TAT 118 7.19 7.20 721 Determining Supply Air Conditions 184 Sensible Heat Ratio 185 ‘The RSHR or Condition Line 186 Coil Process Line 188 ‘The Complete Psychrometric Analysis. 189 ‘The Contact Factor and Bypass Factor 191 ‘The Effective Surface ‘Temperature 191 Reheat 193 Part Load Operation and Control 194 Fan Heat Gains 195 Problems 195 ‘Computer Solution Problems 198 FLUID FLOW IN PIPING AND DUCTS 199 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 8.9 8.10 BLL ‘The Continuity Equation 199 ‘The Flow Energy Equation 201 Pressure Loss in Closed and Open Systems 203 Total, Static, and Velocity Pressure 204 Conversion of Velocity Pressure to Static Pressure (Static Regain) 206 Pressure Loss from Friction in Piping and Ducts 207 Friction Loss from Water Plow in Pipes 208 Pressure Loss in Pipe Fittings 212 Piping System Pressure Drop 213 System Pipe Sizing 216 Friction Loss from Air Flow in Duets 2189 10 ‘CONTENTS 8.12 Aspect Ratio 220 8.13 Pressure Loss in Duct Fittings 221 8.14 Pressure Loss at Fan Inlet and Outlet 232 8.15 Duct System Pressure Loss 233 8.16 Duct Design Methods 235 Problems, 239 ‘Computer Solution Problems 242 PIPING, VALVES, DUCTS, AND INSULATION 243 9.1 Piping Materials and Specifications 243 9.2 Fittings and Joining Methods for Steel Pipe 246 9.3 Fittings and Joining Methods for Copper Tubing 247 9.4 Valves 247 9.5 Pressure Regulating and Relief Valves 248 9.6 Valve Construction 249 9.7 Valve Selection 251 9.8 Pipe Expansion and Anchoring 251 9.9 Vibration 252 9.10 Pipe Insulation 254 9.11 The Piping Installation 255 9.12 Duct Construction 255 9.13 Duct insulation 256 Review Questions 257 FANS AND AIR DISTRIBUTION DEVICES 258 10.1 Fan Types 258 10.2 Fan Performance Characteristics 259 10.3 Fan Setection 260 10.4. Fan Ratings 261 10.5 System Characteristics 265 10.6 Fan-System Interaction 266 10.7 System Effect 267 10.8 Selection of Optimum Fan Conditions 267 109 Fan Laws 268 10.10 Construction and Arrangement 269 10.11 Installation 270 10.12 Energy Conservation 271 " 12 Alr Distribution Devices 272 10.13, 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10. 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22 Room Air Distribution 272 Air Patterns 272 Location 273 ‘Types of Air Supply Devices 274 Applications 276 Selection 277 Accessories and Duct Connections 281 Return Air Devices 282 Sound 282 ‘Sound Control 283 Review Questions 285 Problems 285 ‘Computer Solution Problems 286 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS, EXPANSION TANKS, AND VENTING 287 Wad 2 13 4 us 116 17 U8 ng 11.10 MAL 142 11.13 14 ‘Types of Pumps 287 Principles of Operation 287 Pump Characteristics 288 Pump Selection 291 System Characteristics 293 System Characteristics and Pump Characteristics 293 Pump Similarity Laws 295 Pump Construction 295 Net Positive Suction Head 299 ‘The Expansion Tank 299 ‘System Pressure Control 300 ‘Compression Tank Size 302 Air Control and Venting 303 Energy Conservation 304 Review Questions 304 Problems 305 ‘Computer Solution Problems 305 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS. AND EQUIPMENT 306 121 122 123 12.4 125 System Classifications 306 Zones and Systems 307 ‘Single Zone System 307 Reheat System 309 Multizone System 31013 126 127 128 129 12.10 12.1 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 12.21 12.22 12.23, 12.24 Dual Duct System 311 Variable Air Volume (VAV) System 313 All-Water Systems 315 ‘Air-Water Systems 315 Unitary versus Central Systems 316 Room Units 316 Unitary Air Conditioners 317 Rooftop Units. 318 Air Handling Units 318 Cooling and Heating Coils 319 Coil Selection 320 Air Cleaning Devices (Filters) 321 Methods of Dust Removal 321 Methods of Testing Filters. 322 ‘Types of Air Cleaners 323 Selection of Air Cleaners 324 Indoor Air Quality 325 Energy Requirements of Different ‘Types of Air Conditioning Systems 326 Energy Conservation 330 Review Questions 330 Problems 330 REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 332 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System 333 131 13.2 133 134 BS 13.6 13.7 138 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13, 13.14 Principles 333 Equipment 334 Evaporators 334 ‘Types of Compressors 335 Reciprocating Compressor 335 Rotary Compressor 336 ‘Screw (Helical Rotary) Compressor 336 Scroll Compressor 337 ‘Centrifugal Compressor 337 Capacity Control of Compressors 338 Prime Movers 338 Condensers 339 Flow Control Devices 340 Safety Controls. 341 14 CONTENTS xi 13.15 Packaged Refrigeration Equipment 342 13.16 Selection 342 13.17 Bnergy Efficiency 346 13.18 Installation of Reftigeration Chillers 348 13.19 Cooling Towers 348, Absorption Refrigeration System 350 13.20. Principles 350 13.21 Construction and Performance 352 13.22. Special Applications 353 13.23 Capacity Control 354 13.24 Crystallization 354 13.25 Installation 354 The Heat Pump 355 13.26 Principles 355 13.27 Energy Efficiency 355 13.28. Selection of Heat Pumps— ‘The Balance Point 357 13.29 Solar Energy-Heat Pump Application 360 13.30. Refrigerants 360 13.31 Ozone Depletion 361 13.32 Refrigerant Venting and Reuse 362 13.33 Global Warming Potential 363, 13.34 Water Treatment 363 13.35 Energy Conservation in Refrigeration 363, Review Questions 364 Problems 364 AUTOMATIC CONTROLS 365 14.1 Understanding Automatic Controls 366 14.2 Purposes of Controls 366 14.3 The Control System 366 14.4 Closed-Loop (Feedback) and Open- Loop Control Systems 368 14.5. Energy Sources 369 14.6 Component Control Diagram 369 14.7 Types of Control Action 370 148 — Controtlers 37315 CONTENTS 149 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 Controlled Devices 376 Choice of Control Systems 377 Control from Space Temperature 378 Control from Outdoor Air 379 Control from Heating/Cooling Medium 381 ‘Humidity Control 382 Complete Control Systems 382 Review Questions 385 Problems 385 ENERGY UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION 387 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19 15.20 Energy Standards and Codes 388 Sources of Energy 391 Principles of Energy Utilization 392 Measuring Energy Utilization in Power-Producing Equipment (Efficiency) 393 . Measuring Energy Conservation in Cooling Equipment—The COP and EER 395 Measuring Energy Conservation in the Heat Pump 397 Measuring Energy Conservation in Heating Equipment 397 ‘Measuring Energy Conservation in Pumps and Fans 398 Measuring Energy Use in Existing Building HVAC Systems 399 ‘Measuring Energy Use in New Building HVAC Systems 399 ‘The Degree Day Method 400 Other Energy Measuring Methods 402 Airto-Air Heat Recovery 403 Reftigeration Cycle Heat Recovery 405 ‘Thermal Storage 406 Light Heat Recovery 407 Total Energy Systems 407 Energy Conservation Methods 408 Building Construction 409 Design Criteria 409 16 7 15.21 System Design 410 15.22 Controls 410 15.23 Installation 411 15.24 Operation and Maintenance 411 15.25 Computers in HVAC Systems 412 Problems 413 INSTRUMENTATION, TESTING, AND BALANCING 420 16.1 Definitions 421 16.2 Instrumentation 421 16.3 Temperature 421 16.4 Pressure 423 16.5 Velocity 424 16.6 Flow Rates 426 16.7 Heat Flow 428 168 Humidity 428 169 Equipment Speed 429 16.10 Electrical Energy 429 16.11 Testing and Balancing 429 16.12 Preparation for Air System Balancing 429 16.13 The Air System Balancing Process 431 16.14 Preparation for Water System Balancing 431 16.15 The Water System Balancing Process 432 16.16 Energy Conservation 433 16.17 Sound Measurement 433 Review Questions 433 Problems 433 PLANNING AND DESIGNING THE HVAC SYSTEM 435 17.1 Procedures for Designing a Hydronic System 435 Calculating the Heating Load 437 ‘Type and Location of Terminal Units 440 17.4 Piping System Arrangement 440 17.5 Flow Rates and Temperatures 440 17.6 Selection of Terminal Units. 442 17-7 Pipe Sizing 443 178 Piping or Duct Layout 44318 1719 17.10 17a 17.12 17.13 17.14 ITS 17.16 17.17 17.18 17.19 17.20 17.21 17.22 17.23 17.24 17.25 17.26 Pump Selection 444 Boiler Selection 444 Compression Tank 446 Accessories 446 Controls 447 Plans and Specifications 447 Energy Use and Conservation 448 Procedures for Designing an All-Air Calculating the Cooling Load 448 ‘Type of System 453, Equipment and Duct Locations 453 Duct Sizes 453 Air Distribution Devices. 455 Equipment 455 Accessories 456 Automatic Control System 457 Plans and Specifications 457 Energy Conservation 458 Problems 458 ‘SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS 459 18.1 18.2 183 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 18.10 18.11 18.12 18.13 18.14 18.15 Solar Collectors 459 Storage and Distribution Systems 461 ‘Types of Solar Heating Systems 462 Solar Cooling Systems 463 Solar Radiation Energy 464 Insolation Tables 465 Cleamess Factor 466 Orientation and Tilt Angles 471 ‘Sunshine Hours 472 Collector Performance 472 Sizing the Collector 475 Economic Analysis 476 Storage System Sizing 477 Approximate System Design Data 480 Passive Solar Heating Systems 481 Problems 481 CONTENTS xiii Bibliography 485 Appendix 487 Table A.1 Abbreviations and Symbols 487 Table A.2 Unit Equivalents (Conversion Factors) 489 Table A.3. Properties of Saturated Steam and Saturated Water 490 Table A.4 Thermal Resistance R of Building and Insulating Materials 491 Table AS Thermal Resistance R of Surface Air Films and Air Spaces 494 Table A.6 Typical Building Roof and Wall Construction Cross-Sections and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 495 Table A.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U for Building Construction Components 498 Table A.8 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U for Glass 500 Table A.9 Outdoor Heating and Cooling Design Conditions—United States, Canada, and World Locations 501 Figure A.1 Room Heating Load Calculations Form 509 Figure A.2 Building Heating Load Calculations Form 510 Figure A.3 Commercial Cooling Load Calculations Form 511 Figure A.4 Residential Cooling Load Calculations Form 512 Figure A.S Psychrometric Chart, U.S. Units 513 Figure A.6 Psychrometric Chart, SI Units 514 Index 515