Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Evensky, Smith Liberal Society PDF

    Uploaded by

    Jose D.C. Garrido Fuchslocher
    24 views10 pages

    Original Title

    Evensky, Smith Liberal Society.pdf

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    24 views10 pages

    Evensky, Smith Liberal Society PDF

    Uploaded by

    Jose D.C. Garrido Fuchslocher

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 10
    Adam Smith on the Human Foundation of a Successful Liberal Society Jerry Evensky Introduction Two hundred yeas of pubic acclaim have established Adam Smith’ ‘sion ofa smoothly functioning market economy asthe foundation for all subsequent classical liberal economic thought. That vision repre tarkotsysem a8 4 mechanism through which the choices of autonomous individuals pursing their own selF-interested ends in an interdependent word can be coordinated so ast realize not ony the ‘est ease for the individual give his o her initial endowment but a0 the greatest posible wealth fr the nation, This representation ofthe market system i, if you will, the super: steycuse of Smith's moral philosophical vision. To fully understand iat he saw i his mind's eye and ths the fl scope of his vision, one Aust also Took closely at foundation, The foundation of Smiths clssieal liberal vision i ethics, Smith's ‘ethical Being is one who has a proper balance of sentiments. Sent iments ae for Smith “afetions ofthe heart” (TS, 67,92). He be Hieved thatthe “great division of our affections i int the sli and he henevfent™ (TUS, 267). When one's welsh and benewlent ten iments are Falanced. such that an impartial spectator weld be io ‘sympathy with those affections hen one's heart embodies “moral sen. 96 History of Poi Economy 253 (1993) ‘iments:” Moral sntiments ate. however, aly a necessary and not a suliient comin fr vir. Virtue requires aot ony that one know what should be done, but that one have the sel command todo what me's moral sntinents suggest ‘Smith set is chssical iberal analysis of markets on this ethical Foundation becavse he recognized that only ina world of ethical beings ‘an the coordination of markets function smoothly. He believed that where ethics al thera, trute mare of men would prevail nd tha rare gives ise, inthe modern terminology, a rentseckng society ‘ith al its attendant destructive forces, {All tht I describe above has ben set forth in det in earlier work Isce Evensky 1947, 1989, 19920, 1992b). What I propose to do here is to carey my investigation of Sith’ logic one step further Having de scribed the sopersructue and the foundation of his lasialIiberal vi ‘on, | now examine the psychosocial basis forthe emergence ofthis human construct: the elasial liberal commercial state thought of entiing this piece “The Nature of Nurture in Adam Sis Maxal Pikisopty,” becaue his sa sory" about the evolution ff cing who, given a natural endowment of instincts, propensities, an dispstions 6 shaped hy social processes to an end determined by the great “Author of nature” (TMS, 166) the Deity. The clasial li ‘ral society that Smith xo cloguenly and elegantly deseribes does not comerge folly mature Irom some convocation of wise men who St up the maton, In Smiths view the conditions necessary for the existence of classical ira commercial society emerge asthe na ture of man shape by socal norms, and socal norms ae shaped by ‘material comitons “The material conditions ofa commercial sorely, division of labor, and exchange of srpluses through markets impose certain social re (quirements ow individuals if that society is € funetion at all, and freater sia ruiremens if i 1 Function ideally. The minim moral fo ‘ttn ne ie st ot tt an [Evenshy/ Adam Smith 397 socal requirement ofthe individual necessary forthe mere existence of ny society i that he aere to theres of jstce, “those sacred rues ‘pon the tolerable observation of which depend the whole security and peace of human society" (FMS, 138). All the rest of the elements of ‘itu ate embellishments that give tothe coo! regularity ofa jus 0 ety the warm affection and tranquility of a wuly good society. As Smith writes: “The rules of justice may be compared tothe rules of the rules of the other vitwes, 10 the tues which eis lay inment of what is sublime and elegant in compos tion” (MS, 173) In part 7 of his Theory of Moral Sentiments, “Of Systems of Moral Philosophy Consisting of Four Sections," Smith writes: In treating of the principles of morals there are tvo questions to be ‘considered. First, where in does virtue consist? Or what the tone ‘of temper, and tenor of conduct, which constitutes the excellent and praiseworthy character... ? And, secondly, by what power oF fc- uly inthe mind is it, that this character, whatever it be, is recom mended to us? Orin other words, how and by what means does i come to pass, thatthe mind prefers one tenor of conduct to an- cther -.. 7(7MS, 264) In earlier work, I examined Smith's own answer tothe first of these ‘questions, the substance of virtue and his vision of the fondamental role virtue plays inthe realization ofa classical liberal commercial so- ety Inthe investigation that follows examine Smith's work with an ‘eye this second question: From whence virtue? In particular, Twill {ny to represent Smith's vision as to how natural and social forces form land shape us, and together develop the character of our being, achat ‘acter that embodies the rls we choose to live by, belive the objective is worthwhile on two counts, Firs, it takes us ‘more deeply into Smith's system of thought by examining the natural And socal forces that he believed shape the ethical foursaton of his classical liberal vision. Second, it provides food foe thought about ma ture and nurture in our own society. If, as seems to be the case for ‘much of the world including stats that were only recently under the sip of central contol, we Seek to form our states andl world in the mage ofthe Smithian classical liberal dea, then we must have some notion about rom whence comes the moral foundation ofthe world we feck to create. As willbe demonstrated, Smith's own story places @ 9A Mistry of Peal Beanany 25: (1998) reat emphasis on education and personal ole models, I we find merit In his representation ofthe process of character building, i has impli Cations forthe way we Bui aur wn society “The Necessary and Sulficent Psychological Hardware of 1 Being Suited for 1 Classical Liberal Commerc ocely Smith saw the material of Being as ike ela. In its raw Gnfant) state, ‘we are each unformed: the expression of a being has no shape. Em Fried in that clay are certain properties and these properties ae eo ‘mon to all teings, with sight variation. Unlike cla, however, the Iwopertics ofa human being are active. We are shaped by the forces within ws that are stimulated by cur oxperience. The dilferences among sate determined no by the nature of our boing, for we all share very similar properties, hut by how the ie we lead shapes the material of tue being. Sith writes im The Wealth of Nvions that “The ference of natural talents in diferent men isin realty, much less than we are aware of: and the very different genivs which ap- Pear to distingush men of diferent professions, when grown upto maturity is not upon many occasions <0 much the cause, asthe ef. fect of the division of labour. The diference between the mos is Sinvlar characters, hetween a philosopher and a common set Pores, for example, seems to aise not 0 mich from nature, a ron habit, custom, and edvcation.(1976b, 28-29)" ‘The properties of our being. or as Smit refers to them, the “charac Ieistical qualities of human nature” (TMS, 28), that ave pact of our ‘tural endowment include our sentiments and ur capacity to fel syanpaty. Sentiments ae a capacity to feet an array of passions that Smith categorizes as: bwily (ike hunger), asoial (Smith calls them selish” and inclaes grief and joy) unsocil (hared and resentmen), fr social (including generosity and Kindness). Sympathy "our fellow-fccting with any passion whatever” (TMS, 10) These elements ‘our natural psychic endowment are necessary for our judgement of ‘ites oF of ourselves, for such judgement is based on the degree 0 hich we are in sympathy withthe sentiments that motivate an action. tes ene ee es ol eS es Evenhy / Adam Smith 399 But this is only part of the human psychic hardware necessary for judgement. Judgement requires standards, 9 we mst be endowed ‘with some internal system of standard determination. In Sonith’s ‘model of beng, personal standard are determined by interpersonal ex- perience. Society provides us with a frame of reference: ‘Were it possible tata human creatare could grow up to manhood in some slitary place, without any communication with his own spe- cies, he could no more think of his own characte, oF the propriety ‘or demerit of his own sentiments and condac, of the beauty oF de- formity of hs own mind, than of the beauty or deformity of his own face, All hese ate objets which he cannot easly see, which natu rally he does not look at, and with regard to which be is provided ‘wth no mirror which ean preset them to his view. Bring him into fociety and he is immeditely provided withthe mitror which he wanted before (TMS, 110) the try is incomplete, While method of jadgement and ref erence point foe judgement are necessary for judgement t0 be exer ‘sed, the former ean be implemented only ifthe later is internalize. Im order for Smith to complete his model of human nature, the psyches ‘ofthe beings he poss must have some element in their characters that takes the external societal standard a reference pont that these ind ‘idl Beings find compeling. The lst element of Smith's being that, is necessary and, together with thse listed above, sliciet for so cially referenced individual judgment isan inherent attachment the standards of society. On this Smith writes: Nature, when she formed man of society, endowed hien with an org inal desire to please, and an original aversion to offend his beth ren, » She fendered their approbation most flattering and most grecable to him for its own sake; and their dsapprobation most ‘mortifying and most offensive. (TMS, 116)" ‘This natural disposition to accommodate and to assimilate, as rch af we ean our own sentiments, principles, and fesings, (0 those which we see fixed and rooted inthe persons whom we are ‘obliged to live and converse a great deal with, i the cause of the ‘contagious eflets of both good and bad company, (7MS. 224) 4. ther, Si ws, °Man tly dees, mt ny oe tes reuters we oe dpe etter 400 Hisry of Political Ezonomy 25:3 (193) ‘The desire to be connected to society makes the available standards of society personally compelling, This, combined withthe ability to make judgements based en "Sens aa fecling” (TMS, 320), gives the Sith- Jan being the capacity for judgement based on the standards to which he ie socialized ‘Bu sll this isnot slcient for vet. Knowing virtue and doing Virtue are two diferent things. Foe Siith’s beng to have the potential to act virtuous he not ony has to ave the necessary and sufficient psychic equipment to adopt viwous standatds, he fas to have the ca pacity for commitment to those standards. n Smith's language, a being 's no capable of victuous action if he lacks the capacity to lear sll command. An s0 Smith endows his being with such a capacity. This then i the fully endowed Smithian being. He his the “hard wired" capacity ty make and to aet on judgements based on socially defined valves. Bu al this still nt sulficent forthe emergence of & being who has the exact kind of virtue suitable fora classical liberal commercial society. The emergence of sich a being sequies tha the society ts establish those standards. Only then can the individual be ing inculeate those standards and the self command to follow them, ‘There is nothing inthe individal natural capacities desribed above ‘hat insures that any given individ being or any particular society of tongs will achieve ths. So Smith faces another question: How do we et from here (wherever here i) to there (that ical classical ber Sate of individual and society)? “To accomplish this, he desribes two dierent, bt elated, evolution- ary processes: one at a social evel and one a am individual evel, In the next section, I will rely deseribe th social evolution of values, and inthe fourth section, I wil deere in detail how the extant soca tes are inculeated int individual members of society as they person- ally vole, The ion of Socal Values ‘The souree of the standards that indivials internalize is society, and those standards change with the evolution of society. Smith envisions society, and thus the standards, a evolving through stages fom the rune hunting-and-gatherng condition to the fully mature classical lib eral commercial society. Inthe course ofthis proces, Evenshy /Adam Smith 401 Every age and country look upon that degree of each quality which ‘iscommonly fo be met with in those who are esteemed among them selves asthe golden mean ofthat particular talent or vetwe. And 38 according a thei diferent circumstances render difer- tes more a less habitual to them their sentiments concer Jing the exact propriety of character and behavior vary accordingly. crs, 204) ‘The moral and material conditions of society must be in harmony ithe society is to maintain order, $0 these two social dimensions coevolve, ‘As Smith writes, "in general, the style of manners which takes place in any nation, may commoaly upon the whole be sid tobe that which ‘is most suitable to it situation” (TMS, 209). ‘The fundamental virtues required fora classical iberal commercial society ate prodence, justice, and benficence. The first of these ree- fommends tous 2 "concern for cur own happiness," ad the second two recommend to us a “concen for that of other people... he one re- strains vs from hurting. the other prompts us to promote that hapoi- ness” (TMS, 262). The ideal being ofa classical eral society has the ‘perfect balance ofthese values and the slf-cominand to fllow them, But, a8 Smith recognizes: ‘The coarse clay of which the bulk of mankind are Formed, cannot be ‘wrought up 0 such perfection. There is scarce any man, however, who by discipline, edocaion, and example, may nt be so impressed with aegard to genera ules, 28 to act upon almost every occasion with tolerable decency, and tough the whole of his life avoid any considerable degree of blame. (TMS, 162-63) ‘The Incolcaton of Social Values in ‘the Individuat By “discipline, edveation, and example” individuals are “impressed with a regard to general rules” In this ection I will examine how, 26 cording to Smith, each of these impresses social values on’ the individ, ‘The greater part of Smith's career was devoted to education and, a particular, ethics education, so his views on how edweation shapes in Aividual ethics are well developed. According to Srnith, the time (0 402 Misory of Poitca Economy 25:3 0993) stat etiesedveation i early and the pce to starts at home, child isthe perfect student for lessos of eis, because properly “dressed and adorned” its preceps are capable of producing upon the Nexibilty of youth," te noblest and most lasting impression, and 3s they fin ‘vith the natural mapnaniity ofthat generous age, they are able to inspire, fora time atleast, the most heroic resolutions, and ths tend both to establish and confirm the best and most ssf habits of hich the mind of ra i susceptible, (TMS, 329) The place to hegin is at home Because one’s moral education should tegin with “domestic morals: be rspectul of your parents, be kind ‘o your siblings. What beter place to lear these basic ethical stan shards than at home ce THS, 222), for there one isn the context of the lesson te Iestned, ad there ome desires more than anywhere ese tebe approved of and to Belong Self-command, on the other hand, is a lesson in vietue that, in Smiths view. is most likely learaed ance one has ef the safe haven oh ‘A very young child has no self.command . {and it is unikely to ‘equi same] wile it remains unde the eustdy of such patil pro: tectors [as patents)... When it old enough to go to school, to mix with ts equ, it soon finds that they have no such indulgent porilty. I naturally wishes to gain tei favour, and 1 aod heir hatred contempt, Regard even tots own safety Teaches it t0 do 0; and it soon finds that ican Jo so in no other way than by moder ating, not ony its anger, but all its other pasion, 40 the degree hich its pla-fllows and companions ate key to be pleased with Te us enters into the great school of Sel command. (74S, 145) In both of these carly lestons in virte, domestic morals and self command, we sce the crucial connection between the psychic hard- ‘rae, in this case the desire for approval, and the social lesson to be learned the principles of virtue. Is the former that motivate thei Lividual to inculeate the ater. vensy / Adam Smith 403, {As students get older the process of education becomes more com. plex because young adults acquite both a skepticism abou the values (of society, and teason. Thee skepticism expresses itself, according 10 ‘Smith, through a rejection of society's assertion that certain valves are naturally (.e.,a priori) good and worthy of respec: "We Fequently hear the young and the lcentious ridiculing the most sacred rules of ‘morality... Upon this account we generally cast about fr other a ‘uments, andthe consideration which frst occurs tous, isthe disorder and confusion of society which would result fom the universal prev alence of such practices” (TMS, 89). ‘Thus we use the capacity for reason that these young people have mastered to persuade them of the ull of the rules of ethics that, wwe seck to have them adopt.” The heuristic is diferent but, as with the ‘yung child, the motive we exploit in our atempt to teach Virtue is ‘the basi human desire for approbation from a respected instructor and the admiration of one's fellows [Not surprisingly, given his career and his classical liberal vision, Smith Sw education as a fundamental social imperative, Even “the ‘most vulgar education teaches us to act, upon all important occ ‘sons, with some sort of impartiality between ourselves and others” TMs, 139), Bat, wile education is an important part of Smith's representation ofthe process through which social values get disseminated among and ‘nculeated into the individuals ofa society, he recognized that there ae tater fores at work onthe psyches of individuals that also influenced their development Tite quotation cited at the beginning of this section, Smith speaks ‘of “scpline, education, and example” (emphasis added) as molding the coarse ela ofthe unformed individual ito a social bing, lvca- tion exposes one 10 examples ot role model, and these models nfs 1, Sth ty ne mantle og ‘Wit mam dene tah oath easy te ber tat te Deity ee om oe ty otc Tecan nme ease ugh es ae pre ht Synch ec en nt ‘isch iy her mean waged Te a 404 History of PoitielFconomy 25:3 1999) fence one's development. But there are many models outside of ‘education, and Seth expicily ecopnizes this in his analyse of moral evelopment. In Saih’s view, modeling i a powerful socialization tool. He inl believes hat we become like the company we Keep and the leaders we follow Obviously the best company to Keep is “relly {ned company” whieh includes, according to Smith, those who prac: tice “justice, modesty, humanity, and goes! order" (TMS, 200). Such company would encotraze one to develop ke qualities and thas one willbe "shocked with whatever seems to e inconsistent with the rues ‘which those virus prescribe" (FAS, 200). The power that that com- fray has overs derives from our own psychic desire foe the appro bution of those who mater tous, Similarly. leaders set an example. “The servant who shapes his work accorlng to the patlern which his master preseribes for him, wil shape his ie ton aceon to the example which he set him” (1976, 612). The masters claim Westen as a model ress on his accomplish ‘ments asa man ofthe world, but he has no higher claim. Not so the religious man who “never ets deliberately bata in the presence of that Great Superior who is finaly 10 recompense aceoeding 1 his deeds. A greater trust is posed, upon this account, inthe regularity an exaciness of his decd” (TMS, 170), And she stands a special foe mel for al flow ‘Accosing to Smith, the primary power ofa role model derives fromm the payehic hones an costs astclted, respectively, with aeepting lor rejecting the model. From a group one receives the following sig nals If yon become like us, you wil heme ne of 8, ye wil be Joag: and if you become a model ofthe behavioe we admire, we wil saimire you, Conversely, if you do nt choose tobe like us, 0 wil ot be accepted among us, you wil be rejected (See TMS, 88), From a Feader one eecives signal that says: Ifyou follow my Tea, you wil have acess tothe benefits Lam ina postion to bestow, be they worldly {fame or subsistence) otherworldly (acces to heaven); bt turn away and you willbe denied. The more significant the benetileost, the ‘more powesfal the atacton/sanction of the model, and thus the more Tikely it isto be accepted Example shapes us, education shapes us, and so foo, according to Smith, “seine” shapes us. By aseipline, Smith has in mind pic ‘arly dhose dificult challenges of life that, as the expression goes, build eharacter. The particular clement ofan individual's nator psy vensky / Adam Smith 405, chic endowment that Smith feels is enhanced by discipline isthe ea pacity for se-command. “Hardships, dangers, injuries, misfortunes ae the only masters under whom we can learn the exeris of thi vir- tue" (TMS, 153). But even this virtue, which we can best learn frm ‘that nonhuman master, experience, i best earned in a seting in which ‘our excellence is socially recognized and appreciated. For example, Smith was fascinated with what he perceived to be the behavior of the “savages of North America” to whom he ascribed a superhuman selécommand: 4 "heroic and unconguerable firmness Which the custom and education of his country demand” (TMS, 207; ‘emphasis added). Again, we find Smith describing social references a¢ irectng the fores of our psychic endowment and thus shaping cur character, Smith's savage is acting according toa “golden mean” determined bythe circumstances of his society (TMS, 208). The “golden mean” of his worlds not, however, an appropriate stndard for clasial liberal commercial society. The process of the development of the human characer isthe same—nature and nurture act together to deine our being-—but the standards vary wit the variation in the czcumstances ofthe society (TMS, 209). A classical liberal commercial society does ‘not require sich superhuman selfcommand. Rater, it requires an in- dividual who has suficient self-command to act with a proper (ie. socially define’) balance of prudence, justice, and beneficence. As With the courageous savage, such a person does nt emerge from the ‘womb fully developed. Wit proper “disepline, education, and exam Plone grows into the role “The truly excellent person grows though socal referencing, bu ul- timatly anscends the immediate reference of his current situation in ‘wo ways. Fist, one's Tocus of contol shifts from external internal asone develops slfcommand.” Second, one’s sia reference for val ‘es tums from one’ immediate associates toward a more dependable, ‘ximirable, and truly social reference: “those genera rules of conduct” “formed, when they are universally acknowledged and established, by “hance ea nme rene the mnie ee” CS. empha ‘nema be eterna oe” hhe eh pm ho, wees ma ro ‘rahul Sih te mre ops fr coulis 406 Hisory of Patti eonomy 25:3 (1993) ‘he concurring semiments of mankind” (TMS, 161, 160), The inivid- ual who lives by these standatdsdesites more tobe peiseworthy than to be praised, and abhors blameworthiness more than blame (TMS, 117,119, Sul native and murture are working in concert, but naw at airent level The motivator is til he psychic endowment of nate andthe reference remains socal, but now itis socal in the largest sense fr i is "the concurring Scatiments of mankind” that represent ‘the standards. This ideal Being, socialized by nature, has inculated a ‘of vales that alow his judgement to transcend the immediate pres ‘sites of society. He i at one and the same time both a social and an tutonomous being. Socialization of Values, Sophistry, and Smith's Solutions Everyone wil be socialized iat a set of values that ate socially refer fenced, ut what ante i there tha this process will converge on 8 eof wales that is consistent with the necessary and slcient con ions for an adnable classical liberal commercial society? The ‘problem for society, according to Smith, les in separating the wheat from the cha: Men with selfish motives will seek to shape the social ryche to sit their wn ends How does society protect isl from such deception? Two particular cases were of special concern to ‘Smith, One was the clergy. Smith recognized that models can be good or bad. He sems to be particularly concerned about the impoct of religious models. For rea- Sons cited above, these are particularly compelling models. Bu, with rare exception eg. the presbyterian ministry [1976b, 810). the poper ‘model ofa clergyman (TMS, 202) is not the one to which, Smith et, ‘en were generally exposed, He saw much of the clergy’ 8 prone 10 superstition, fanaticism, and enthusiasm. For Smith this was policy fsse. He argues that a plethora of smal esi to be prefered to an ‘lgopotistie or monopolistic religious envionment. state teli- tion), He believed that competition among small sects would “in ime ‘Probably reduce the doctrine of the greater part of them tothe pure and ‘ational religion” and would oblige their leaders to practice “can and mexleration™ (19766, 793). Furthermore, “litle religious sect (796), by patting members close 1 the move oftheir Leader, would serve asa social reference point for those lacking anyother such frame: ‘venshy /Adam Smith 407 work, Without this, an isolated individual s “sunk into obscurity and

    You might also like