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Algebraic Puzzles: Introduction To Functional Equations
Algebraic Puzzles: Introduction To Functional Equations
Peng Shi
Department of Mathematics
Duke University
November 4, 2009
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Example
Let f be a real valued function which satisfies
x, y R, f (x + y ) + f (x y ) = 2f (x)f (y )
x0 R s.t. f (x0 ) = 1
Prove that f is periodic.
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Example
Let f be a real valued function which satisfies
x, y R, f (x + y ) + f (x y ) = 2f (x)f (y )
x0 R s.t. f (x0 ) = 1
Prove that f is periodic.
Solution.
Swap x, y = f is even. Plug in x = y = 0 = f (0) {0, 1} .
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Example
Let f be a real valued function which satisfies
x, y R, f (x + y ) + f (x y ) = 2f (x)f (y )
x0 R s.t. f (x0 ) = 1
Prove that f is periodic.
Solution.
Swap x, y = f is even. Plug in x = y = 0 = f (0) {0, 1} .
If f (0) = 0, plug in y = 0, get f 0.
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Example
Let f be a real valued function which satisfies
x, y R, f (x + y ) + f (x y ) = 2f (x)f (y )
x0 R s.t. f (x0 ) = 1
Prove that f is periodic.
Solution.
Swap x, y = f is even. Plug in x = y = 0 = f (0) {0, 1} .
If f (0) = 0, plug in y = 0, get f 0.
If f (0) = 1, plug in x = y = x20 , get f ( x20 ) = 0. Plug in y = x20 , we get
f (x + x20 ) = f (x x20 ). So f reverses sign every x0 , and hence is
periodic with period 2x0 .
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Solution.
Plug in x = y = 1, we get f (f (1)) = f (1). Plug in x = 1 and y = f (1),
we get f (1)2 = f (f (f (1))) = f (1), so f (1) = 1 is a fixed point.
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Solution.
Plug in x = y = 1, we get f (f (1)) = f (1). Plug in x = 1 and y = f (1),
we get f (1)2 = f (f (f (1))) = f (1), so f (1) = 1 is a fixed point. Take
y = x, get xf (x) is a fixed point x R+ .
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Solution.
Plug in x = y = 1, we get f (f (1)) = f (1). Plug in x = 1 and y = f (1),
we get f (1)2 = f (f (f (1))) = f (1), so f (1) = 1 is a fixed point. Take
y = x, get xf (x) is a fixed point x R+ .
Suppose x > 1 is a fixed point, then xf (x) = x 2 is also a fixed point. So
m
x 2 is a fixed point m N, contradicting limx f (x) = 0.
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Solution.
Plug in x = y = 1, we get f (f (1)) = f (1). Plug in x = 1 and y = f (1),
we get f (1)2 = f (f (f (1))) = f (1), so f (1) = 1 is a fixed point. Take
y = x, get xf (x) is a fixed point x R+ .
Suppose x > 1 is a fixed point, then xf (x) = x 2 is also a fixed point. So
m
x 2 is a fixed point m N, contradicting limx f (x) = 0.
If x (0, 1) is a fixed point, then
1
1
1
1 = f ( x) = f ( f (x)) = xf ( )
x
x
x
So
1
x
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Solution.
Plug in x = y = 1, we get f (f (1)) = f (1). Plug in x = 1 and y = f (1),
we get f (1)2 = f (f (f (1))) = f (1), so f (1) = 1 is a fixed point. Take
y = x, get xf (x) is a fixed point x R+ .
Suppose x > 1 is a fixed point, then xf (x) = x 2 is also a fixed point. So
m
x 2 is a fixed point m N, contradicting limx f (x) = 0.
If x (0, 1) is a fixed point, then
1
1
1
1 = f ( x) = f ( f (x)) = xf ( )
x
x
x
So x1 is also a fixed point, contradicting the above.
Hence 1 is the only fixed point, which implies xf (x) 1.
Peng Shi, Duke University
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Solution.
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Solution.
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Solution.
1 (n
1
5
n2 ).
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Solution.
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Theorem
If f satisfies Cauchys equation and one of the following
is monotone
is continuous
is bounded from above in at least one interval (p, p + s)
Then f (x) cx for some c R.
Peng Shi, Duke University
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Proof.
Using simple arguments, one can show f (x) = f (x), and f (x) > 0
x R. Rewrite the equation as x, y R+ .
f ( x)f ( y ) = f ( x + y )
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Proof.
Using simple arguments, one can show f (x) = f (x), and f (x) > 0
x R. Rewrite the equation as x, y R+ .
f ( x)f ( y ) = f ( x + y )
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Conclusion
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Conclusion
Be creative!
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Conclusion
Be creative!
Thanks so much to all the volunteers for your help in Duke Math Meet!
Good job everyone!
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