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Governing Fundamentals and Power Management
Governing Fundamentals and Power Management
Governing Fundamentals
and Power Management
Manual 26260
Woodward Governor Company reserves the right to update any portion of this publication at any time. Information
provided by Woodward Governor Company is believed to be correct and reliable. However, no responsibility is
assumed by Woodward Governor Company unless otherwise expressly undertaken.
Woodward 2004
All Rights Reserved
Manual 26260
Contents
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNING ................................................ 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................1
Other References ...................................................................................................1
What is a Governor?...............................................................................................1
Governor Components ...........................................................................................3
Development of the Modern Governor System......................................................4
CHAPTER 4. LINKAGE................................................................................ 22
General .................................................................................................................22
Governor Travel....................................................................................................23
Linear Linkage Arrangements ..............................................................................24
Non-Linear Usage ................................................................................................25
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Contents
CHAPTER 8. MANAGING POWER FOR THE DESIRED RESULT .......................46
Peaking or Peak Load Control .............................................................................46
Cogeneration ........................................................................................................51
Single Engine AGLCBase Load Control.............................................................51
Isolated Bus Isochronous Load Sharing System .................................................57
Multiple Engine AGLCBase Load Control ..........................................................60
Automatic Paralleling System (2301A) to a Utility Using a Process-Import/Export
Control ..................................................................................................................63
Automatic Paralleling System (2301A) to a Utility Using an Automatic Power
Transfer And Load (APTL) Control.......................................................................66
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Manual 26260
Chapter 1.
Introduction to Governing
Introduction
This manual combines former Woodward manuals 25195 (Governing
Fundamentals) and 01740 (Power Management). Chapters 15 cover basic
governing, and chapters 69 cover the principles of power management.
Other References
Other useful references you might find useful can be found on our website
(www.woodward.com):
Pub. No.
25075A
25070D
25014C
25179C
50516
82715H
82510M
25071J
83402
83408
50511A
50500D
01302
51214
Title
Commercial Preservation Packaging for Storage of Mechanical-Hydraulic
Controls
Electronic Control Installation Guide
Gas Engine Governing
Glossary of Control Names
Governor Linkage for Butterfly Throttle Valves
Guide for Handling and Protection: Electronic Controls, PCBs, Modules
Magnetic Pickups and Proximity Switches for Electronic Controls
Oils for Hydraulic Controls
PID Control
PLCs for Turbine Control Systems
Prediction of Phase Angle at Breaker Closure
Simplified Unloading Scheme for Electric Governors
Speed Droop & Power Generation
Work versus Torque
What is a Governor?
All power sources must be controlled in order to convert the power to useful
work. The essential device which controls the speed or power output of an
engine, turbine, or other source of power is called a governor. For simplicity,
well call the source of power a prime mover.
A governor senses the speed (or load) of a prime mover and controls the fuel (or
steam) to the prime mover to maintain its speed (or load) at a desired level. In
some cases the governor controls other factors that determine the speed or load
of the prime mover. In all cases, a governor ends up controlling the energy
source to a prime mover to control its power so it can be used for a
specific purpose.
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Manual 26260
ExampleIf youve ever driven a car, youve functioned as a governor when you
control the cars speed under varying driving conditions.
The driver (governor) adjusts the fuel to maintain a desired speed. If the speed
limit is 100 (this is the desired speed), you check the speedometer (the cars
actual speed). If actual speed and desired speed are the same, you hold the
throttle steady. If not equal, you increase or decrease throttle position to make
the desired speed and the actual speed the same (see Figure 1-2).
As the car starts uphill, the load increases and actual speed decreases. The
driver notes that actual speed is less than desired speed and moves the throttle
to increase speed back to the desired speed at the increased load.
As the car goes downhill, the load decreases and actual speed increases. The
driver notes that actual speed is greater than desired speed and decrease the
throttle to return to the desired speed with the decreased load.
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Manual 26260
If your car has a cruise control, the cruise control is a simple governor.
Governor Components
All governors have five fundamental components:
A way to set the desired speed. (The driver sets the desired speed
mentally.)
A way to compare the actual speed to the desired speed. (The driver
compares the two items mentally.)
A way for the governor to change the fuel to the prime mover (moving the
rack or fuel valve). (The driver moves the throttle.)
A way to stabilize the engine after a fuel change has been made.
In the example, when the car went up a hill, the driver saw the actual speed
decrease and moved the throttle to increase the fuel. You will need to increase
the fuel an amount to cause the speed to increase. This will give the engine
enough power to make the car return to the desired speed with a bigger load. As
you see that the actual speed is about to reach the desired speed, you reduce
the extra fuel to the exact amount needed to match (balance) the desired speed
with the actual speed. The governor does the same thing, using feedback. This
feedback closes the loop in the control system which controls the amount of
fuel change, based on the rate the desired speed is being reached. This prevents
large overshoots or undershoots of speed which is known as hunting, and
stabilizes the engine. The opposite is true when the car goes down the hill or
load is reduced.
1.
Speed Setting
Setting the desired speed of a governor is necessary to efficiently control
prime movers. Modern governors have advanced systems of speed setting
which can compensate for a variety of conditions when determining the
desired speed. Hydro-mechanical governors use what is known as a
speeder spring. The more force applied to this spring, the higher the desired
speed setting is. Electronic controls use an electronic force (voltage and
current) to set speed. The more the force is increased, the more the output
to the fuel increases.
Speed setting and the effect on sharing loads between engines will be
discussed in other chapters.
2.
Woodward
Sensing Speed
The governor must receive a force that is proportional to the speed of a
prime mover. In hydro-mechanical governors, it is done by the centrifugal
force of flyweights being rotated from a drive system that is connected to the
prime mover, and is directly related to the speed of the prime mover. In
electronic controls, this force comes from sensing of the frequency of a
magnetic pickup, alternator, or generator which is directly related to the
speed of the prime mover. The frequency is then changed to an electronic
force that the control can use. In both cases, the faster the engine runs, the
stronger the speed sensing force becomes.
Manual 26260
3.
4.
5.
Note that in many prime mover systems (such as power generation), the speed
of the prime mover is fixed. While the governor still controls the prime movers
speed setting mechanism, the end result of changes in the prime movers speed
setting under fixed-speed conditions is that an increase or decrease in the speed
setting causes the prime mover to take on a larger or smaller load.
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Manual 26260
Chapter 2.
Hydro-mechanical Governors
Basic Hydro-mechanical Governor Components
The five fundamental components of a governor were mentioned in Chapter 1.
Now lets take a closer look at how the basic hydro-mechanical governor works.
The key parts of a ballhead hydro-mechanical governor are:
Speeder Spring
Thrust Bearing
Flyweights
Oil Pumps
Compensation
Drive Shaft
The design or shape of a speeder spring is critical to the proper operation of the
ballhead.
The speeder spring is generally shaped in a conical design. This shape helps
maintain a more rigid design so that it wont buckle or flex to the side as force is
applied. There are other shapes of speeder springs that offer a variable force
over the length.
Some springs are designed to be close to a linear operation, and some are
designed to be non-linear depending on the specific governor. Most governors
use the linear-type speeder spring. The PG type governor uses a non-linear
speeder spring.
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Manual 26260
Thrust Bearing
The thrust bearing is the part where the force of the speeder spring and the force
of the flyweights sum together. If the speeder spring force and the flyweight force
are equal, there is no load on the thrust bearing.
A thrust bearing has a race on the top and a race on the bottom with the bearing
in between the races. Since the flyweights rotate and the speeder spring does
not rotate, the thrust bearing is necessary. The pilot-valve plunger moves with
the thrust bearing either directly or through a linkage. The pilot-valve plunger
does not rotate.
Flyweights
There are two flyweights in most ballheads. The flyweights are rotated by a drive
from the engine that is directly related to the speed of the engine.
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In Figure 2-3, the flyweights are pivoted at the lower comers. As speed
increases, the flyweights move out (tip out) at the top due to the increase of
centrifugal force. This causes the toes of the flyweights to increase the force on
the thrust bearing and raise the pilot valve. The opposite effect happens when
speed decreases. The flyweights move in (tip in) and reduce the force on the
thrust bearing to lower the pilot valve. In Figure 2-4, the only time when the
governor is run at desired speed setting is when the flyweights are straight up
in the vertical position, closing the port in the pilot-valve bushing. If the flyweights
are tipped in, the engine is running below the desired speed setting and the
governor will increase fuel to increase speed until the flyweights and engine
attain the desired speed setting. If the flyweights are tipped out, the engine is
running faster than the desired speed setting and the governor will decrease fuel
until the flyweights and engine return to the desired speed setting.
In the most efficient flyweight design, the toes of the flyweight are offset and
contact the thrust bearing on a line at right angles to their plane of movement so
that any movement is converted into a slight rotation of the thrust bearing with a
minimum amount of sliding friction. There are other designs of flyweights.
Friction in governors is also reduced by the use of low-friction bearings. The
reduction of friction reduces the deadband between speed change and governor
output change.
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Manual 26260
The pilot-valve bushing has ports in it to allow the flow of oil to or from the power
cylinder assembly. When the governor and engine are at the desired speed
setting, the pilot-valve-plunger control land is centered over the port in the pilotvalve bushing. This stops oil from flowing to or from the power cylinder assembly.
If the flyweights tip in, due to a change in speed or load, the pilot-valve plunger
moves down and let high-pressure oil into the power-cylinder assembly. This will
increase fuel.
If the flyweights tip out, due to a change in speed or load, the pilot-valve plunger
moves up to let oil drain from the power-cylinder assembly. This will decrease
fuel.
Pilot-valve-bushing ports have different sizes and shapes for different types of
governors to allow more or less oil flow, depending on the application.
The pilot-valve bushing rotates and the pilot-valve plunger does not. This
minimizes static friction (called sticktion) and allows the pilot-valve plunger to
move with very slight speed changes.
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Manual 26260
Oil Pumps
Most hydro-mechanical governors and actuators use the governor drive to rotate
a hydraulic pump which provides the pressure oil for the system controlled by the
pilot valve. Woodward uses two different types of pumps. Most governors use
the two- or three-gear positive displacement pump. The 3161 and TG governors
and some actuators use an internal gear oil pump.
The constant-displacement pump has one drive gear and one or two idler gears
that rotate in a gear pocket. As the gears turn, oil is drawn from the oil supply
and carried in the space between the gear teeth and the walls of the gear pocket
to the discharge side of the pump. The oil is forced from the space around the
gear teeth as the drive and idler gears are rotated and becomes pressurized.
The hydraulic circuits connected to the pumps can be designed to allow either
one direction of rotation or reversible rotation for use on diesel engines with
drives that run in both directions. Check valves are used to provide pump rotation
in either direction. Plugs allow pump rotation in only one direction. Internal gear
pumps allow rotation in only one direction. The pump must be removed from the
governor and rotated 180 to change direction of rotation for internal gear pumps.
The pumps are designed to provide more pressure and flow than needed within
the governor. The extra flow of oil is returned to sump. Smaller governors use a
relief valve. Most larger governors use an accumulator system which provides a
spring-compressed reservoir of pressure oil for use during transits which
temporarily exceed the output of the pump. SG, PSG, and EGB-2 governors use
relief valves. A number of hydraulic actuators do not have accumulators.
The relief valve shown in Figure 2-8 is typical of the valves used in SG, PSG,
EGB-2 governors and many hydraulic actuators.
Internal operating oil pressures are specified for each governor. Typical
pressures are 100 to 500 psi (690 to 3448 kPa). Different types of governors
operate at different pressures. Check the specifications for your governors
pressure. The higher pressures are created to get more output power from the
servo controlled by the governor. Higher pressures may require the addition of
special heat exchangers to avoid damage to (break down of) the oil being used
in the governor.
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Manual 26260
Direction of Rotation
The arrangement of the four check valves on the suction and discharge sides of
the oil pump permits the governor drive shaft to be rotated in either direction,
without any changes being made in or to the governor. The direction of pump
rotation does not affect the oil pressure system or governor operation.
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Some governor models are built without check valves. In these units, two plugs
replace the two closed check valves, and the governor must always be rotated in
one direction only. To change direction of rotation in these governors, the
location of the plugs must be changed by removing the base.
The internal gear pump rotates in one direction only. To change direction of
rotation in an internal gear pump, the pump is rotated 180.
If the plugs or internal gear pump are set up for the wrong direction of pump
rotation, the governor will not have any oil pressure and cannot control the
engine. This can also cause damage to the governor. Drive rotation is always
shown looking down on the governor.
A spring loaded system where oil pressure is used to increase the output
position. When pressure oil under the power piston is directed to sump a
return spring (either pushing directly on the piston or connected to linkage
from the piston) causes the position to move toward minimum fuel.
The return spring continually pushes the power piston down in the decrease
fuel direction. However, the power piston will not move down unless the pilotvalve plunger is raised above its centered position. Only when the pilot-valve
plunger is above center can the oil trapped in the circuit between the plunger and
power piston escape to sump. If the pilot valve plunger is lowered, pressure oil
from the governor pump will be directed to the power piston and will push the
piston up, against the force of the power spring, in the direction of increase fuel.
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Note that the power piston will move only when the pilot-valve plunger is not
centered, permitting the oil flow required. With the plunger centered, the power
piston is, in effect, hydraulically locked.
The output of the power piston can be a push-pull motion or converted to a rotary
motion. It is designed to move the fuel to the minimum position should the oil
pressure fail.
The power piston requires pressure oil to move in either the increase or
decrease fuel direction. A differential type piston has more area on one side of
the piston than on the other. Pressure oil is constantly directed to the side with
the smaller area. This constant pressure pushes the piston in the decrease fuel
direction. The piston can only move to decrease fuel when the pilot valve is
raised above center, allowing oil to drain to sump.
If the pilot-valve plunger is below its centered position, control oil flows to the
bottom side of the power piston with the larger area. (Pressure oil is always
against the top side with the smaller area.) The pressures on both sides of the
piston are about the same, the surface area is greater on the bottom side (control
oil). This gives it a larger force and moves the piston in the increase fuel
direction.
Note that the power piston can move only when the pilot-valve plunger is
uncentered to permit the oil flow required. With the plunger centered, the power
piston is hydraulically locked.
Two different hydraulic circuits are used for the oil passages between the pilot
valve plunger control land and the power piston. The scheme used in a particular
model depends upon the size of the power piston.
The output of the power piston can be a push-pull motion or a rotary motion. Oil
stored in the governor accumulator is sufficient to move the power piston to
minimum fuel in case of governor failure.
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Chapter 3.
Droop
Introduction
Droop has many uses and applications in the control of engines. Without some
form of droop, engine-speed control would be unstable in most cases.
Droop is defined as a decrease in speed setting at the load increases.
Droop is expressed as a percentage of the original speed setting from no load to
full load. The normal recommended percent of droop is 3% to 5%. A minimum of
2.5% is required to maintain stability in a speed-droop governor.
Droop is calculated with the following formula:
% Droop =
x 100
If, instead of a decrease in speed setting an increase takes place, the governor is
showing negative droop. Negative droop will cause instability in a governor.
Simple hydro-mechanical governors have the droop function built in and always
operate in droop. More complex governors include temporary droop, which
returns the speed setting to its original speed setting after the engine has
recovered from a change in speed or load. The temporary droop is called
compensation.
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This instability problem can be eliminated with droop. As the load increases, the
speed setting is decreased. When the governor moves to correct for the speed
decrease caused by the increased load, it will be correcting to a lower speed
setting. This lower speed setting prevents the speed from overshooting.
As load is applied to the engine, the power piston moves up to increase fuel. The
droop feedback lever is connected to the power piston and speeder spring. The
feedback lever pulls up on the speeder spring to reduce its force. With less force
on the speeder spring, the speed setting is decreased, causing the droop action
which maintains the load at a lower speed.
Compensated Governors
For compensated governors, when a load is applied, the temporary force of the
compensation system pushes up on the pilot valve compensation land. This
force adds to the force of the flyweights to close the pilot valve before the engine
speed is reached. This temporary force addition works in the same way as if the
speed setting had been reduced. The force through the needle valve of the
compensation system is reduced to zero as the engine returns to speed. This is
known as temporary droop.
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Uses Of Droop
Isolated Unit
Most governors are capable of operating in the isochronous mode, However,
droop operation is necessary for many applications.
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Isolated Systems
An isolated system is an application where two or more engines are driving a
common load. This load could be electrical generators, pumps, ship propellers,
or combinations of these and any other mechanical loads. These isolated
systems are not connected to any other systems or to a utility.
Without some form of isochronous load sharing scheme like the electronic
isochronous load sharing control, droop must be used to share these loads.
The isochronous mode can also be used on one engine, running in parallel with
any other engine. However, unless the governors have isochronous load sharing
capabilities, no more than one of the engines running in parallel can be in the
isochronous mode. If two engines operating in the isochronous mode without
load sharing controls are supplying power to the same load, one of the units will
try to carry the entire load and the other will shed all of its load. In order for the
two units to share load, some additional means must be used to keep each
engine from either trying to take all the load, or from motoring.
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The reason for one unit taking all the load and the other unit dropping all the load
is shown in the following example:
If two isochronous units are to be coupled together on the same load and the
speed settings are not the same, the system will become unbalanced when
coupled together. Since there cannot be two different speeds on one system
coupled together, one engine will have to decrease its actual speed and the
other will have to increase its actual speed to an average speed between the
two. The governor on the engine that decreased speed will move to increase fuel
to try to correct for the decrease in speed, and the governor on the other unit that
increased speed will move to decrease fuel to try to correct for the increase in
speed. The result will be that the engine with the higher speed setting will
continue to take all of the load until it reaches its power limit, and the other
engine will shed all of its load and become motored (driven by the other engine).
As seen by the example, units running in isochronous cannot share loads without
an isochronous load sharing scheme.
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Isolated Systems
Droop/Isochronous
Droop/Isochronous combines the first two modes. All engines in the system are
operated in the droop mode except for one which is operated in the isochronous
mode. It is known as the swing machine. In this mode, the droop machines will
run at the speed/frequency of the isochronous unit. The droop percentage and
speed settings of each droop unit are adjusted so that it generates a set amount
of power. The output power of the swing machine will change to follow variations
in the load demand while maintaining constant speed/frequency of the system
(see Figures 3-3 and 3-4).
Maximum load for this type of system is limited to the combined output of the
swing machine and the total set power output of the droop machines. A load
above this maximum will result in a decrease in speed/frequency. The minimum
system load cannot be allowed to decrease below the combined output set for
the droop machines. If it does, the system frequency will increase and the swing
machine can be motorized.
The machine with the highest output capacity should normally be operated as the
swing machine so that the system will accept the largest load changes within its
capability. This is not a rigid rule. Selection of the swing machine will depend on
such things as efficiency of different engines and the amount the load is
expected to change.
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The utility will basically act as an isochronous unit. The utility will set the
speed/frequency for any units being paralleled to it. A simple isochronous
unit cannot be paralleled to the utility.
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Based on 5% droop, increasing the speed setting to 61.5 Hz will produce 50%
power output. Following the droop line from the 61.5 Hz setting to the point
where it crosses the 60 Hz line (controlled by the utility) it can be seen that the
engine-generator set is at 50% power output. If the speed setting is increased to
63 Hz, the power output will be at 100%. Where the droop line crosses the utility
frequency line is the amount of power output produced. If the utility frequency
varies, the amount of output power will vary inversely. If the utility frequency
increases, the droop line will cross the higher utility frequency line closer to zero
power and produce a lower output or power. If the utility frequency decreases,
the droop will cross the lower utility frequency line farther from zero, producing a
higher output power. This condition is often mistaken for a governor problem,
which it is not.
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Chapter 4.
Linkage
General
Linkage between the governor output and the engine fuel control system is
responsible for many unacceptable control conditions that appear to be governor
connected. When acceptable governor control deteriorates or changes, linkage
is one of the first areas to troubleshoot. Loose or worn linkage not only can
cause unacceptable governor control, but it can also present dangerous
conditions should it fail completely and leave the engine uncontrolled. Good
locking methods must be used at all linkage connections.
There must be no lost motion or binding in the linkage attached between the
governor and the engine. Binding or catches in the linkage can cause speed
excursions and other problems which may appear as being caused by the
governor. Lost motion in the linkage will cause the governor to have to travel the
distance of the lost motion before any fuel change is made. The governor will
become over-active in fuel control. This overly active governor will provide less
than optimum control. An overactive governor will also cause excessive wear in
linkage and in the governor. The engine will tend to move up and down in speed
or wander.
Governor operation is based on the assumption that linkage is so arranged that a
given movement in the governor output will provide a proportional change in the
fuel to the engine.
Many fuel control systems provide a nearly linear response in engine output.
(This is usually true of diesel engines.) Other fuel control systems provide a
non-linear response to change in the control device position and engine outputs.
(This is particularly true of carbureted engines with butterfly valves.) All
governors tend to provide nearly linear travel. Differences between the linearity
of governor travel and the linearity in the engine fuel control system or valve are
accomplished by the design of the linkage between the governor and the engine
fuel system or valve.
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Governor Travel
Design of the fuel linkage must provide for control of fuel from FUEL OFF to
FULL FUEL within the limits of the travel of the governor output shaft. The
design must also provide for about 2/3 output shaft travel between NO LOAD
and FULL LOAD. If less than 2/3 travel from no load to full load is not used, it
may not be possible to stabilize the engine. If a lot more than 2/3 travel from no
load to full load is used, there may not be enough travel to be sure the fuel is
shut off at minimum governor travel, and full fuel may not be reached at
maximum governor travel. This can make the engine appear sluggish. In both
cases, the misadjusted linkage can appear as a governor problem when it really
is not a governor problem.
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This Linkage design provides a large amount of engine fuel motion for a small
amount of governor motion.
This Linkage design provides equal amounts of engine fuel motion and governor
motion.
This Linkage design provides a large amount of governor motion for a small
amount of engine fuel motion.
A linear linkage arrangement is used in applications where the governor output
shaft positioning is directly proportional to the torque output of the engine. A
linear linkage is a linkage design which provides as much movement of the
governor output shaft per increment of engine fuel movement at light loads as at
heavy loads.
Using less than the recommended amount of governor travel will provide
governor control which exhibits fast response and is, or tends to be, unstable.
Droop load sharing could be impossible if too little governor output shaft travel is
being used.
Using a lot more than 2/3 of the governor travel may not let the fuel system be
shut off or may not let the fuel system be opened to maximum.
The linkage must be set up to shut fuel completely off and let fuel be opened to
full fuel. Use at least 2/3 of the full governor travel from zero load to 100% load.
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Non-Linear Usage
Butterfly carburetor valves present extremely non-linear control characteristics.
At minimum positions (light load), the valve must move very little to change the
amount of fuel flow a large amount. At higher loads, the valve must move a large
amount to have any effect on fuel flow. Since governor output travel is essentially
linear, special linkage is necessary to make the two conditions compatible. This
is called non-linear linkage. Non-linear linkage is also required on some diesel
injection systems, although these conditions are not usually as severe as they
are when controlling a butterfly carburetor valve. In all cases the linkage should
be designed to provide increased engine output in direct proportion to movement
of the governor output.
When installing this linkage, make sure the following conditions are obtained
when the governor output is in the min fuel position:
The governor lever and connection link are in line with the governor output
shaft and the point of attachment on the connecting link to the butterfly
carburetor lever.
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Chapter 5.
Magnetic Pickups
Introduction
A magnetic pickup (see Figure 5-1) is the device most often used to sense the
speed of a prime mover. It is basically a single pole, alternating current, electric
generator consisting of a single magnet with a multiple-layer coil of copper wire
wrapped around one pole piece. The field or flux lines of the magnet exit the
north pole piece of the magnet, travel through the pole piece and air path to
surround the coil, returning to the south pole of the magnet. When a ferrous
material, such as a gear tooth, comes close enough to the pole piece (see Figure
5-2) the reluctance path is decreased and the flux lines increase. When the
ferrous material is far enough away from the pole piece (see Figure 5-3), the
original air path is re-established, and the flux lines will decrease to the original
level. This increase and decrease of flux induces an ac voltage into the coil
around the magnet.
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The output of this single pole generator, known as a magnetic pickup (MPU),
depends on the surface speed of the gear being monitored, the gap or clearance
between the pole piece and the gear teeth, the dimensions of the magnetic
pickup and those of the gear (see Figure 5-4), and the impedance connected
across the output coil of the magnetic pickup. The voltage wave form of the
output depends on the shape and size of the gear teeth relative to the shape and
size of the end of the pole piece (see Figure 12-5). Any change in the reluctance
of the flux path, external to the magnetic pickup, caused by the addition or
removal of ferrous material will cause an output voltage to be developed. Gear
teeth, projections, or holes, can be used to change the reluctance. Spacing
between the gear teeth, projections, or holes must be uniform. Differences in
spacing will be seen as changes in frequency or speed.
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Chapter 6.
Load Sensing, Load Sharing, Base
Loading
Load Sensing
The generator load sensor senses the load on a generator. To sense this load,
current transformers (CTs) are placed around the power output leads coming
from the generator. As load is applied to the generator, alternating current flows
through the generator lines and induces current into the CTs. The current in the
CTs increases proportionally with the load on the generator (see Figure 6-1).
The induced current from the CTs is added vectorially and then is converted to a
dc voltage in the load sensor. However, since only real power is to be used in
determining the load sensor output, potential transformers are also connected to
the power output leads of the engine-generator. Only CT current which is in
phase with the potential transformer voltage is used and converted to a dc
voltage in the load sensor. This dc voltage is proportional to the percent of load
on the generator. The generator load sensor dc voltage is applied across a "Load
Gain Adjust" potentiometer (see Figure 6-2).
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Droop
The load bridge may be unbalanced by either changing the value of a resistor in
one leg of the bridge or by applying an unbalancing voltage across one leg of the
load bridge. If you unbalance the load bridge by paralleling R5 with R3, the
resulting resistance of (R3, R5) is less than R4. The voltage developed
across.(R3, R5) will be less than that developed across R4. The voltages
developed across R1 and R2 are each still at 1/2 the load gain voltage. A voltage
is now present across C with a value that will be determined by the load gain
voltage and the amount of imbalance caused by R5 in parallel with R3. The
voltage across C applied to the summing point will be negative with respect to
circuit common. C is not required to make the bridge work. The time to charge
and discharge the capacitor slows down the load bridge action. This is necessary
to ensure that the load bridge is not faster than the speed loop. If it is, oscillation
will result.
At the summing point, the negative signal from the load bridge adds to the
negative signal from the speed sensor. To obtain a summing point balance, the
amplifier will act to reduce the speed until the sum of the two negative input
signals equals the positive input signal from the speed set adjust. The control is
in droop. The speed or frequency will decrease proportionally with addition of
load.
To return the system to rated speed, it will be necessary to either increase the
speed set adjust voltage or to re-balance the bridge and return the system to
isochronous control.
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Load Sharing
The action of the load bridge is also used to bring about isochronous load
sharing. Instead of unbalancing the load bridge by changing the resistance of
one leg of the bridge, parallel one leg of a bridge from the control on one enginegenerator set with the corresponding bridge leg of the control of a second
engine-generator set (see Figure 6-4). As long as both sets are providing the
same voltage across these connected lines, there will be no imbalance to the
load bridge. The summing point is then returned to zero when the speed set and
speed sensor signals are equal.
Take two engine-generator sets and adjust each sets load gain for 6 Vdc at
100% of that sets rated output. The voltage developed across R3 of each
balanced bridge will be 1/2 of that sets load gain voltage or 3 Vdc at 100% of
rated load. Start one set and load it to 100% of rated load. Start the second set
and bring it on line at zero load. Simultaneously, when paralleling the two sets,
connect the R3 leg of the balanced bridges of the two sets together by means of
the load sharing lines (see Figure 6-4).
The voltages across the two R3s are different at the time when set two is brought
on line. The R3 of set one is at 3 Vdc, indicating 100% load, and that of set 2 is
zero, indicating no load. These differences will balance out through R6 and R3 to
a voltage between zero and 3 volts. Both load bridges will be unbalanced, but in
the opposite sense. The voltage developed across C of the first unit will call for
reduced fuel and that of the second for increased fuel. This imbalance will
disappear as the two generator sets approach the same percentage of rated
output.
Where both engine-generator sets are of the same output rating, the outputs of
the two units will both come to 50% of their rated load. The load gains will both
be at 3 Vdc and the voltages across the R1s and R3s will all be 1.5 Vdc. The
bridges of both sets are balanced. The bridge outputs are zero, and the sets are
in isochronous load share at rated speed. Voltage across the load sharing lines
would be 1.5 Vdc.
If the oncoming engine-generator set is rated at only one-half that of the first
sets rating (say the first was rated at 100 kW and the second at 50 kW),
balanced load would be achieved when each engine-generator set is carrying its
proportional share based on its rated output.
Rated share X =
100 KW Load
or X = 2 / 3 or 66.67percent
100 KW + 50 KW
Load gain outputs would match at 2/3 of 6 Vdc or 4 Vdc. Voltages across the
R1s and R3s would be 2 Vdc. The load bridges would return to balance when the
first machine was carrying 66.67 kW and the second would be carrying 33.33
kW. The sets are in isochronous load share rated speed. Voltage across the load
sharing lines would be 2 Vdc.
This method of connecting the load bridge between controls of multiple enginegenerator sets, which are supplying the same load, can be used to obtain load
sharing between a number of different sets (see Figures 6-5 and 6-6). The
maximum number of sets which can be controlled in this manner has not been
determined. One known installation has 21.
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To prevent these two conditions and to set the desired load, an auxiliary bias
signal can be applied to the system load sharing lines. This will set a demand on
the generating system to generate a given portion of each engine-generators
rated output. The action is the same as when load sharing units unbalance the
balanced load bridges. The load bridge outputs to the individual set summing
points will be either positive or negative based on whether the engines are to
pick up load or to shed load. Again, when the output of the engine-generators
balance the voltages on the load bridge, the system will be at the desired load.
The summing point can now function to correct imbalances and the system is
under isochronous base load control.
If we now connect such an isochronous load sharing system to a utility, where
the speed/frequency Is fixed by the utility, and we place a fixed bias signal on
that systems load sharing lines, all units in that system will be forced by load
bridge imbalance to carry the load demanded by the bias signal. This control
method opens many possibilities for load management through Isochronous
base loading.
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Chapter 7.
Synchronization
What Is Synchronization?
We have talked about synchronizing one generator to another or to a utility, but
what are we actually describing when we use the word "synchronization"?
Synchronization, as normally applied to the generation of electricity, is the
matching of the output voltage wave form of one alternating current electrical
generator with the voltage wave form of another alternating current electrical
system. For two systems to be synchronized, five conditions must be matched:
The first two of these conditions are determined when the equipment is specified,
installed, and wired. The output voltage of a generator usually is controlled
automatically by a voltage regulator. The two remaining conditions, frequency
matching and phase matching, must be accounted for each time the tie-breaker
is closed, paralleling the generator sets or systems.
Number of Phases
Each generator set of the oncoming system must have the same number of
phases as those of the system to which it is to be paralleled (see Figure 7-1).
Rotation of Phases
Each generator set or system being paralleled must be connected so that all
phases rotate in the same direction. If the phase rotation is not the same, no
more than one phase can be synchronized (see Figure 7-2).
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Voltage Match
The voltages generated by sets or systems being paralleled must be within a
small percentage of the same value, usually 1% to 5%. The output voltage of a
synchronous generator can be controlled by changing its excitation voltage. (This
is normally done by the voltage regulator.)
If two synchronous generators of unequal voltage are paralleled, the combined
voltage will have a value different from the voltage generated by either of the
generators. The difference in voltages results in reactive currents and lowered
system efficiency (see Figure 7-3).
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In this instance, the power factor of the generator will be changed. If the
generator voltage is much lower than the bus voltage, the generator could be
motored.
An induction generator needs no voltage regulator because its output voltage will
automatically match the voltage of the system supplying its field voltage.
Frequency Match
The frequency of the oncoming generator must be very nearly the same as that
of the system it is being paralleled with, usually within 0.2% (see Figure 7-5).
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Manual Synchronization
Manually synchronized systems rely on monitoring equipment to indicate to the
operator when the two systems are synchronized closely enough for safe
paralleling. This equipment may include indicating lights, a synchroscope, a
synch-check relay, or a paralleling phase switch.
Figure 7-7 shows one method of using two 115 Vac lamps to check whether two
voltages are in or out of phase. When the voltages are in phase, the lamps will
be extinguished, and when the voltages are out of phase, the lamps will
illuminate.
Figure 7-8 shows another method, using four 115 Vac lamps, that will check
phase rotation as well as phase match. As before, when the voltages are in
phase, all lamps will be off, and when the voltages are out of phase, all of the
lamps will light. If pairs of lamps alternate light and dark (with two lamps dark
while the other two are light) the phase sequence is not the same.
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Automatic Synchronization
Automatic synchronizers monitor the voltage of either one or two phases of an
off-line generator and the voltage of the same phases of the active bus. Small
units normally monitor a single phase. Large generating systems normally
monitor two phases.
Early automatic synchronizers worked through the speed setting motor-operated
potentiometer (MOP). They corrected for speed/frequency only, and relied on a
small frequency drift to match the phase of the oncoming generator to that of the
active bus.
The time for this type of unit to synchronize varied from 1/2 second upward.
Synchronizing depended on how closely the governor controlled speed, and on
how closely the synchronizer had matched the generator frequency to that of the
bus.
A good governor and an accurate frequency match often resulted in a very slow
frequency drift. When this was the case, the time required to drift into phase
could result in an unacceptably long synchronizing time.
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This method was later improved upon. The synchronizer would bring the
oncoming unit into frequency match with the bus. Once the frequency was
matched, the speed setting MOP was pulsed, adjusting generator speed to about
0.5% above synchronous speed. The speed setting MOP was then run back to
about 0.2% below synchronous speed. This action was repeated until
synchronization of phase angle occurred and the circuit breaker was then closed.
A modern synchronizer compares the frequency and phase of the two voltages,
and sends a correction signal to the summing point of the governor controlling
the prime mover of the oncoming generator. When the outputs of the two
systems are matched in frequency and phase, the synchronizer issues a
breaker-closing signal to the tie-breaker, paralleling the two systems.
These synchronizers may include voltage-matching circuits which send raise and
lower signals to the voltage regulator of the oncoming generator. If the voltage of
the oncoming generator does not match the bus within set limits, the
synchronizer will not allow a circuit breaker closure.
This system is much faster than the earlier models and can even be used to
force an isolated engine-generator to track a utility without actually being
connected to it.
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2 w .
T wd
then wc = s = w +
2 w
(T b )
T wd
For Example:
Assume a synchronizer configured for a window of 10 degrees and a window
dwell time of 1/2 second. Assume the breaker is never slower than 13 cycles.
If w = 10
Twd = 0.5 s
Tb =
13 cycles
60 cycles/second
= 0.217 s
2(10 )
(0.217 sec.)
0.5 sec.
wc = 18.7
then wc = s = 10+
wc = s = 5+
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Chapter 8.
Managing Power for the Desired Result
Peaking or Peak Load Control
Peak sharing, peaking, or peak load control all refer to methods used to limit the
peak electrical demand purchased from a utility. Electrical rates usually are
determined by the peak demand on the utility during a given time period.
Sometimes a peak demand lasting as brief as fifteen minutes out of a 30-day
period will determine the charge leveled for all power purchased during those 30
days.
Plant load control or load shedding, which means the shutting off of optional
loads to hold peak consumption below a maximum desired load level.
Separating off and isolating a portion of the plant load and then powering
that isolated portion with an in-plant generating system. Ensure that the
plant generator load is a sufficient part of the total load to maintain the utility
load below the maximum desired peak.
Peak shaving, using an in-plant generator system controlled to take all loads
or peaks above a certain level. The utility will take all loads below this level
(see Figure 8-1).
Base-Loading
Base loading and peak shaving both use base loading techniques: base loading
by setting a block or constant load on the in-plant engine generator system, peak
shaving by varying the base load to maintain the level of power supplied from the
utility at or below a certain level.
Base-loading is the operation of an engine-generator at a constant output. When
internal power demand exceeds generator output capacity, deficit power will be
imported from the utility. The user's equipment is tied to the utility and uses the
utility to control frequency. Base-loading usually is accomplished with the user's
equipment in droop with the utility accepting load swings. Equipment is available
that will allow the user to operate in isochronous mode with the utility and still
allow the utility to accept load swings.
If the base-loading exceeds the plants internal power demands, the excess
power may be exported to the utility.
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Peak Shaving
Peak shaving is used to set a limit on the maximum amount of imported power.
In the following example, a limit of 100 kW is set for imported power, and the
user's generating equipment provides for power demands exceeding the 100 kW
limit. The in-plant engine generator is normally operated only during periods of
peak power demand.
Import/Export
Import power and export power are terms used to describe power that is brought
into a plant (import) or is sent to a utility (export). A plant may import power
during peak demands and export during low demands. Other situations may
require only import power or only export power.
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Cogeneration
What Is Cogeneration?
Cogeneration normally is defined as the combined production of electrical or
mechanical power and useful thermal energy through the sequential use of
energy.
Systems that burn some form of fuel (combustion energy) to generate electrical
power often only produce power outputs of 40% or less of the total fuel energy.
Unless power management in the form of cogeneration is used, the remaining
energy is lost. This loss is in the form of thermal energy such as exhaust heat
and friction heat. With proper applications of cogeneration, much of this lost
energy can be recovered and used in applications where a source of heat is
required.
Generated electrical power may be recycled into the manufacturing process, or
qualified producers may sell it to a utility company. The type of manufacturing
process, and its needs, will determine how generated power is distributed.
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The AGLC unit load sharing output lines, which are connected to the 2301A load
sharing lines, start at zero Vdc and ramp up to the setting of the base load
setpoint potentiometer. This AGLC output forces the engine, through the 2301A,
to pick up the desired load. If utility power were now lost and the utility tie breaker
opened, the AGLC would be automatically de-activated, removing the bias from
the load sharing lines. The engine would then automatically carry the plant load,
within its capabilities at synchronous speed.
When the utility power returns, the SPM-A, sensing voltage, would automatically
begin synchronizing the engine, and once satisfied, close the utility tie breaker,
re-activating the AGLC. The AGLC, tracking the load sharing lines, would start
out at the plant load at that time, causing no load bump, and ramp the load up or
down, back to its base load reference setpoint.
To unload the engine, the AGLC unload contacts are momentarily opened. The
AGLC ramps the load off the engine and back onto the utility. Once the engine's
load is down to the unload trip level setpoint, the AGLC issues a generator
breaker open command. The generator circuit breaker opens and the engine is
isolated from the load. The utility now has the system load and the engine can be
shut down.
These controls provide a means to totally automate an engine to start, run, load,
unload, and shut down, using simple relays, timers, and circuit breaker auxiliary
contacts.
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Figure 8-13. Connections for Single Engine AGLC Base Load System
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Figure 8-14. Using AGLC for Soft Load, Soft Unload, and Base Load to an
Isolated Bus for Isochronous Load Sharing
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Figure 8-15. Connections Used with AGLC for Soft Loading, Unloading, and
Base Loading with Isochronous Load Sharing Against an Isolated Bus
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Figure 8-16. Using the AGLC to Base Load Multiple Engines to a Utility
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