2 The Laplace Transform Method of Solving Differential Equations 2.1 THE CONCEPT OF A TRANSFORM Having obtained some physical notion of what an electrical transient is, we now proceed to show how transients can be studied in a quantitative manner. Kelvin once remarked: I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of Science, whatever the matter may be. Today we would probably state this verity in a different way: “To under- stand something, you must be able to hang a number on it.” In this chapter we lay the groundwork for “hanging numbers” on electrical transients. The initial approach is rather formal. We use the concept of a transform. The name transform is really a contraction of a more descriptive title, a functional transformation. It implies the performing of some operation on a function to change it into a new function, frequently in a different variable. The new function is referred to as the transform of the old. Such a transformation is carried out for a purpose, in our case to simplify the solution of differential equations. There are many transform operations in everyday use in engineering which are not formally given the name, but which nevertheless are function- al transformations. Whenever we use a phasor notation to represent a sinusoidally time-varying quantity we are making a functional transforma- tion. This might also be said of the process of taking the logarithm of a number. The number is the function, its logarithm is its transform. This transformation is made to replace the processes of multiplication and division by the simpler manipulations of addition and subtraction. When such an operation has been performed, the product obtained is the trans- form of the solution, in this case its logarithm. To obtain the solution proper One must go through a reverse process, or inverse transformation, that is, ll° 12. THELAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD take the antilogarithm. In most instances this last step will not be carried out formally in our analyses. Instead, we will refer to a table of functions and their transforms and extract the applicable function for our particular transform. This is akin to entering a table of logarithms to find the antilogarithm of a specific logarithm. ‘The simple transient in the RC circuit, reviewed in Chapter 1, isa useful illustrative example, although it does not represent the type of problem regularly encountered in power systems. Practical circuits are far more complicated, so that, even after simplification for the purpose of analysis, they often retain many circuit elements in series-parallel combination. Consequently, it will require several differential or integro-differential equa- tions (one for each mesh) to describe the behavior of the circuit and each may be more complicated than Eq. 1.3.1. These equations must be solved simultaneously to evalute the variables of interest. To do this efficiently, some systematic technique must be employed. We use the Laplace’ trans- form method for this purpose. The Laplace transformation, when applied to terms of an ordinary differential equation, converts the equation into an algebraic equation. In so doing the variable ¢ disappears and a new variable s is introduced. The Laplace transformation has the added virtue of drawing attention to the initial conditions by providing just enough terms for these conditions to be satisfied. When operated upon in this manner the equations of the problem lose their transient aspect and appear more like equations of a steady-state problem in the new variable s. The procedure is as follows. After setting down the differential equations describing a problem, the terms are transformed one by one to obtain an algebraic equation for each of the initial differential equations. These are then solved simultaneously for the variable of interest, to give what is called the operational solution. The time function corresponding to this operational solution is then found from a table of transforms, or on rare occasions by applying the inverse Laplace transformation [1], which is a means for inverting transforms from first principles. 2.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM The Laplace transform of a function F(t) is defined mathematically as follows: 2FW)= I Fe" dt (2.2.1) or, more precisely, lim [ F(te™" dt (2.2.2) a0 7%‘THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM =13 Another symbol used for the Laplace transform of F(t) is f(s). For currents and voltages it is usual to write LI(1) = i(s) and LV(t) = v(s), reserving an uppercase letter for the function itself and a lowercase letter for its transform. We proceed with the minimum of justification for the way in which we apply and manipulate the transform, since our purpose is to use the transform as a tool rather than to study it for itself. However, there are certain questions that arise when one first applies this method. For example, are there any restrictions on F(t), or does every function have a transform? The mathematical answer to this question is that the Laplace transform can be obtained for any function of exponential order. This means any function that does not increase with t more quickly than e~* diminishes. This is another way of saying that the transform has meaning only if it is possible to perform the integrating operation described by Eq. 2.2.2. Thus we find that # is of exponential order, but e" is not, since, regardless of the value of s (as. long as it is finite), as ¢ increases, e" -e~ eventually increases indefinitely. In practical problems of circuit analysis, we are investigating the behavior of a real physical system, and to any real physical stimulus there will be a real physical response, thus in our area of interest the integral will always converge. Another question that arises is whether the Laplace transform follows the distributive law. That is, is the transform of a sum, the sum of the transforms of the parts? The answer is yes, and it can be stated thus: ZIF,(O + AO) = 270) + 270) (2.2.3) It will be observed that the operation of taking the transform (Eq. 2.2.2) brings about a change in variable. We start with a function of 1, F(t), and finish with a function of s, f(s). The character of s itself is relatively unrestricted. In general it can be said that s can be real or complex. It is often written otjo (2.2.4) Further discussion of this is left until we have developed a number of transforms. To do this, we start with some of the more common stimuli encountered in circuit problems. 1. The constant V: ev=[[ Ve" dt =V f «dt (since V does not vary with 1)(2.2.5) 2. The ramp (typically a current ramp), a function which increases uniformly with time, I(t) = I't: gri=f I'te"' dt = “ff te" dt o Integrate by parts: =f (2.2.6) 3, The exponential e*‘ (the great prevalence of exponential functions in electric circuit theory has already been stressed): ae = ee dt lo eerrye a-slo (for s > a) (2.2.7) a Note that if s| “>> -2 ‘THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD : 2x 10° Steady-state field current = xe =2500A Energy stored = }LJ° = } x 0.638 x 2.5? x 10° = 1.994 MJ . 480 _ Resistance of field winding = 5-5 = 0.192. . _ LE _ 0.638 _ Time constant = R~ 0192 = 3.3238 Field current is brought to zero by reducing the exciter voltage to some —V. Current is given by H(t) = 10) ~ y (eR) 4(5) = 2500 — as (1 679/793) whence V=617V. ‘We now turn our attention to the LC circuit, which introduces a new dimension. In the previous two circuits there was only one seat for stored energy, the inductor or the capacitor. Such circuits give rise to single energy transients identifiable by their single exponential response. In a circuit with both inductance and capacitance, double energy transients appear and the response involves two exponential terms. Depending upon the circuit, the exponents may be real, imaginary, or conjugate complex. In those cases where they are imaginary or complex, they combine to give a sine or cosine function which manifests itself physically as an oscillation in the circuit. The natural frequency of the circuit is excited by the switching operation. Energy oscillates between inductance and capacitance. Because of the two seats for energy, the LC circuit gives rise to a second-order differential equation when it is stimulated. On closing the switch in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.3, Kirchoff’s law gives for the circuit equation ad L atYce=V (2.3.14) Fig. 2.3. The oscillatory LC circuit.SOME SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM =. 23 If the quantity of interest is the voltage, J is replaced by C dVcldt: aVe de LC +Vo=V (2.3.15) To find the current J, V; is replaced by (1/C) f Idt= Q./C: di cosh fraev (2.3.16) Then Eq. 2.3.16 must be transformed to obtain an operational solution. This introduces the transform of an integral given in Eq. 2.2.17: i) , Qc) _V (2.3.17) Lsi(s) ~ LI(0) + Se + SO = = The initial voltage on the capacitor is Q-(0)/C. This equation could have been derived by differentiating Eq. 2.3.16 ait Late=0 (2.3.18) and then transforming s°Li(s) — sL1(0) - LI’(0) + is) 2.3.19 C ) Bat from Eq. 2.3.14 dI_V-V, r= 4 -¥% therefore LI'(0) = V- V¢(0) (2.3.20) Substituting Eq. 2.3.20 in Eq. 2.3.19 gives sLi(s) — sLI(0) + V,(0) + 2 =v (2.3.21) which is essentially the same as Eq. 2.3.17. It should be noted that since this 1S a second-order equation two initial conditions, (0) and V_(0) [or 1’(0)], must be specified to obtain a complete solution. Rearranging Eq. 2.3.21, ita? + mal = ye) + si(0)24 ‘THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD. or _v- 4 1 = 4 alLey 71 Fane) (2.3.22) There could be no initial current in the circuit of Fig. 2.3 [1(0)=0], but V-(0) might have any value. Suppose that C is discharged initially, and let 1/LC = 3; then ; Cy"? _ i(s)= v(€) Fret (2.3.23) This is the operational solution. The solution proper can be written at once from Eq. 2.2.9: 12 I(t)= v(£) sin wt (2.3.24) This states that the current oscillates sinusoidally at the natural frequency @, of the circuit, which is a function of the L and C of the circuit only. Another important point is that the ratio of the voltage to the current is given by (L/C)'"?, which apparently has the dimensions of impedance. This is called the surge impedance of the circuit and is written 2= (4)" (2.3.25) It is a very important characteristic of any LC circuit. To calculate the voltage of the capacitor, we proceed from Eq. 21.3.15, which may be rewritten: aV. at + wi, (2.3.26) Transformed, this gives : (+ wd)0,(s) = 2 + s¥6(0) + Ve(O) Again, Vi{0)=0 since (0) = 0, and (0) = CVz(0). Allowing a finite value for Vc(0), Vos, sVe(0) H+ 0 F403 oy v,(s) = The second of the transforms on the right-hand side of Eq. 2.3.27 is familiar. Its inverse transform is cos wot. The first transform has not been encountered before. However, it readily reduces to something we can handle: wo 1 s +02) 5 StasSOME SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 25 thus 2 “1 Po 21 ~ cos ant (2.3.28) 5(s7 + w3) From Eqs. 2.3.27 and 2.3.28, the solution for V; can be written Ve(t) = V(1 — cos wot) + V_(0) cos wot =V-[V-V,(0)] cos apt (2.3.29) This is plotted for several values of V.(0) in Fig. 2.4. In a practical circuit, there would be some resistance, which gradually damps out the oscillation so that the capacitor finally settles down to the battery voltage. It is interesting to note how, in Fig. 2.4, the capacitor overshoots this value. The further below the battery voltage the capacitor voltage starts, the further above will the capacitor swing. In fact, if there is no damping, the capacitor voltage will swing just as far above the battery voltage as it started below. In Fig. 2.4, curve a therefore reaches a peak of 3V. This process is physically illustrated in Fig. 2.5 as follows. When the capacitor has been charged by the current to the supply voltage, the current is well established in the circuit inductance, and therefore it cannot suddenly drop to zero. It continues to flow, but after this instant V. becomes greater than V, so the net voltage in the circuit is such as to reduce the current, which declines, coming to zero a quarter of a cycle later. At this point, since 1= C dV/dt, the voltage has reached a peak, that is, dV/dt changes sign, and the capacitor commences to discharge. Fig. 2.4. The capacitor voltage in the circuit of Fig. 2.3 after the switch is closed: (a) Ve(0) = -V; (b) V-(0)=0; (c) V-(0) = +V/2.26 THELAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD 2V-VA0) PRG Fig. 2.5. Voltage and current relationship in the LC circuit. 2.4 BUILDING OTHER TRANSFORMS It was shown in Eq. 2.3.11 how the transform 1 /s(s + a) could be evaluated by observing that it was the difference between two other simpler trans- forms: 1! [ - | sista) als sta This method of developing new transforms from simpler, known transforms, by taking partial fractions, is general in its application and very useful. The rules for forming partial fractions are given in reference 2. We will utilize these to find the inverse of 34 ws? = wis + 03 s+ (ort @3)s" + 0703 Before proceeding note that the order of s in the denominator is greater than that in the numerator. Only transforms of this type arise in practical power system problems. The denominator of the transform may be factored: =? + os? — wis + 0} _ —9° + ys" — wis + 03 as tes Tes 7 O02 St (or + ws)5 + Wie; (s+ w3\(s° + 03) Ast+B Cst+D “Grd Grey OAD where A, B, C, and D are constants to be evaluated. The following identity can now be written by equating numerators:. OPERATIONAL IMPEDANCE 27 = 3) + 0,5 — wis + a, 0; = (As + B)(s? + w3) + (Cs + D)(s? + w}) =(At C)s°+(B+D)s? + (Aw3 + Cw})s + Bos + Do} Equating like coefficients: Aw? + Cwi= (2.4.2) Bw? + Dw? = 0,0; Solving Eqs. 2.4.2 simultaneously: A=D=0, B=, Thus Eq. 2.4.1 can be rewritten: -s +0 —wsto,0, s Frits toe, (+ei) +e) which can be evaluated from Eqs. 2.2.9 and 2.2.10: 3 2 2 2 -s +s — @\S + @,@: . : 5 12 = sin w,t — cos wt (2.4.3) go FF St (r+ a3)s + wos 2.5 OPERATIONAL IMPEDANCE There is another approach to finding solutions to transient problems that we shall find useful from time to time. Suppose we wish to calculate a particular transient current. It is reasonable to suppose that we would ultimately find it by dividing a voltage by an impedance: Vv I=% Of course, V and Z may be complicated functions. If an operational method is employed to solve this problem, a prior step would be to obtain the operational solution, which might be written i(s) = eet (2.5.1)28 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD In this expression v(s) is the transform of the voltage V and 2(s) is what we will call the operational impedance. If the circuit being studied is stimulated by a simple battery voltage V, then u(s) = V/s. How then is z(s) determined? ‘A clue to this will be found by reviewing a couple of previous examples. Consider the application of a voltage V to an RC circuit, the first problem solved in Section 2.3. Let us assume in the first instance that the capacitor is uncharged. Then the operational solution given in Eq. 2.3.6 can be re- written: v 1 Ss (= 5 RT GIG) (2.5.2) It is apparent from Eq. 2.5.2 that for this problem z(s) = R + (1/Cs). Consider next the application of a constant voltage V to an RL circuit, the second problem in Section 2.3. The operational solution here is given in Eq. 2.3.10, which for our present purpose is best stated void SRL (2.5.3) i(s) In this expression z(s) = R + Ls. Finally, the third problem in Section 2.3 derives the current in an LC circuit, excited by applying a voltage V. Equation 2.3.23 can be rearranged in the form Vv 1 9) = 5 TTae) (2.5.4) In this instance, 1 z(s)=Ls+ G These examples indicate that z(s) is formed by writing Ls for each inductance and 1/Cs for each capacitance in the circuit. Resistors are unchanged, that is, they appear simply as R. There is a similarity between these expressions and the symbolic representation of inductive and capaci- tive reactances by jw and 1/jwC in steady-state a.c. analysis. In fact, the latter is a special case of the former; the Laplace representation includes the steady state. Thus to solve a transient problem by use of the operational impedance, proceed as if solving for the alternating current in the branch of interest, with an alternating voltage applied. An example will make this clear. It is desired to calculate the current that would flow in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.62 when a voltage V is applied at A and B. If this was a steady-state a-c problem and V a steady-state alternating voltage, the representation of Fig. 2.65 would be used. The corresponding operational: DUHAMEL'S INTEGRAL—RESPONSE OF A CIRCUIT 29 L Jol aL COTO (TOTO R R R Ww tH Ww bo A BA BA 3 it ie c a 1 Re w (@) @ © Fig. 2.6. Comparison of a.c. symbolic representation (6) and the operational impedance (c) for an RLC circuit (a). impedance diagram for the transient problem is shown in Fig. 2.6c. Ls and 1/Cs in parallel have an impedance: LIC _ s Is+(1/Cs) Cs? + (1/LC)] thus, 2(s)=R+ Arran is) e (2.5.5) s{r + avril Had the stimulus been some other function, for example, a decaying exponential, for Ve~*‘ we would have used V/(s + @) instead of the V/s used for the step function in Eq. 2.5.5. When the subject of investigation is a voltage, the operational impedance is used in the form v(s) = i(s)z(s). The method of solution just described is best suited for problems when the circuits are initially dead, that is, for circuits that contain no stored energy. This would be the case if initially all the currents were zero and all the capacitors were discharged. Its use is not restricted to such circuits, but one must apply superposition with great care for circuits with nonzero initial conditions. For this reason, the author prefers:in most instances the method described earlier of setting up the differential equations from Kirchhoff’s laws and applying the Laplace transform. 2.6 DUHAMEL’S INTEGRAL—RESPONSE OF A CIRCUIT TO AN ARBITRARY STIMULUS The material in Sections 2.5 and 1.5 (the principle of superposition) can be utilized to determine the transient response of a circuit to a stimulus of30‘ THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD arbitrary form. The method is formalized in Duhamel’s integral, which we will introduce shortly. Consider Fig. 2.7a, which represents the waveform of a voltage surge U(®). This can be approximated by the stepped waveform shown in Fig. 2.7b. The degree of approximation will improve as the number of steps increases. Now superposition tells us that the response to a succession of stimuli can be obtained by adding the responses of the individual stimuli. In this instance, the stimuli are step functions and as Carter [2] puts it, “If the stimulus applied to a circuit consists of a succession of shocks, the response to the stimulus may be obtained by adding together the responses to these shocks.” We therefore need the response of the circuit to a step, or more precisely to a unit function, or step of unit height, often written simply 1. If we designate this response U,(t), the response to a step of height V, that is, to V-1, will be V-U,(0). In the notation of the Laplace transform the unit function is written 7 1 £ ‘Was (2.6.1) thus, when such a step is applied to a circuit whose operational impedance is 2(s), the operational expression for the current will be iG)= a (2.6.2) The inverse transform of the current, or what we have called u,(t) in general terms, is u(Q=1(0=¢7 xO (2.6.3) uw) (a) Fig. 2.7. Surge waveform approximated by a succession of steps.DUHAMEL'S INTEGRAL—RESPONSE OF A CIRCUIT 31 Turning now to Fig. 2.76, the initial value of U(t), U(0), evokes a response U(0)-u,(t). To this must be added, at appropriate intervals, the response to the other steps. Consider the one that starts at time 7; a time Ar elapses before the next step is applied. It follows, therefore, that the height of this step is U'(r)- Az where U'(r) is the value of dU/dt at the instant 7, Measured from that instant, the circuit’s response to this shock will be U'(z)u,(t— 7)4zr. Consequently the response of the circuit to the whole succession of steps up to time ¢ is UO)us(0) + & U'eru(t~ 1) Ar (2.6.4) Where U(t) is declining, the steps are negative, but they are treated in exactly the same way. Proceeding to the limit where Ar becomes indefinitely small, we find that U(t) causes a response u(t), given by u(t) = U(0)u, (2) +f U'(r)u,(t— 2) dr (2.6.5) This is Duhamel’s integral. Notice that in evaluating the integral, 7 is the variable; t is treated as a constant. Carter [2] points out that by integrating by parts and by other elementary means, we may prove that Duhamel’s integral can be written in the following alternative ways: u(t) = U(O)u,(t) + [ ‘ U'()u,(t- 7) dr (2.6.5a) u(t) = u,(O)U(t) + [ uy(r)U(t — 1) dr (2.6.5b) u(t) = U(0)u,(t) + I ‘ uy (7)U"(t - 2) dr (2.6.5¢) u(t) = u,(0)U(t) + f U(r)ui(t — 7) dr (2.6.5d) u(y) = 4 { [ ‘ U(r)u,(t— 7) ar (2.6.5e) “(= 4 { [ u,(7)U(t- 7) | (2.6.5f) The choice between these different alternatives is often determined by the Problem to be solved. An example will make this clear. For this example we will consider the response of the RL circuit shown in Fig. 2.8 to a stimulus32) THELAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD R Verat <— L Fig. 2.8. An RL circuit stimulated by an exponential drive. U(t)= Ve" (2.6.6) ‘We will solve this first by the regular Laplace transform method developed. in the first few sections of this chapter. Subsequently, the Duhamel’s integral will be applied to show this alternative approach. The differential equation describing the circuit behavior is dl ya IR+L a Ve (2.6.7) Transforming the equation gives Ri(s) + Lsi(s)— LI(0)= = If the circuit is initally dead [i.e., 1(0) = 0], Vv i(s) = tier) (2.6.8) Introducing A= R/L, this may be written i(s)= v 2. It HG+a) (2.6.9) It is apparent that Eq. 2.6.9 can be rewritten ey VY ( 1 1 = Ta» STA -s4) (2.6.10) which contains the now familiar transform of Eq. 2.2.8 and leads to the solution Vv I= L@-a (eo — @*) (2.6.11). PROBLEMS B To solve the problem by Duhamel’s integral, we must first find u,(t), which we have already done in Section 2.3. It is apparent from Eq. 2.3.13 that u(Q=hQ= i (i-e™) (2.6.12) From Egs. 2.6.6 and 2.6.12, it seems that the form of Duhamel’s integral given in Eq. 2.6.56 best suits this problem since the fact that u,(0)=0 simplifies the expression. Now, ray Ae” wos Therefore, from Eq. 2.6.5, : an ult) = 0 = [ Ve <— dr La which accords will solution 2.6.11. We have been thinking in terms of a voltage stimulus, but it should be clearly understood that Duhamel’s integral can be applied equally well if U(#) is current stimulus. In this case u,(t) will be a voltage and will be obtained by multiplying the current by the impedance: w= 4-26) or u(p= et PROBLEMS 2.1 Using the method of partial fractions, evaluate the following Laplace transforms (obtain the time function): 1 27st so +55 —24 Ts? + 4a” * s(s? +a?) 25° +13s+1 " S+ 75" + 65xs 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD The transform of a certain voltage is given by: 1.9 x10" s?+2.1 108s +2 x 10" Evaluate the transform and sketch its form with reasonable accuracy. How much energy will be dissipated when the switch in the circuit in Fig. 2P.1 is closed. \ R | | C, = 60 uF CQ t C, = 40 pF 2 R=59 Fig. 2P.1. The capacitor C, in Fig. 2P.1 has an initial charge of 1.0C; C, is discharged. Calculate the following: a. The peak current b. The current 200 ps after the switch closes c. The ultimate energy stored in C, d, The ultimate voltage on C, If the resistor in Problem 2.3 is replaced by an inductor with the same 60 Hz reactance, calculate the following, once the switch is closed: a. The instantaneous current b. The peak current c. The energy stored in the inductance 1 ms after the switch is closed d. The energy stored in C, at the same instant. Show that if one capacitor is discharged into another through a resistor, the energy dissipated in the resistor is independent of the value of the resistor. Each phase of a 3-phase capacitor bank is rated 60 MVA at 13.8/ V3kV. A second bank has a rating of 30 MVA at 13.8/V3 kV. The two are to be paralled by momentarily connecting then through a 1000 stainless steel resistor (one for each phase), which will be subsequently shorted out. You are to design these resistors (determine the length and cross-sectional area of the wire to be used) if the temperature rise of a resistor is not to exceed 200°C, when the switching operation is made at a time when one capacitor is at positive peak voltage and the other at negative peak voltage.L PROBLEMS 35 The characteristics of stainless steel are: density = 7.9 g/cm’; specific heat = 0.5J/g per °C; resistivity = 72 4 cm. Assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings during the swit hing operation. What will be the weight of the resisitor? What will be the peak current during the switching operation? 2.7 Field coil: L = 2H, R= 3.60 R,= 100 Fig. 2P.2, Figure 2P.2 shows the field coil of a machine. It is excited by closing switch S, onto an 800 V d.c. bus. Determine the energy stored in the coil, and the energy already dissipated in it, 1s after 5, is closed. When the coil current has attained a steady value, S, is opened and S,, is closed simultaneously. What will be the voltage across S, 0.18 later? How much energy will eventually be dissipated in R,? 2.8 We are often required to design test circuits which will generate surges of specific waveform. These are then used to apply surges to pieces of power equipment (transformers, generators, reactors, etc.) we wish to test. Sometimes we wish to simulate the effect of a lightning surge, sometimes a switching surge. R= 100 C,=20pF R,= 1002 C, = 0.05 uF Fig. 2P.3. Figure 2P.3 shows a basic form of impulse generator. When C, has been charged and the gap G is caused to spark over, an impulse voltage is generated at the output terminals A and B. Without solving the equation of the circuit, compute a good estimate of the following when the precharge voltage is S00kV and the gap discharges.36 29 ‘THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD a. The maximum current in R, b. The maximum voltage across C, c. The time when this voltage (b) is reached d. The output voltage after 0.5 ws e. The output voltage after 50 ws V= 250V L R=082 L=04H Fig. 2P.4. R and L in Fig. 2P.4 represent the resistance and inductance of the field winding of a machine. The switch S has been closed and a steady direct current is flowing from the source V. When S is opened, an arc is established between its contacts which develops a voltage of 400 V, opposing the flow of current. Plot the current after S opens. REFERENCES 1. 2. S. Goldman, Laplace Transform Theory and Electrical Transients, Dover Publica- tions, New York (1966). G. W. Carter, The Simple Calculation of Electrical Transients, Cambridge Uni- versity Press, New York (1944).