1, PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (P.C.B.'s) Almost all circuits encountered on electronic equipment (computers, TV, radio, industrial control equipment, etc.) are mounted on printed circuit boards. Close inspection of a PCB reveals that it contains a series of copper tracks printed on one or both sides of a fiber glass board (or other suitable insulator). The copper tracks form the wiring pattern required to link the circuit devices according to a given circuit diagram. Hence, to construct a circuit, the necessity of connecting insulated wires between components is eliminated, resulting in a cleaner arrangement and providing mechanical support for components. Moreover, the copper tracks are highly conductive and the whole PCB can be easily reproduced for mass production with increased reliability, 1.1 Types of PCB . PCB's can be divided into three main categories: (@) single-sided (b) double-sided (©) multi-layered. 1.1.1 Single-sided PCB A single-sided PCB contains copper tracks on one side of the board only, as shown in figure 1.1(a). Holes are drilled at appropriate points on the track so that each component can be inserted from the non-copper side of the board, as shown in figure 1.1(b). Each pin is then soldered to the copper track. 1.1.2 Double-sided PCB Double-sided PCB's have copper tracks on both sides of the board. The track layout is designed so as not to allow shorts from one side to another. If it is required to link points ‘between the two sides, electrical connections are made by small interconnecting holes which are plated with copper during manufacture, 1.1.3 Multi-layer PCB In multi-layer PCB's, each side contains several layers of track pattems which are insulated from one another. These layers are laminated under heat. and high pressure. A multi-layer PCB is shown in figure 1.2. :Non-copper side Figure 1.1 (b) Figure 1.2 A multi layer PCB2. MAKING A PCB PCB's commonly available on the market are not designed for particular circuits, but are available as copper clad boards. In other words, the whole area of one (or both) side(s) of the board is coated with copper, as shown in figure 2.1(a), The user then draws his track layout on the copper surface, according to his circuit diagram, Next , the untraced copper area is removed by a process called etching. Here, the unused copper area is dissolved away by an etching solution and only the required copper tracks remain, as shown in figure 2.1(b). The board is then cleaned and drilled at points where each device is to be inserted. Finally, each component is soldered to the board. - The etching process depends on whether the board is of "plain" or "photo-resist” type. These are treated separately in sections 2.1 and 2.2. 2.1 Making a PCB out of a plain copper clad board. 2.1.1 Equipment required The following items are required: «A single-sided copper clad board. + Ferric chloride sotution, which is the etching liquid. + Anetch-resist pen (ie. with its ink resisting to ferric chloride) + APCB eraser. NOTE : Ferric chloride stains cloth and skin, so the use of an apron and rubber gloves is recommended when handling this etchant. 2.1.2 Track layout design ‘The first step is to draw the track layout on the plain copper clad board, according to the circuit to be implemented, As an example, refer to the circuit in figure 2.2(a) which tums on an LED when the push-button is pressed. The lines joining different components will form the track layout on the PCB, as shown in dotted lines in figure 2.2(b). Each component is inserted from the non-copper side of the board and its leads appear on the copper side, Therefore the actual track layout to be drawn on the copper side will be a mirror image of the dotted lines of figure 2.2(b). This is shown in figure 2.2(c) For example, when viewing from the component side, the base of the BC109 transistor appears to the right of the collector, while from the track side, it appears’at the left of the collector.COPPER CLAD . . = a Figure 2.1 (a) Figure 2.1 (b) PIN-OUT OF BC109 + Viewed from above and below PCB ' SIMPLE PUSH-BUTTON CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Figure 2.2 (a) [eee 37] oT 7 8° . ey (Component Side) (Copper side) -) Figure 2.2 (b) Figure 2.2 (c)2.2.1 Equipment required « Photo-resist board « Ferric chloride solution as etchant « Awhite board marker «Transparent polyester film for use as drafting sheet « Sodium hydroxide solution as developer « Ultra-violet exposure unit 2.2.2 Track layout design Using the same principles outlined in section, 2.1.2, the track’ layout is drawn to scale on the transparency (not on the photo-resist board), using the white board marker. It may be useful to insert graph paper below the transparent sheet for accurate dimensioning, of the layout. \ 2.2.3 Photo-etching The principle behind photo- etching i is to place the transparency over the copper clad and to expose it to UV radiation, hence leaving the (opaque) track regions intact and softening unused areas. First, the protective plastic film is removed from the board. The traced transparency is then placed over the board, being careful to ensure that the copper side of the design faces upwards. The combination is next placed in a UV exposure unit, with the transparency facing the fluorescent tubes inside the unit. At the track regions, UV radiation is prevented from reaching the board, and hence the photo-sensitive film remains hardened in these regions. After an exposure of about 5 minutes the board can be removed. [ NOTE : Intense UV light can cause severe eye and skin injury, so never look at a fluorescent UV tube when it is on. J The PCB is then placed in a solution of caustic soda which dissolves away any unhardened photo-sensitive area. After a few minutes of development time, the track layout is apparent. The board is finally removed and rinsed in cold water. 2.2.4 Final etching ‘After having allowed the tracks to harden for about half an hour, the unmarked ‘copper area is etched by ferric chloride solution as described in section 2.1.3‘The following points should be noted: + It is a good idea to draft the track layout on graph paper before drawing the final layout on the copper clad. © Use an etch resist pen to draw the track layout on the copper clad (the latter must be cleaned initially), * The following lead spacings can be used as a rule of thumb: allow 10 mm for a 1/4 W_ resistor, 8 mm for a signal diode, 4 mm for LED's and ceramic capacitors. The lead spacings may also be measured before drawing. «Terminals for the power supply input leads must also be included on the layout. +The arrangement of components must be well planned so as to minimise the amount of copper clad board required. * * Allow the ink to dry before etching. 2.1.3 Etching : The copper clad is now ready to be etched. If the etchant is available in powder form, it needs to be mixed with water in a non-corrodable container. [ NOTE : This is an exothermic reaction, so do not add water to the powder as it will spit and fume. Pour the powder gently to the water. } ‘A powder to water ratio of 2:5 by mass is about right. Etching time may vary Detween 10 to as long as 90 minutes, depending on the concentration and temperature of the etchant, The process can be accelerated by warming the solution and by frequently agitating the etching bath. The ferric chloride solution gradually dissolves any untraced copper area, When etching is complete, only the track layout remains on the board. The latter is then removed from the bath and rinsed with clean water. The etch resist ink is finally rubbed away with a PCB eraser, or with very fine grain sand paper. 2.2 Making a pcb out of a photo-resist copper clad board The photo-resist board consists of a single (or double) sided copper clad coated with a light-sensitive film (the latter is protected with a plastic film which should be removed before use). Its advantage over the plain copper clad board is that the track layout does not need to be drawn directly on the board.2.3 The use of etch-resist transfers The use of pens to design track layouts may not give neat results, even when using a ruler. For instance, it may be difficult to draw tracks with the same line width or to draw well aligned terminals for IC's and discrete devices. Etch-resist PCB symbols and tracks are available for direct transfer to the copper clad or to the transparency (for photo-resist boards), as shown in figure 2.3. Transfer is effected by rubbing down the relevant symbol with a soft pencil. Etch-resist PCB transfers Figure 2.3