12/1/2012

RADIOACTIVITY

Nina Amini, Maria Haraldson, Julia Masselos, Sophie Mathias,

Sarah Salvest and Sandhya Sridhar
The Godolphin and Latymer School

INTRODUCTION
What is Radioactivity? Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy from
unstable atoms. Unstable atoms break down or 'decay' into new atoms. They emit
radioactivity from their nucleus as they decay, and are therefore said to be
radioactive. The energy released in radioactivity consists of small, fast-moving
particles and high-energy waves. Radioactivity is a random process that happens
naturally as the isotopes decay (they continue to do this over time). Radioactivity
has many uses, for example radioisotopes that are used widely in medicine, and in
the production of nuclear energy as a source of energy. The discovery of
radioactivity has lead to many developments and is a very important component of
science today.
What is the Manhattan Project? The Manhattan project was a large scientific
research project, which was run in the United States during the Second World War.
The outcome of this project was the development of an atomic bomb. This atomic
bomb was created on July 16th 1945 and was released in Japan.
Since the development of the atomic bomb the atom bomb, many scientists have
discovered how to make use of the power of nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants
are now much more efficient than traditional power plants. The medical field has
also taken advantage of the atomic bomb. Technology used in the atomic bomb is
also used for CAT scans and chemotherapy.

The Discovery of Radioactivity

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
November 8th 1895 - Wilhelm Roentgen
discovered X rays. Whilst at university
he was drawn to a fluorescent screen
near where he was working. Roetgen
thought that the fluorescence of the light
was caused by invisible rays from the
electrons in the Hittorf-Criijes tube he
was studying. To his surprise, the
unknown rays had penetrated the
opaque black paper wrapped around the
tube.

Henri Becquerel
In 1896, Henri Becquerel was technically the first
person (along with Marie Curie) to discover
radiation. He first came across it during his
experiment on uranyl sulphate, which he exposed
to light and placed it on photographic plates
wrapped in black paper. When these photos where
developed images of uranium salts appeared.
Becquerels first thought was that the uranium had
absorbed the sunlight and produced X rays.
Becquerels assumption was proved incorrect
when on he left uranium in a closed drawer on top
of photographic paper without access to any
sunlight.
After leaving that for a few days Becquerel decided to develop the photographic
paper only expecting to see faint images when in fact they appeared very clear
and vivid. The uranium had emitted radiation with no help from any external
sources; Becquerel had discovered radioactivity. In 1903 Becquerel received the
Nobel Prize for physics.

Pierre & Marie Curie

Pierre and Marie Curie decided to
investigate
radioactivity
further.
Although
Becquerel
discovered
radioactivity Marie Curie created it.
Curie noted that uranium ore was more
active than the pure uranium and so
concluded that the ore must contain
other elements that were also
radioactive. This led her to the
discovery of polonium and radium;
however, it took many years of
processing
these
elements
to
determine their chemical properties.
She was awarded the 1903 Nobel
Prize for physics (joint with her
husband and Henri Becquerel).

The Manhattan Project

The Manhattan project was the name given to the secret US assignment that
developed the first atomic bombs during the early 1940s. The project took place
under the direction of General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Scientists and technicians, headed by physicist Robert Oppenheimer, created two
types of bombs. The Little Boy was a gun-type fission weapon constructed using
the isotope uranium-235. The Fat Man bomb was an implosion-type nuclear
weapon consisting of man-made plutonium-239.

World War Two

Throughout the Second World War America and Japan had been engaged in battle
following Japanese attempts to expand their empire. In hopes of ending and
winning the war, as to spare American lives, the US decided to drop the atomic
bombs on Japan under the orders of President Truman. On the 6th August 1945,
the first bomb Little Boy was dropped on the city of Hiroshima, three days later the
second, Fat Man, was dropped on Nagasaki. The effects were devastating; long
term and short term. The explosions created winds of 800 kilometres an hour which
instantly crushed people to death and in Hiroshima alone 80,000 were killed
immidiately by the radiation produced, followed by a further 58,000. Several days
after the Japanese surrendered. The bombings were subject to much controversy
due to the sheer masses of innocent civilians that were killed.
The use of the first atomic bombs marked the beginning of the Cold War, sparking
the nuclear arms race between the USA and the Soviet Union. It was particularly
significant in that it warned the world as to how
powerful these bombs really were and the extent of
the damage they could inflict. This acted as a
deterrent during the Cold War due to what is known
as
Mutually
Assured
Destruction.

USES
2.Thickness Control

1.Smoke Alarms
Americium-241 is
used from which
alpha particles are
emitted which ionize
the air so that it can
conduct electricity. When smoke enters, it
absorbs the particles and can no longer
conduct electricity and the alarm sounds.

The thickness of paper can be

controlled by measuring the
amount of beta radiation that
passes through it. It can also
be used for plastic or
aluminium foil.

3.Carbon Dating
When alive, organisms
have a known proportion
of Carbon-14 in their
tissues. When dead they
stop taking in the Carbon14, and the amount is
reduced. Using this
information they can date
things such as fossils.

5.Cancer Treatment
Gamma rays are
used to kill cancer
cells without
surgery, in a process
called radiotherapy.
The amount of
radioactivity given is crucial.
Some cancers are easier to treat
with radiotherapy than others.

4.Sterilising
Gamma rays are used to kill
bacteria and mould in food to
increase its shelf life. They
are also used to sterilise
hospital equipment.

6.Radioactive Tracers
Technetium-99 is
often used for
medical purposes
such as checking
for a blocked
kidney. They are
also used in
industry to check
for leaking pipes.

DANGERS OF RADIATION
Ionization and Excitation
Electrons release energy along their track by interacting with the electrons of
nearby molecules. Atoms near the track absorb this energy and are either excited
(one of their electrons shifts to a higher energy level orbital) or ionized (one of their
electrons is lost). What makes this ionization different from ionization of ordinary
chemical reactions is that any electron could be lost not necessarily one from the
highest occupied energy level orbital. This makes the atoms extremely unstable
radicals.
UV light does not ionize skin cells when it causes sunburn it excites them. It is
important to understand the effects and mechanisms of UV light and its interaction
with the skin when creating sun block.

Effect of Ionization on Cells

The major affect of ionization on cells is that it causes the DNA to break on either a
single strand or on both. Most single strand breaks can be repaired normally by
using the intact opposite strand as a model as the two complement each other.
However, in the case of double-strand breaks, rejoining of broken ends may occur,
as repair is much more difficult. These misrepairs could result in mutations,
chromosome aberrations, or cell death. There are two main ways that DNA is
affected by radiation exposure: 1) two separate double strand breaks in the DNA
molecule whose outermost ends join together, resulting in the loss of the fragment
between the two breaks, 2) the process of an enzyme digesting nucleotides of the
broken ends before repairing the break by rejoining.
Image of fragmentation of the DNA
caused by a radioactive particle.

Exposure to Radiation
Exposure to radiation, as mentioned
previously, causes ionization of cells,
breaking the DNA molecule into
fragments which could potentially rejoin
to develop mutations or cause cell death.
Exposure to radiation over long periods
of time also raises your risk of developing cancer. Short term exposure to radiation
can cause burns or radiation sickness. Radiation sickness is a result of very large

doses of ionizing radiation. Symptoms include vomiting, fainting, hair loss,

weakness, diarrhea, and reduced organ function, to name a few. Radiation
exposure
can
also
cause
premature
ageing
and
death.

THE FUTURE
So having seen the more recent implications of The Manhattan Project what about
the next 100 years? With high profile nuclear related accidents the public
knowledge about the dangers of radioactivity is increasing.
Global warming is set to continue to rise and our renewable energy options are
limited. Nuclear energy looks like a good option on paper but should we look for
more accepted alternatives? A recent poll by the BBC of 23 countries in 2011
showed that 30% wanted all nuclear plants to be closed, 39% said that existing
plants should be used but no more should be built, 22% wanted new nuclear plants
and 9% didnt know. It seems that nuclear plants are set to stay for the moment, but
what about after the next nuclear accident if there is one?
The more immediate problem seems to be countries developing their own nuclear
weapons. The greatest threats seem to come from North Korea and Iran. North
Koreas new Great Leader Kim Jong-un has only recently come to power so it
remains to be seen what route North Korea will take in their nuclear programme.
However a statement from the National Defence Commission stated We declare
solemnly and confidently that the foolish politicians around the world, including the
puppet group in South Korea, should not expect any change from us,.
Iran has recently threatened action after more sanctions were imposed against the
country over its nuclear programme.
USA, EU, UN, Canada, Switzerland,
Japan and Australia: all powerful
countries which currently have
sanctions enforced on Iran. These
sanctions are wide ranging and
show the impact of Iran not cooperating with the International
Atomic Energy Association. Irans oil
reserves mean it somewhat can exert control over European and North American
countries.

The consequence of a Nuclear War could see much of the human populous wiped
out, or most of Western Europe, certainly the theory from science and particularly
chemistry has allowed us to help with our energy problem but also given humans
the option of destroying life itself. In the coming years security will be key in order to
prevent nuclear weapons getting into malicious hands. As we endeavour to
accomplish disarmament of nuclear weapons we must also realise that it is not
possible to forget knowledge, the concept of using Chemistry as a weapon will
remain no matter what.

CONCLUSION
Some would say that the development of weapons using radioactivity prevented
World War Three between USSR and USA through mutual assured destruction.
The Manhattan Project also showed the world what a group of top scientists could
achieve working together with tight time constraints, it showed the world that
science had the potential to advance our knowledge further than what was
imaginable at that time. In a time where we all strive to be more green nuclear
energy provides an alternative to other energy sources, even with its faults. The
awareness about radioactivity has increased massively in recent years and while it
has the distinct potential to destroy humanity, it also has the potential to help in a
world trying to survive.

Pictures/Websites used
Front - http://www.imageof.net/wallpaper/Radioactivity-Warning/
Introduction - http://www.uraniumsa.org/about/radioactivity.htm
http://gk12.rice.edu/trs/science/Atom/man.htm#def
Discovery - http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/images/rontgen.460.gif
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/becquerel.jpg
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/images/curie.460.gif
Uses - http://codered-fire.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/smokeDetector.jpg
http://www.gcsescience.com/Thickness-Control-Radioactivity.gif
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_XGFsS-NQ0cs/S7UEoNSQeqI/AAAAAAAAAAk/okqCM6JTNCY/s1600/ida-47million-year-old-fossil-01.jpg
http://www.raypep.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/dental3.jpg
http://www.dietweightloss.co.uk/images/fruit-calories.jpg
http://www.nlcfn.org.uk/editorimages/radiotherapy.jpg
http://images01.olx.com/ui/2/22/13/22001913_1.jpg
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=coal-ash-is-more-radioactive-than-nuclear-waste
Dangers - http://www.encognitive.com/files/images/development-of-cancer-ionizing-radiation.gif
The Future - http://news.bbcimg.co.uk/media/images/57632000/jpg/_57632805_013603124-1.jpg