OLED Fabrication for Use in Display Systems

Chris Summitt
Optical Sciences Center, University of Arizona, 1630 E University Blvd, Tucson, AZ 85721
crs2@email.arizona.edu

Abstract: Organic light-emitting diode (OLEDs) displays are a promising new display
technology that possesses advantages such as thinner and flexible displays, lower power
consumption, and a wider viewing angle. The materials used in OLEDs produce a high
fluorescence with a small voltage which makes them more efficient than current display
technology. There are two main types of fabrication currently in use for OLEDs. The first, smallmolecule OLED technology, requires vacuum deposition and typically uses a glass substrate.
The second, which utilizes a deposition technique derived from ink-jet printing can be applied to
a variety of substrates including flexible ones. The use of flexible displays generates much
interest in the consumer market because of the possibility of new applications. This paper will
focus on some of the many different approaches to OLED fabrication as well as techniques
involved in producing full color displays.

Keywords: Organic light-emitting diode, Organic LED, OLED, display device, OLED
fabrication, organic material fabrication.
Date: 6 December 2006

Introduction/Background
Electronics manufacturers are continuously investigating ways to minimize the
cost of the devices they produce. In electronics containing a display, the cost to
manufacture is in large part due to the display component. Because of this, much
research is devoted to either improving existing displays or looking into new, alternative
display technologies. Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are one such technology.
The origin of OLEDs goes back nearly 40 years. In 1964, W. Helfrich and W. G.
Schneider1,2 published a paper reporting their observation of fluorescence in anthracene
crystals when applying a voltage. Their experiments were done on crystals that were 1
mm to 5 mm thick and 1 cm in diameter.2 Due to the size of the crystals
electroluminescence (EL) was only observed when a voltage of up to 1000V was applied.
Because of the difficulty in growing single crystals and in applying such a large voltage,
work regarding this application was slow. Then in 1987, a paper by Tang and VanSlyke3
changed everything. Instead of applying a large voltage to a large crystal, they used a
thin film and applied a small voltage. This novel application of the principle caused a
resurgence of interest in the subject sparking increased research in the technology.
An organic LED uses thin films with an applied voltage to produce
monochromatic or polychromatic light4. Due to the use of films, the technology offers a
thin, lightweight form factor. Also, the voltage required to produce EL is very small, the
absence of a back light in an OLED makes it possible for a display to draw less energy.
Since the display is many times a main source of power drain, portable devices with
OLED displays would have a significant increase in battery life, making this a power

efficient technology. Theoretical conversion efficiency is estimated at near 100%

compared to near 20% for the LCD5. OLEDs can be manufactured onto a glass substrate
or a plastic, flexible substrate. This particular aspect is attractive to display
manufacturers because of the possibility of new display technology. The viewing angle
is also substantially greater than that of current LCD technology6. LCD screens typically
have a viewing angle of 1400 while OLED displays can have viewing angles approaching
1800.
The possible applications of this display technology are numerous. Because of
their unique form and intrinsic characteristics, OLEDs can accomplish things current
display technologies such as LCD and Plasma cannot. Obvious applications such as
televisions and cell phone displays are currently being produced. Samsung has developed
the largest OLED to date at 40 inches for a flat screen television as shown in Fig. 1.7

Figure 1: Currently Samsung manufactors the biggest OLED at 40 in.7

More exotic applications that utilize flexible substrates are being investigated as well.
Roll up displays are commonly referred to as the break out application of OLEDs.
When printing on a flexible substrate with an ink-jet method, it is conceivable one could
produce a display that rolled up like a map or poster. This opens the door to further
advances in portability of systems requiring a display such as laptops, televisions, or even
video game systems.
A display doesnt have to completely roll up to take advantage of a flexible
substrate. Nokia currently manufactures a watch that has a display which bends with the
band, Fig 4.8 Products such as these, displays that are able to flex as other parts of the
device do are just the niche that the OLED can fit into.

Figure 2: Watch manufactured by Nokia with flexible display8

Despite the enormous potential for OLEDs, they do not have widespread use in
the consumer market yet. This is partly due to fabrication difficulties and short lifetimes
of organic materials as well as general unfamiliarity with the new technology. However,
much research is being performed to overcome these difficulties and large display
companies such as Sony and Samsung have plans to begin manufacturing OLED display
panels in the spring.5 What follows is a summary of some of the techniques used to apply
the organic layers of the OLED as well as some techniques for producing full color
displays.
Methods and Materials
As stated above, OLEDs are made using thin films of organic material which are
sandwiched in between an anode and cathode. There are a variety of organic materials
that can be used for such films. The general structure for an OLED consists of four thin
film layers deposited on a substrate. The first layer is the cathode which is typically
made of Mg:Ag. Under this layer is an electron transport layer, typically made of Alq3.
The third layer is the hole transport layer. Lastly, fourth layer is the anode, which is
typically made of indium-tin-oxide (ITO). The substrate is made of either a glass or
transparent plastic. When a voltage is applied across the two inner layers the holes and
electrons combine forming excitons. When an exciton decays, a photon is emitted. This
general form can be seen in Fig. 2.7

Figure 3: The five main features of an OLED, cathode, emissive layer, conductive layer, anode, and
substrate.7

The cathode is typically made of some sort of alloy, two popular ones are Li:Al
and Mg:Ag.7 These particular alloys are chosen because of their low work function
which enables electrons to be easily pumped into the organic layers. The cathode can be
made with or without a transparent material, depending on the application of the device.
The anode is almost always made of indium tin oxide (ITO). ITO is transparent so light
can pass through the organic layers to the substrate.9
The organic layers can be made of either organic molecules or polymers10. When
using organic molecules two layers are used. One layer is called the transport layer and
the other is called the emitting layer. The transport layer serves to pass electron holes
from the anode. The emitting layer passes electrons. When the holes and electrons
interact an exciton is emitted and light is created. Many times the application will
dictate the choice of layer material. One factor that will determine the material is the
desired color.10 Different colors are achieved with different layer materials. For example,
if green is desired it is common to use the combination Mq3, where M is a Group III
metal and q3 is 8-hydroxyquinolate. Blue is achieved by using Alq2OPh and red is done
with perylene derivatives. When choosing a polymer, only a single organic layer is
required.10
Once a material has been chosen, the method of application must be decided.
Currently, there are many different methods in use. Most of them have their roots in
electronics or in optical coatings. Each technique brings its own challenges and
advantages. As mentioned before, there are two choices for the organic layers, either
small molecules or polymers. The method of application will differ depending on this
choice. Polymers typically use spin coating. In spin coating, the organic material is
deposited in liquid form on a substrate in excess. The substrate is rotated at high speed
causing the liquid to spread out across the substance as seen in Fig. 3. The liquid will

form a thin layer and solidify as it evaporates. The thickness of the film is determined by
the amount of time the substrate is rotated and the drying rate of the material.11 Films
produced this way tend to have inconsistent thickness as well as poor surface smoothness.
Due to this inconsistency, it is not the method of choice. When using polymers, ink-jet
technology is commonly used.11 The OLED display resolution is similar to that of
printed paper and so this technology is easily converted.11 In ink-jet printing, the organic
material is used in its liquid form in the same fashion as ink is used in a traditional
printer. There exist problems with pinholes in an ink-jet printed layer. This is addressed
by first spin coating a layer and then ink-jet printing the second layer.11

Figure 4: In Spin coating, a drop of the material is deposited onto a substrate and rotated at high
speed until it spreads to the desired thickness.11

When using small molecule layers, evaporative techniques are commonly chosen.
The small molecules are evaporated onto a substrate and form a thin film. This takes
place in a vacuum. Another method is called chemical vapor deposition (CVD). In CVD
a substrate is placed in a vacuum and a chemical is introduced causing the film to
condense onto the substrate. A disadvantage to this method is that everything inside the
vacuum will get coated, leading to waste of material.
Choosing the method of application is not the only thing that must be considered
when applying organic layers. Just as important as the application process is the
configuration of the layers. There are many ways the layers can be configured to achieve
optimal operation. The first method is very conceptually simple. In the same way pixels
are arranged in a cathode ray tube (CRT), red green and blue OLEDS can be deposited in
an array to achieve a full color display. This method requires a different organic film for
each pixel, so it can only be used in low resolution displays.7

Figure 5: Different pixel configurations used in Full Color Displays. a) side by side RGB subpixels
b) White OLED with red, green and blue filters. c) Blue OLED with red, green and blue
downconverters. d) Dielectric stacks. e) Color tunable OLED for red, green and blue pixels9

An alternative to the above configuration is to use a white OLED with a series of

red, green, and blue filters.9 A white OLED is grown and deposited upon a layer
containing filters which transmit only R, G, or B light. This method will yield a higher
resolution than the previous one, but will suffer in transmission. Since the OLED light
has to go through a filter first, optical power will be lost.
A similar method uses a blue OLED with a red and green downconverter. A blue
OLED is grown on top of a series of red and green downconverters and transparent
spacers.9 When the light from the blue OLED strikes the red or green downconverter, the

blue light is absorbed and re-emitted as either red or green light. The blue light will pass
through the transparent spacers as blue. This method has a better throughput than the
white OLED method but suffers from power inefficiency. Also, because a different
throughput will be observed for red, green or blue light, the display will be inconsistent.
Filtering can be done with microcavity filtering using dielectric stacks.9 This
setup also uses a white light OLED. White light from the top layer OLED is transmitted
through a dielectric stack containing a Bragg reflector. A different stack is used to
produce red, green or blue. A drawback of this configuration is that the stacks
themselves can become thicker then the typical OLEDs in whole.
Lastly, a more intuitive method can be used. Instead of achieving full color via
red, green, and blue combination, color tunable OLEDs can be used. In this method,
display is composed of an array of individual color tunable OLEDs. This configuration
eliminates the need for three subpixels to act as a single full color pixel and so higher
resolution can be achieved.9 The color of the pixel is controlled by varying the applied
voltage. As the voltage is increased, emission from higher energy levels is increased and
bluer light is emitted. One drawback of this method is that the circuitry needed to control
the voltage is complicated.9
Configuration

Advantages

Disadvantages

RGB Subpixels side by

side

simplest design, easy to implement

White Light OLED with

RGB filters

good level of color saturation, higher resolution

than side by side subpixels

Blue OLED with R and G

filters

Does not waste photons as in the white OLED

method, higher throughput

*Power inefficiency due to red/green/blue photons

having different energies
*stray light problem that could cause color bleeding

Dielectric Stacks

Creates narrow band light which leads to good

saturation

*angular dependence could lead to color directionality

dielectric stacks would increase the thickness of OLED

Easy to manufacture, all equal materials at same

height
very high resolution

*complicated circuitry used to control color,

brightness, grayscale, etc.

Color Tunable OLEDs

*low resolution
*can be difficult to manufacture

*Total power throughput is low

*Each OLED will have to use 10 times
the current of above design
*Higher current causes decreased lifetime

Finally, once the materials for the organic layers, anode, and cathode are chosen,
the method of application is decided and the configuration is chosen, the substrate onto
which they will be deposited must be determined. There are two general types of
substrates, flexible and fixed. The type of substrate chosen will also depend the
configuration method that will be used. If a flexible display is desired, then ink-jet
printing will be required. If one wants to use a vacuum with something like CVD, then a
glass substrate would be better. Plastic substrates offer an increased number of
applications, as well as a thinner and lighter display. However, the impermeability of
plastic is lower than glass and so thought must be given to protecting the OLED. Since
an OLED uses organic layers, it is sensitive to moisture and oxygen and must be
protected.
Conclusion
OLED displays are an exciting new display technology that offers
improved performance as well as novel applications. Full color displays using OLEDs
are in the position to replace LCDs in the small scale display market. OLEDs offer a
decreased manufacturing cost, a bighter, more vibrant display, as well as a larger viewing
angle. A lower power consumption makes OLED perfect for portable devices which rely
on battery power. The ink-jet printing method used with OLEDs is sure to spark display
applications never before possible with either LCD or Plasma.

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