Computer scientist, engineer, and educator Home Articles Software Contact cv Site info + Articles » Aetcles about science and technology A guide to the selection of electrical cable and breakers Pleas note that this anile has not yet beea updated in line with he latest (7h) edition ofthe IEE Wirig Regulations. don thiak very ‘ach has changed in the basi principles on which the ance is based, but only a detailed seatiny ofthe Regulations and, in prticuay, the {extensive dats ables wil tl fr sue. don have ime to do this presen, s reader should be aware of potential ron-complianees, [Nothing i this arise intended to be abate forproper profesional advice. Overview ‘This article describes the selection of cables for ‘difficult’ domestic electrical installations. By ‘difficult’ I mean installations where cables are unusually long, currents abnormally high, or shock protection requirements especially rigorous, Thave written this article for competent, sensible DIY enthusiasts who may already be doing clectrical ‘work, but lack the theoretical and regulatory knowledge to tackle these more difficult jobs. I have assumed that the reader has 2 basic understanding of electrical theory and is prepared to do some simple arithmetic. A brie ‘introduction to electrical theory can be found heve. Please note that if you're working on the kind of electrical installation that requires the kind of information this article provides, you're probably doing work that requires Building Control approval and inspection, Cable selection is guided by two main principles. First, the cable should be able to carry the current load imposed on it without overheating, It should be able to do this in the most extreme conditions of temperature it will encounter luring its working life. Second, it should offer sulficiently sound earthing to (i) limit the voltage to which people are ‘exposed to a safe level and (ji) allow the fault current to tip the fuse or MCB in a short time. ‘To meet these requirements requires consideration of the circuit load current, the ambient temperature, installation technique, cable thickness and length, and the over-current protection device. In some cases you may need to pa enirtooerleteatn web oyconsider factors that are outside your control, like the external earth loop impedance. Typical ‘worst-case! values for these factors are given in the article Scope of this article In most domestic wiring scenarios, the principles and techniques described in this article are simply not relevant. The materials and equipment currently available are designed to simplify installation, and common sense and the ability to read the manufacturer's instructions are all that is required, Ordinary domestic power and lighting circuits do not require any special skills or knowledge to install, beyond what you would find in a DIY handbook. This article covers the issues that DIY books steer clear of, like running long eables to outbuildings, installing supplies for electrical showers, and electrical wiring in bathrooms. It assumes thatthe reader has sufficient time and enthusiasm to get to grips with the theory, which can be rather tecnica in places. This article is intended for readers in the UK, and in places where UK practices and regulations are followed. How this article is organized ‘This article has three chapters and an appendix, Chapter | describes the theory of over-current protection, and discusses the properties of cables, fuses, MCBs and related devices. Chapter 2 describes principles of electrical shock protection and the effect of cable length and thickness on shock voltage and disconnection time. Chapter 3 describes 4 practical calculation based on the principles from the first two chapters, Finally, the appendix provides design tables for cable selection, based on the /EE Wiring Regulations and various manufacturer's product data sheets, Please don't use the design tables without reading the text; it will be easy to misinterpret the information if you do, Warning and disclaimer | would hate to think of anyone coming to harm as a result of reading this artiele, It describes procedures which, if not carried out competently, could lead to death or serious injury, or substantial damage to property. Please be ‘careful, Always ensure thal before staring to work on an electrical system, the relevant circuit has been isolated from the supply, and you have taken steps to ensure that it remains that way until you have finished work. Ensure that you understand the consequences and implications of any work you intend to carry out. While I have taken every effort to ‘ensure that the information in this article is accurate, and will lead to a safe and reliable installation, I da not accept any responsibility for any adverse consequences arising from its use. Please note that the article is about modern domestic installations; the procedures, design tables, and calculations described may well be unsuitable for ‘commercial or industrial premises and equipment, In particular, the article assumes the use of a single-phase supply, “tpoamu sodremeratctlerlter went wsand predominantly resistive loads. Ifyou don't know what these terms mean, I respectfully suggest you ought not to be reading this yel. In addition, this article does not describe any procedures for dealing with circuits protected by semi-enclosed (re-wirable) fuses. Although they are allowed with the terms of the IEE Wiring Regulations, they are ‘obsolete and ought to be replaced Note on the text ‘The symbol [IEE] in the text indicates a guideline that should be followed to ensure conformance with the IEE Wiring Regulations, \6th edition. Where this symbol is followed by numbers, eg, [TEE 528-01], this refers to a specific regulation in that document. Note that the IEE Wiring Regulationsis equivalent in practice to British Standard 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations. To the best of my knowledge, this article complies strictly to the JEE Wiring Regulations. 1. Over-current protection 1.1 Overloads and short-circuits Over-current is one of the two major safety hazards that must be controlled in a wiring system. The other, of course, is electric shock, Protecting against over-current provides a measure of protection against electric shock as well, as ‘we shall see. Over-currents ate dangerous because they lead toa tsk of fice. In the UK every year about 50,000 fires are attributed to electrical faults. So it's worth paying a bit of attention to this issue. This chapter provides a fair amount of technical detail, which you won't always need to know. For many applications, provided that you choose a fuse or MCB (see below) that has the same current rating as the cable to which it is connected, this will work nicely. For example, if the current rating of the circuit is 35 amps, say, then 8 32 amp MCB (that’s the nearest size available below 25 amps) should do the trick for most applications. ‘There will be situations, however, where this simple rule won't work, This chapter explains what they are, and what to do about them. Italso explains why fuses sometimes blow when there's nothing wrong, 1.2 Types of over-current An over-current is any increase in the current inthe electrical system, above the level for which itis designed. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston weElectrical cables are intended to become warm in operation; heat is generated whenever a current flows in anything, and this is perfectly normal. However, the level of heat generated by electrical cables is only safe when itis kept ‘within reasonable limits, Standard PVC- insulated cables are designed to run at temperatures up to 70 degrees Celsius; beyond this there isa risk of damage. In practice, over-currents can be grouped into two t pes. Overload ‘An overload occurs when a current flows that is somewhat too high (usually 50% to 100% too high) for the system, Overloads don't normally cause immediate, catastrophic damage. Instead, the likelihood of increases gradually as the duration of the overload increases. Ifthe fault is not resolved, and melt, exposing bare conductors, The heat generated may be sufficient to cause a fire Ina domestic seting, overloads usually result from using too many appliances at the same time, or plugging a heavy-duty appliance into a supply that isnt strong enough for it. An exemple of the latter is connecting an clectrie shower to a standard 13-amp plug, and plugging it into a socket, Short-circuit ‘A short-circuit is a connection between live and neutral, or between live and earth, that bypasses an appliance, The connection will probably have a low resistance, and the current that ean flow may be hundreds oF thousands of times too high for the system. This current is usually called the fault current or short-circuit current. A short-circuit will by produced if, for example, the wires in a mains plug become loose and touch one another. ‘The ability to handle short-circuits is not just important to protect cables, itis part ofthe protection against electric shock. If live conductor in, say, an electric kettle becomes loose and touches the metal ease, we hope that a large fault current will flow, This current will flow from the live, through the case, and back to earth via the earth wire. ‘The fault current will blow the fuse or trip the MCB, thus rendering the circuit dead. Ifthis does not happen, then we have a potentially very dangerous situation: a metal casing with alive voltage on it In practice in domestic installations overload protection and short-circuit protection are both provided by the s device: either a fuse of an MCB. Additional shock protection may be provided by an RCD. Whether a fuse or an MCB js used, when the current exceeds a certain limit for a certain time, the fuse will ‘slow’ (break) or the MCB will ‘up’. In both cases this will open the circuit and prevent the flow of further current, For simplicity, I will use the term ‘wip’ for both these events. 1.3 Over-current protection devices “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston re1.3.1 Fuses A fuse isa simple device that will limit the current flowing in an electrical circuit In practice a fuse normally ‘consists of a piece of wire of exactly the right length and thickness to overheat and break when the current gels to a particular level ‘There are two sorts of fse normally used in houses. Cartridge fuses have the wire enclosed in a sealed cylinder, with ‘contact at each end, You should be familiar with this kind of fuse: ifs the kind that goes in a plug. Larger versions are available for distribution boards as well. Semi-enclosed ot re-wirable fuses are the kind that can be rewired with fuse wire. Although they are still widely used, they are discouraged by most authorities for two reasons: 2 common-sense reason and a technical reason. The technical reason will be discussed later. The common-sense reason is simply tha it is very easy to rewire it with the ‘wrong size of fuse wire, so that we end up with, for example, a 30-amp fuse ‘protecting’ S-amp circuit. This is exceptionally dangerous. Fuses are an effective basic method of over-current protection, but they have a practical disadvantage: ifa fuse blows and you haven't got one ofthe right rating, what do you do? Of course you won't use a fuse of the wrong rating, or ‘wrap abit of tinfoil around a blown one, but someone will, Because of this failing, and for technical reasons that will be discussed, permanently-installed equipment (particularly mains distribution panels) often have electrical over-current protectors rather than fuses, 1.3.2 MCBs ‘The most popular ofthese electrical protection devices is the ‘miniature circuit breaker’ (MCB), An MCB can usually act as an ordinary switch as well as an over-current circuit breaker, and so has a lever on the front for manual ‘operation. This is very convenient, and MCBs are universally used in new domesti distribution boards (and most industial ones as wel). MCBs are available in various types!:!:"1','2 ‘3B! and 'C’, Each has different characteristics, and is appropriate for particular application, In a domestic system, we will normally use a type'l' or a type'B' device, as these are ‘general-purpose units Ifyou have a distribution board with re-wirable fuses, and don't want to replace it (yet), you can get adapters that will let you plug in an MCB in place of the fuse. If you are replacing wiring with a system that is rated on the basis that “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston se‘you will eventually be using MCRs and not fuses, this is a very sensible thing to do 1.4 Fuse and MCB characteristics Fuses and MCBs are rated in amps. The amp rating given on the fuse or MCB body is the amount of current it will ‘pass continuously. This is normally called the rated current or nominal current, We normally assume that if the ‘current in the circuit is lower than the nominal current, the device will not trip, however long the current is ‘maintained. This isnt quite true, but i's a reasonable design assumption. ‘Many people think that ifthe current exceeds the nominal current, the device will trp, instantly. So if the rating is 15 amps, for example, 2 current of 15.0001 amps will trip it, right? This isnot true. There isn't any reason why it should be true: the MCB or fuse is designed to protect the eiteuit cabling, and a current of 15.0001 amps won't damage a 15-amp cable. So when will it wip? ‘This is where things start to get interesting. It turns out that there's a rather complex relationship between the tripping ‘current and the time for which an over-curvent is maintained. As an example, the relationship betweea time and level ‘that will trip either a 32-amp type-1 MCB or a 30-amp cartridge fuse are shown in figure | “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter westonFigure 1.1: time for which # 32-amp MCB or 30-amp fuse will sland an over current before tripping TThe horizontal axis of this graph shows the current flowing in the fuse/MCB and the cireuit it is protecting. The vertical axis shows the duration for which the device can stand this current before it trips. There ae a few things to note about this graph, ‘= The fuse and the MCB, even though their nominal currents are similar, have very different properties. For example, tobe sure of tripping in 0.1 seconds, the MCB requires a current of 128 amps, while the fuse requires 300 amps. The fuse clearly requires more current to blow it in that time, but notice how much bigger both these currents are than the '30 amps’ marked curtent rating ‘Neither device will trip at 30 amps, in any length of time shown on the graph, but the lines get closer and. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston mecloser to 30 amps as the time increases. There isa small likelihood that in the course of, say, a month, a 30- amp fuse will ip when carrying 30 amps. Ifthe fuse has had a couple of overloads before (which may not even have been noticed) this is much more likely. This explains why fuses can sometimes ‘blow’ for no obvious = Both fuse and MCB will stand currents of over 40 amps for an hour or so. Ie the fuse is marked'30 amps’, but it will actually stand 40 amps for over an hour, how can we justify calling it a'30 ‘amp’ fuse? The answer is thatthe overload characteristics of fuses are designed to match the properties of modem cables. For example, a modern PVC- insulated cable will stand a 50% overload for an hour, so it seems reasonable that the fuse should as well. In fact it would be very impractical to use a fuse or MCB that tripped at a current very close to the nominal value. ‘This is because many electrical devices take higher currents forthe first fraction ofa second after they are switched ‘on, compared to normal running. Take an ordinary lightbulb, for example. The resistance of all metals increases as they heat up. When the lightbulb is first switched on, its filament is cold, and it has a very low resistance. As it heats up, the resistance increases, so the current decreases, For the frst tenth of a second or so, the current flowing in a lightbulb may be 5-10 times higher than its normal running current! 2, So we have to allow some margin for star-up currents, or the fuse or MCB will tend to trip by accident, which is inconvenient. ‘Because the MCB trips very quickly once a particular threshold is reached, the concept of an ‘instantaneous trip ‘current is appropriate for MCBs, This is the current that wil trip the device in 0.1 seconds, For type 1 MCBs the instantaneous trip current is guaranteed to be between 2.7 and 4 time the nominal current; for type B itis 3 to 5 times the rating, 1.5 Fuse/MCB selection When selecting the correct MCB or fuse to use, we have to consider its role in both over-current protection, and short-circuit protection, The basic principles are as follows. ‘Nominal current rule The nominal current ofthe fuse/MCB must be less than the current rating of the cable itis protecting, but higher than the current that it will earry continuously [43-02-01], For example, a 32-amp MCB is suitable for ‘a current of 30 amps in a 35-amp cable circuit, “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston ws‘Tripping rule ‘A cutrent of 145 times the nominal current must cause the device to trip in less than I hour!, In practice you hhaven't normally got to worry about this, ifs the job of the MCB designer. All modern devices meet this requirement except re-wirable fuses. This is why re-wirable fuses are discouraged. These fuses normally require about twice the nominal current to blow them in one hour. Disconnection time rule Ina short-circuit condition, the fuse/MCB must trip in less than a specified short time (sce below), The ‘disconnection time’ rule is the most awkward to ensure compliance with in a domestic installation; it will be discussed later. In practice it doesn' affect what raring of fuse or MCB to use, but it often affects whether to use a fuse or an MCB, and may impose the use of additional protective devices. 1.6 Example In this example we will determine which MCB to use to protect a circuit. Assume we ate installing a lighting circuit, which will nominally have 8 light fittings of 100 watts each. The current ‘is 800 / 230 of about 3.5 amps. | mm? cable appears to he appropriate, as it has a rating of at least 11 amps (see table A.1), even when concealed in a plastered wall! So the MCB must have a nominal current (that is, the current matked on its body) of at least 3.5 amps, and less than 11 amps. Furthermore, its tipping current must be less than 1.45 times 11 amps, in order to protect the eable. Looking in the manufacturer's catalogue, I find # 6 amp MCB, that has a trip current of 8.7 amps. This appears to be just right. These currents are shown in figure 1.2 “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston ws30 amps? —t grt — cvs ralscramancaty short curation capacity of ramps cable (assumed 1.45 tumes nominal current ontnuouscurentrating [APP P8 1 amps sreabie tnppngcurentot 87 amps nubenice continuous cumentrating Samos —> 4 — Shiuenice maximum deagncurent_[™4>°D#™ 35 amps | eeu amps —> Figure 1.2: Relationship between the fuse nominal and tripping ‘currents, and the current carrying capacity ofthe cable, for the example given in the text [Note that inthis example, the MCB trip current is not only below the short-term current capacity of the cable (which ‘it must be), but its even below the nominal eurrent rating of the cable, This means that the MCB will prevent the cable reaching even it normal working current. Of course thats fine inthis ease, because we know exactly what the load will be: eight 100 watt bulbs. The tripping current does not have to be below the nominal current of the cable, but it does have to be below 1.45 times the nominal current ofthe cable. Note that we need also to check the disconnection time in the event of a live-carth fault, but doing so requires more information than has been supplied; soe below. 4.7 Common examples of bad design Some wiring configurations can lead to overload currents that cannot be detected. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston wsSupply 30A fuse Spur t i t wn) Spur 2) Extending a spur with a second spur: not a good idea Figure 1. Consider, for example, the system shown in figure 1.3. Suppose we have a standard ring circuit wired using 2.5 mm? cable and protected by a 30 amp MCB. This is a perfectly standard, reasonable configuration. Now suppose we extend this cireut with a spur (‘spur I’ on the diagram). What is the maximum current that can flow in the spur cable? ‘Assume that we have used standard single socket outlets. We can plug an appliance rated up to 13 amps into the ‘outlet, so in the worst case the current oad could be 13 amps in the spur cable. This is well within the current carrying capacity of the spur eable, so no problem, ‘Now suppose we extend the system further by connecting a second spur (spur 2! to the first spur. Now the maximum ‘current that could be carried by spur 2 is 13 amps, and the maximum current that could be carried by spur | is fice 13 amps: 13 amps from each appliance. That's 26 amps. The cable used might carry 26 amps, in ideal circumstances, ‘but we shouldn't rely on i, The IEE Wiring Regulationsthe capacity of this cable as between 18.5 amps - if tis concealed in a wall - to 30 amps if it is exposed to at all around! >. we plug several heavy duly appliances into the outlets in the main ring, we may cause an overload that will trp the MCB. But this isnt the problem: the MCB will always wip ata lower current than will damage the cable. In the spur, the current carried could be too high for the cable, but too low to trip the MCB. This isa potentially dangerous situation, “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston wsI's worth noting thst we could, in principle, avert this dangerous situation by using # heavier cable for spur 1. 4mm? ‘would probably do the job. However, spur i was probably putin before the need for another spur was recognized, and it would probably have been constructed from the same size cable as the ring, ‘The simple, robust solution to this problem is to connect spur | to the ring using @ fuse unit, as shown in figure |. Supply 30A fuse ring 13A fuse unit Figure 1.4: extending a ring with a fused spur ‘The spur is connected to the ring using a fuse or MCB. The rating of the fuse or MCB should be no higher than 13, amps, which means thatthe total current taken by the spur can never be higher than the current that would be taken by a single outlet attached to the ring by an unfused spur, Since we have already established that this current is insufficient to damage the cable, the fused spur allows the ring to be extended in a safe way. Note also that we can ‘wire the fused spur in lighter eable (1.5 mm? should do) because the fuse limits the nominal eurrent to 13 amps. ‘The circuit shown in figure |.3 only becomes at risk of danger from overload if two high-current appliances are plugged into the spur. You could argue that this won't ever happen: this spur will only ever be used to supply a pair ‘of desk lamps, for example. The problem with this logic is that you may know this, but nt everyone else does. What's to stop someone (a visitor to your house, for example) from plugging an electric fire into each one? The “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston ws‘example deseribed above crops up in two common situations. ‘The first is that of powering a large, complex hi-fTV system, Suppose we have ten electronic appliances of this sort, all stacked one on top of the other in a small area, It might be convenient to fit a row of, say, six double socket outlets just behind the system. We might do this by running a spur from the main power ring. One could reasonably argue that these appliances actually have a small power consumption. A 100-watt amplifir is staggeringly loud in a domestic lounge, but it takes less current on average than a lightbulb, The complete hi-fiTV system probably takes Tess than 5 amps. Inthe circumstances one might be tempted to use an unfused spur. The problem, as before, is that although you only plug hi-fi equipment in here, who's to say what the next owners of your house will do? ‘A related problem is this one: [am commonly asked whether itis safe to fit an extra mains outlet in a room, by connecting it to an existing one on the other side of the wall. This is a very handy way to add an extra socket, if there's an existing one in position, In a modern house, wired to comply with the IEE Wiring Regulations, then this almost certainly is safe. Sucl houses are wired toa standard scheme, where all the power outlets on each floor (perhaps excluding the kitchen) are wired into a simple ring system. If you tap one of the socket outlets then you will, be effectively installing an unfused spur. As there will only be one new socket on the spur, this is fine. However, if there's any possibilty thatthe socket you want to tap is itself a spur, then you should probably not do it Ifthe existing socket has only one cable entering it, ths is probably what it is, Even if the socket has two cables, you cean't be certain it's part of a ring. I might be part of radial system, or even a dodgy unfused spur fitted by someone else, The older your house is, and the more haphazard the wiring is, the more likely this isto be the ease. There is no straightforward solution to the problem: you need to determine how the various sockets are connected to one another before you can decide whether the extra socket is safe, or not, 1.8 Disconnection times When an overload oceurs, the protective device (fuse or MCB) must cut off the supply within atime short enough to prevent damage tothe installation. This time may, in some circumstances, be as much as an hour. However, when a short-cireuit fault occurs, it may be because a live part has come into contact with a metal casing. In this case lives are at risks unless the supply is eut off very quickly. Short-circuits may be between live and earth, or live and neutral Inthe ease of live-neutral shorts, the current flow ‘could be enormous (thousands of amps). Itis limited only by the resistance of the cable between your house and the supply system, which is usually less than an obm, In this kind of fault, the MCB or fuse wall rip in its shortest possible time: usually about 0.1 seconds for a fuse and 0.01 seconds for an MCB, In domestic installations we "usually don't have to Worry about this, hecause if we can meet the requirements for disconnection time in the case of a live-earth fault, we will also meet the requirements for a ive-neutral fault, “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston we‘The notion of disconnection time in the event ofa live-earth fault will be discussed in much more detail on page 121° when we consider the effect of disconnection time on electric shock protection. 2. Shock protection ‘This chapter describes the measures that are taken to protect against electric shock. For most simple jobs, ensuring that the earth conductors are properly connected is all that is necessary to ensure adequate shock protection, The ‘more detailed information in this chapter is intended for use in more substantial work, like supplying power to a garden or outbuilding, or adding a new power circuit. 2.1 The nature and risk of shock Most electric shocks that are received in the home are dangerous because of the effects they have on the heart or respiratory system. Relatively small currents may be sufficient to kill or injure. Larger eurrents can also cause burns and tissue damage. Shocks occur when electric currents flow through the body between points at different voltage. For example, if you touch live electrical terminal in a lampholder (230 volts) while standing on the ground {assumed 0 volts), a voltage of 230 volts is developed between your hands and feet. This voltage causes a current to flow through the body, including the heart and lungs, The current causes stimulation of the musele mass ofthe heat, and of the nervous system controlling the lungs. Clearly this is a bad thing. in summary, the risk and severity of injury depends on two factors: 1 the duration of the shock, and = the amount of current that flows in the body tissue, Increasing either ofthese risk factors increases the risk of injury or death, Later in this chapter we will discuss how knowledge of the shock risk factors is used in specifying the performance of the shock protection system, 2.2 Types of shock Electric shocks are of two types: direct contact, and indirect contact. 2.2.1 Direct contact “tpoamu sodremeratctlecelter went ws"Direct comact occurs when a body part touches a live patt directly. This type of shock is particularly dangerous, as the full voltage ofthe supply can be developed across the body. In a well-designed electrical installation there should be little or no risk of direct contact; in most cases it arises out of carelessness (e.g. changing a lightbulb with the ‘outlet switched on), However, it can sometimes arise from wear and tear, such as the breakdown of insulation on a flexible cable that is badly stressed. RCDs (sec below) provide some measure of protection against direct contact, 2.2.2 Indirect contact Indirect contact occurs when a live part touches a piece of metal, and the body comes into contact with the live metal. Indireet contact can oceur as a result of faults in electrical appliances, particular with metal casings. Your main protection against indireet contact is earthing, combined with an overcurrent cut-out device. This works because the large current that will flow to earth inthe event of a fault should activate the overcurrent device, A fault in an appliance where a live part comes into contact with an earthed enclosure is called a live-earth or live-to- certs fault, 2.3 Earthing and bonding These terms are often confused, and itis important to understand the dist Earth’ is that big lump of rock and mud we all live on. Most electrical power systems currently in use are connected, somewhere, to earth, This helps to keep the voltage at a well-defined level. For convenience we teat the voltage of the earth as ‘zero’, and everything else is measured with respect to it. When we talk about a 230-volt supply, we mean 230 volts higher than earth 'Earthing’ isthe process of connecting parts ofthe electreal system to earth, "Bonding!, on the other hand is the connecting of metal equipment together. It does not necessarily mean connecting to earth, although in practice there usually is an earth connection somewhere. ‘The main purpose of bonding is to keep all metalwork that can come into contact with an electrical potential atthe same voltage. If two pieces of metal are at the same voltage, then itis impossible to get a shock by touching them simultaneously. No current will low, Earthing ensures that ifa fault does occur, the current that flows to earth is sufficient to activate an overcurrent device and shut off the supply. So earthing and bonding have complementary functions, and in domestic practice ate always used together”! “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston ws2.4 Types of primary earth connection ‘Your house will (or atleast should) contain, in or near the main distribution board, « primary earth terminal. This is the main point to which all circuit earths will be run back. Of course, there may be other paihs to earth for current ‘elsewhere in the premises. It stands to reason that the main earth terminal should provide a very low resistance path to te earth, "There are three main ways that this earth terminal may be connected to a true earth, These are identified by the abbreviations”? shown in table 2. ‘Table 2.1: ypical methods of provision of the main earthing terminal ‘Supply type code [Meaning [Supplier provides @ separate earth connection, usually direct from the had distribution station and via the metal [Supplier provides @ combined earthineutral connection; your main earth terminal is connected to their neutral ‘Most houses have "TN-S' supplies at present, but the ‘method is increasing in popularity because of its lower cost and superior earth contact resistance. TN-C-S is also called ‘protective multiple earthing’, ot PME, because of the additional earthing required inside the house. If your power supply is from an overhead cable, then you may well “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston wshave @ TT arrangement. The earth spike will usually be located in a small pit, with a cable run into the house. TT cearthing presents significant challenges for the electrical installer, as its earth resistance is uncomfortably high (se below), and may vary with the weather. When itis very wet, the contact with earth will be better than when itis dry. 2.5 The earth loop ‘To understand how earthing requirements are to be met, itis important to understand where current flows in the event of a live-earth fault (figure 2.1), oe Appliance . Main earth terminal Supply company’s | Householder’s equipment equipment Figure 2.1: the earth loop: the path for current when @ live-carh fault occurs in an appliance. Note that inthe worse ease the neutral part of the system carries no current; it all flows in the appliance easing and earth, The rectangles represent the resistances of the various conductors inthe circuit Ia live part in the appliance comes into contact with the casing, a current will flow from the live of the supply ‘company’s apparatus to the premises, along the live conductor to the applianee, through the fault to the easing, from the casing to the earth terminal via the earth conductor, and from the earth terminal back to the supply company's apparatus via its carth connection, This circuit is called the ‘earth loop'. Note that part of the earth loop is outside your premises, and in the supply “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter went me‘company’s cables and apparatus. You have no control over that part of the loop. The part of the loop inside your hhouse has # resistance which can be calculated, because we know the resistances per metre ofthe various cables that are likely to be used. fan earth fault occurs (that is, a short-circuit between live and earth), the path for current includes that supply ‘company’s live conductor into your premises, the live part of your cabling, the earth part of your cabling, and the cert part ofthe suppliers system. You can calculate the resistance of your part this system, or measure it, but you ‘may need to approach the supply company for the resistance of thei part. Suppliers are legally obliged to tell you this; itis, after all, very important for ensuring safety ‘When a short-circuit from live to earth occurs, the earth loop isthe path that the current will flow in. This current could be very large; it should certainly be large enough to blow the fuse or trip the MCB before serious injury occurs. This suggests thatthe earth loop resistance should be as low as possible. For initial and approximate design calculations, you can use the ‘worst case’ values of earth loop resistance given in table A.11. If your installation appears safe with these worst case figures, it will almost certainly prove to be safe with the true figures. However, the earth loop resistance figures depend on your knowing the supply type of your premises. If you don't know this, you will need to ask the supply company anyway. 2.6 Main and supplementary bonding ‘Normally all electrical appliances with metal eases will be earthed, The case will be connected to the main earth ‘terminal via the appliance cable and the power circuit itself. Ifa fault occurs in the appliance, and alive part touches the case, the earthing prevents injury to the user. However, what happens ifa fault occurs in, say, a mains cable, and a live conductor comes into contact with a central heating pipe? In theory, this could result in the whole system becoming live, as the metal pipework wall carry the live potential through the house, We avoid this problem by ensuring thatthe pipework is sufficiently well earthed lo prevent a potential being developed. The same considerations apply to Water mains, gas mains, structural metalwork, ‘and metal ventilation ducts. These items should all be earthed. ‘Normally gas, water and ventilation systems willbe earthed at atleast one point by a connection direct to the main carthing terminal. This is called main bonding. Ina house, you will normally sce a heavy earth cable running from the earth terminal to clamps on the incoming service pipes. f you have a lightning conductor, this must be earthed as well You could argue thatthe service pipes are earthed automaticaly, by virtue of being buried in the ground. The “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston wsproblem with this argument is thatthe earthing is uncertain, In some district, plastic water pipes are used for the ‘mains, and these provide no significant earth contact at all. In others, there may be a contact of uncertain resistance. ‘Main bonding eliminates this uncertainty. We don't have to carth every picoe of metal in the house, but everything that may be in contact with earth should be vwell-bonded, We need to avoid the situation where metalwork is able to carry live voltage between rooms, but is not sufficiently well earthed to protect the occupiers. The basie principle is this: Any earth should be a good earth. ‘We don't need to earth doorhandles, or filing cabinets, or window frames, as these don't present a significant risk of carrying a potential. However, we do have to earth pipework and structural metal, By ‘structural is meant central ‘support beams and joists, not metal window frames. In practice, most houses do not havea steel frame, and it won't bbe necessary to earth the structure. In some places, main bonding is not considered to be sufficient, and we need to employ supplementary bonding as ‘well. This is the connection of metalwork together in a small area, to prevent voltages being developed between different parts ofa room. In a house, this is only likely to be necessary ina bath or shower room, Where supplementary bonding is used, it should be used thoroughly. Ia particular, you need to take the trouble to bbond all metal parts that have a connection outside the room. In a bathroom, this includes pipework, tubs and sinks, taps, radiators, ec, In older houses it may also include waste pipes, which may be of cast iron. The bonding connections need to be made with a stout earth cable, typically?*4 mm?, connected to clamps with integral warning, plates. [Note that the supplementary bonding does not have to be run back to the main earth terminal. A connection to, say, the earth terminal ofa lighting outlet would be fine. Itis the honding that is important, rather than the earthing, ‘The benefits of supplementary bonding have always been contested; many authorities believe that in some circumstances it reduces electrical safety rather than improving it. The whole discussion has recently been ‘with the widespread use of plastic plumbing. Clearly, plastic pipes dont conduet electricity, and a radiator conn by plastic pipes is not able to carry a current out ofthe room. This issue is discussed in more detail later inthis chapter. -opened, cted 2.7 Shock voltage: the limitation of earthing might be thought that ia metal appliance is soundly earthed, then itis impossible for a person touching it receive a shock, regardless of the nature of the fault. Ths is an untrue and dangerous misapprehension. Consider the following example. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston wsA live-earth fault occurs in an electrical appliance. The appliance is connected by ts own dedicated cable to the main distribution board, The cable is 2.5 mm® two-core-and-earth, 10 metres long. This type of eable has a 1.5 mum? earth conductor, which has a resistance of 0.015 ohms per metre at 70 degrees Celsius’. The live conductor has 2 resistance of 0.009 ohms per metre. So the total resistance of the earth conductor is 10 x 0.015 ohms, or 0.15 ohms. The total resistance of the live conductor is 10 x 0.009, oF 0.09 ohms. Assume thatthe resistance of the supply ‘company’s part of this loop has a resistance of 0.3 ohms, (see table A. for typical figures for various types of earthing). So the total resistance in the current path (the earth loop) is 0.3 + 0,09 + 0.15 ohms, or 0.54 ohms. With a supply’ voltage of 230 volts, the fault current will be (230 / 0.54) amps, or about 426 amps. This eurrent lowing in the earth conductor (1.5 ohms) will develop a voltage of (426 x 0.15) volts, or about 64 volts. ‘This 64 volts is called the ‘prospective shock voltage’ or ‘prospective touch voltage’, because this is the voltage atthe ceasing of the appliance when the fault occurs, tha is, the voltage that a person will experience if e or she touches the appliance in the fault condition. The term 'prospective' is used because, in practice, the use of an overcurrent device (€.g., MCB) or an earth fault device (c.g., RCD) may stop this shock voltage being reached. For example, if an MCB. ‘will always interrupt the supply when the current reaches 20 amps, the true shock voltage will be resistance of the cearth conductor multiplied by 20 amps (as discussed later) In suramary, 2 fault in this appliance could cause the casing to develop a voltage of 64 volts, which is potentially dangerous. Note that the only practical ways to reduce the shock voltage are () to shorten the cable, (i) to reduce the earth resistance, or (i) to shut off the supply before the fault current reaches the calculated figure. ‘There are two ways to ensure that the supply is disconnected automatically, The ‘traditional’ approach is to ensure that the current that flows to earth is enough to trip the overcurrent device for the circuit. The modern approach is to use an RCD. Without automatic supply disconnection, the shock voltage will be given by multiplying the fault current by the earth conductor resistance, as calculated above. In that example, the shock voltage would have been 64 volts. However, suppose the cable had been protected by a 20 amp type-1 MCB. The ‘instantaneous trip voltage’ of the MCB will be approximately four times the rating, or 80 amps, This means that as soon as the current rises to 80 amps, the supply ‘will be cut off. With 80 amps flowing, the shock voltage is 80 multiplied by the earth conductor resistance (0.15 ‘ohms), which is 12 volts. So the overall shock voltage is set by the trip current ofthe overcurrent device, and the resistance of the cable Of course, this approach will only work ifthe overcurrent device actually cuts off the current. In the ease described, the fault current of 426 amps will wip the MCB very quickly indeed, probably in less than a hundredth ofa second. However, ifthe fault curtent is low, it may not trip the device at all, or may not do so quickly enough to prevent “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston 2danger. So we need to consider the notion of ‘disconnection time’ in an earth fault, 2.8 Disconnection time and shock voltage ‘We have already seen that the use of earthing alone will not necessarily protect against electric shock, because in @ fault the current flow may be so large that it till develops a dangerous voltage between earth and the fault. To prevent injury, a protective system must be available to shut off the supply in the event of a fault. Obviously, a quick disconnection is to be preferred. It is difficult to specify the performance of an electric shock protection system in terms of tissue eusrent, since this is not readily measurable. It is relatively straightforward to specify in terms of 'shock voltage’, which is the voltage at the point where the live part touches the body, as described above. Because the shock voltage and the tissue current are not directly related, lange safety margins are specified. ‘The disconnection time given by regulations [IEE 413-02-08] will depend on the level of risk to which # user of the cireuit is exposed; for this discussion I will divide circuits into ‘high’, medium’ and Tow’ risks categories. Noted "Tow risk’ here means comparatively low tisk; no mains electrical system can really be classified as low-risk ‘high ‘These ate circuits for which the shortest disconnection time must always be maintained: 0.4 seconds. According to the JEE Wiring Regulations, this category consists of fixed bathroom equipment (shower pumps, clectric heaters), outdoor and garden mains sacket outlets, and other places where the users are likely to be exposed to wet conditions. It is assumed that exposure even to the full supply voltage isnot likely to be dangerous if it is restricted to 0.4 seconds, Other high-risk areas are recognized by the Regulations, but these are unlikely to be found in the home (the possible exception is a swimming pool, if you're fortunate enough to hhave one). It is commonly thought that domestic kitchens are a ‘high risk’ area, and are therefore regulated in the same ‘way as bathrooms; this is, in fact, not true (at least according to the /EE Wiring Regulations). If you wish to protect your kitchen more strictly than other parts of the house, this is sensible, but not a regulatory issue. ‘medium risk clreults These are all circuits supplying socket outlets and hand-held appliances. These citcuits also roquite disconnection times less than 0.4 seconds, unless the maximum shock voltage is less than SOV. It is assumed that an exposure to SOV is unlikely to be dangerous, even for an extended time. In fact, a person with clean, dry skin standing on a dry floor ean tolerate much higher voltages that this, The SOV limit includes a safety margin to account for damp skin, These circuits must disconnect within S seconds; this time is really rather arbitrary, “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston wsbut there has to be some sort of limit, In practice ifthe shock voltage is less than $0 V, the disconnection time will be adequate anyway, as will be discussed. "low' risk circuits This group includes everything els: lighting circuits, cabling between distribution boards, and fixed appliance circuits (except bathroom), These must disconnect in 5 seconds, 2.9 Chee! g disconnection time This section describes how to calculate disconnection times, and the cireumstances in which you need to do this. 2.10 When do we need to be concerned about disconnection times? Even in substantial projects you may not noed to be concerned about disconnection times. The following points should be considered You only need to be concemed if you are making an addition, or & substantial extension, to a circuit. Adding a new socket to a power ring, for example, is unlikely to lead to a problem, * Ifyour house has a ‘TT’ earth supply, that is, the earth is provided locally, the earth loop resistance will almost certainly be too large to meet any disconnection time regulation, For example, suppose the external earth loop resistance ig 20 ohms. The maximum current that ean flow to earth in your house is 230/20 amps, ‘amps. This is not large enough fo trip even a S-amp MCB in a reasonable time. Thus an earth fauit could remain in place for hours. Houses with a TT supply need RCD protection on all circuits, or an overall RCD for the main distribution board. With this in place, the issue of disconnection time becomes moot: you won't have to calculate it. ‘= Using an RCD is a sensible option for other installations, even where the disconnection times can be met by earthing. The RCD provides protection against a greater range of faults that earthing alone. In addition, it makes it unnecessary to calculate the disconnection time. 1 If the external earth loop resistance is 0.8 ohms (a conservative estimate), the maximum acceptable length fora ‘standard! lighting (.5 mm? radial) circuit, when protected by a 6-amp, type-I MCB is 303 metres. In order ‘words, disconnection time is very unlikely to be an issue in domestic lighting circuits. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston ne1 The maximum avceptable length fora standard! power (2.5 mm? ring) circuit, when protected by a 30-amp This is besed on consideration of shock voltage, and does not depend on earth loop resistance. If you don't know the external earth loop resistance, you should take 56 metres as your maximum, length. Note that this length is for the whole ring, ftom the distribution board to the furthest point and back. If you plan to run the ring at full capacity, voltage drop requirements limit the length to 36 metres anyway Bear in mind that in some cases you will need to know the external earth loop resistance to do these checks, 2.10.1 Disconnection time in high risk circuits In these cireuits, disconnection must occur in 0.4 seconds, whatever the shock voltage. Therefore we don't need to calculate the shock voltage. The check procedure is a follows. ' Calculate the total loop resistance of your cable (live and earth conductors in series), by multiplying its length by the appropriate figure from table A.3, column 3. This gives the total resistance of your part af the circuit ‘Ada this to the external carth loop resistance obtained from the supply company to give the total earth loop resistance. This figure gives the total resistance ofthe path that current will low around if there isa live-earth ‘aul * Calculate the maximum feult current by dividing the mains voltage (230 V) by the loop resistance, ‘= Chock whether this fault current is appropriate for a 0.4 second disconnection, withthe protection device you have selected. Maximum acceptable values of earth loop resistance are given in table A.8, 1 Ifthe carth loop resistance is too high to allow disconnection, fit an RCD, reduce the current limit of the protective device, or improve the earth path using supplementary earth bonding, Altematively, use the figures in table A.12, columns 4 or 5: this gives maximum lengths that will allow a disconnection in 0.4 seconds for a range of popular cable/MCBiTuse combinations. 2.10.2 Disconnection time in medium risk circuits In these eireuits, disconnection must occur in 0.4 seconds, unless the shock voltage is less than 50 volts. In th cease, we are allowed a disconnection time of 5 seconds, So we should first calculate the shock voltage, and then check the disconnection time according to whether the shock voltage is less than 0 volts or not, “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston neTThe check procedure is as follows. * Calculate the earth conductor conductor resistance by multiplying the appropriate figure for your selected cable size from table A.5, column 4, by the length of the cable from the supply earth terminal to the furthest point. * Determine the maximum current that will trip the selected overcurrent device in 5 seconds (table A.7) = Work out the shock voltage by multiplying the current by the cable resistance. Ifit is les than 50 volts, then. the cireut is OK; no more checks are required. 1 Ifthe shock voltage is greater than $0 V, test for a 0.4 second disconnection time using the procedure described {or ‘high risk’ cireuits described above. Alternatively, use a supplementary earthing connection at the far end of to reduce the earth resistance. If you use metal pipework for the supplementary earth, you might, need to measure the resulting resistance using a meter rather than calculating it Alternatively, use the figures in table 12, column 3 to determine what length of cable will give an acceptable shock voltage, 2.10.3 Disconnection time in low risk circuits In these circuits, a disconnection time of S seconds is allowed. The check procedure is as follows. * Calculate the earth loop resistance of your cable, by multiplying its length by the appropriate figure from table A.5, column 3. ‘Add this to the external earth loop resistance obtained from the supply company to give the total earth loop resistance. This figure gives the ‘otal resistance of the path that current will flow around if there isa live-earth fault ‘= Check whether this figure is appropriate fora S second disconnection, with the protection device you have selected, Maximum values of earth loop resistance are given in table A.9. * I the earth Toop resistance is too high to allow disconnection, it an RCD or improve the earth path using, supplementary earth bonding. Altematively, use the figures in table A.12, columns 6 or 8; this gives maximum lengths that will allow a disconnection in 5 seconds for a range of papular cable/MCBiTuse combinations. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston ms‘The process of checking disconnection times is complicated by the fact that the external earth loop resistance cannot easily be measured or calculated: it must be obtained from the supply company. 2.10.4 General guidelines on disconnection time = Atype-1 MCB will wip ata slightly lower current than a type-B, with the same nominal rating. This means that it will make it slightly easier to meet the disconnection time requirements and the shock voltage requirements with a type-I device. ‘= Except for very low current circuits (less than 6 amps), an MCB will offer better disconnection time performance than a fuse, and make it easier to select and instal cable. For currents over 40 amps, @ fase will not offer 0.4 second disconnection in any circumstances. * A thicker cable can be longer than & thin one, to achieve the same disconnection times. A ring circuit will allow adequate disconnection fora longer cable than a radial circuit, because the overall resistance is lower, * Ifa cable is carrying a much lower load than its rating, consider using a lower-rated MCB to improve shock protection (if you aren't using an RCD). For example, suppose you are running a 3-amp freezer on a dedicated 2.5 mm? cable. Although this cable may allow a meximum current of 20 amps, fitting a 6-amp MCB will allow the cable run to be about twice as long while still maintaining the same shock voltage and disconnection 2.11 RCDs ‘We have seen that we cant always rely on the use of earthing to disconnect the mains supply in fault. Even i it does disconnect, it may not do so quickly enough, or keep the voltage at a safe level, Increasing awareness of these problems has led to the widespread uptake of other devices that can detect and isolate eatth faults, The most popular at present is the residual current device. ‘The residual current device measures the difference in current between the live and neutral conductors of a system. In all normal circumstances these should be equal. Ifthe live current and the neutral current are different, this indicates that some eurrent is lowing somewhere other than the live and neutral. There are only a few places thatthe ‘extraneous current can flow, all of them bad, In many cases the difference will indicate a current flow to carth, via 8 fault “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston wsRCDs are available with different sensitivities. That is, they trip at different levels of current leakage. In the UK, the most widely used are 30 mA (nilliamp) and 100 mA devices. A current flow of 30 mA (or 0.03 amps) is sufficiently ‘small that it makes it very difficult to receive a dangerous shock. Even 100 mA is a relatively small figure when ‘compared to the current that may flow in an earth fault without such protection (hundred of amps). An RCD does not nevessarily require an earth connection itself (it monitors only the live and neutral). In addition it detects current flows to earth even in equipment without an earth of its own. This means that an RCD will continue to give shock protection in equipment that has a faulty earth. It is these properties that have made the RCD more popular than its rivals, For example, carth-leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs) were widely used about ten years ago. ‘These devices measured the voltage on the earth conductor, if this voltage was not zero this indicated a current Teakage to earth. The problem is that ELCBs need a sound earth connection, as does the equipment it protects. As a result, the use of FLCBs is no longer recommended. RCDs are now available in al sorts of guises. For example, an RCD plug replaces a stendard three-pin plug, but has a builtin RCD. For permanent installations, you can get RCDs built into socket outlets (figure 2.2). Of course, RCDs are available to fit standard distribution boards alongside MCBs. Figure 2. ‘a socket with integral RCD protection. 2.11.1 Where to use RCDs Houses builtin the last few years probably have an overall RCD for the main supply. This means that no further RCD protection is necessary, or helpful, rom a safety perspective. Additional RCDs may, pethaps, have a practical benefit, as will be discussed below. pn enietoreraleteatr web we‘There are a few places around the home where RCD protection is stipulated by the JEE Wiring Regulations: fixed ‘equipment in bathrooms, socket outlets in rooms that contain a shower cubicle (sce below), gardens, and outbuildings Remember that you can provide RCD protection in various places: a distribution board, a spur unit, or a single socket outlet, 2.12 Where not to use RCDs Remember that RCDs are only available for mains-voltage supplics. 12-volt and 24-volt systems do not require RCD protection, and none is available, ‘You may want to consider avoiding RCD protection on lighting circuits, with the possible exception of kitchen and bathroom lighting. You need to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages quite carefully. The tisk of electrocution from a lighting system is actually quite small, and the vietim is unlikely to be grasping the faulty equipment strongly (contrast ths to the use of, say, an electric drill ora hairdryer), If someone does receive a shock from a light fitting, it ‘may not be tothe victim's benefit if the house is plunged into darkness. You decide. Another place to avoid RCDs is inthe supplies for equipment that really must run without interruption. In the home this applies particularly to freezers, but you may want to consider aquarium pumps and some kinds of computer ‘equipment. It would not be in your best interests ian electrical fault in the garden caused your freezer to shut dawn. In addition, RCDs do sometimes trip by accident, as will be discussed. Remember that RCDs detect an imbalance in the live and neutral currents, A current overload, however large, cannot be detected. It isa frequent cause of problemas with novices to replace an MCB in a fuse box with en RCD. This may be done in an attempt to inerease shock protection, Ifa live-neutral fault occurs (a short circuit, or an overload), the RCD won't trip, and may be damaged. In practice, the main MCB for the premises will probably trip, or the service fuse, so the situation is unlikely to lead to catastrophe; but it may be inconvenient. Itis now possible o get an MCB and and RCD in a single unit called an RCBO (see below). Replacing an MCB ‘with an RCBO of the same rating is generally safe. 2.12.1 RCD discrimination ‘Common sense, and the JEE Wiring Regulations, suggests that ifa system has multiple RCDs, then when a fault does ‘oceur the RCD nearest the fault should be the one to trip. This is called discrimination. If we have, for example, an “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston psRCD socket in a garage (with protect on the individual socket), and this is fed by a distribution board with overall RCD protection, then the two RCDs need to have different sensitivities. Specifically the one in the garage needs to be ‘more sensitive than the one in the distribution board, This ensures that a fault in the garage will shut off the garage socket, not the distribution board, I the garage socket has 30 mA sensitivity, then using a 100 mA device, with a small tip delay, in the board will ensure the correct discrimination However, there is no safety benefit inthis approach: two RCDs arent safer than one. The only reason for installing a system with multiple RCDs in the same circuit is to localize the isolation in the event of a fault. For example, suppose you have a mains power ring (with RCD protection) feeding a single socket in the garden. If you provide the garden socket with its own RCD, this will prevent faults in the garden equipment tripping the RCD in the power ring. Of course, for this to work, you would need to use two different sensitivities. Bear in mind that if you have a 30mA RCD as the overall protection for your house, then there is absolutely no advantage in using any other RCD anywhere in the premises. If you want to fit additional RCDs, you need first to change the main RCD for a 100 mA device. 2.12.2 Nuisance tripping In my experience, modem RCDs on modem wiring systems with modern appliances are not prone to trip by accident. [Any tripping of an RCD should be taken seriously. However, there are well-known reasons for nuisance tripping. Sudden changes in electrical oad can cause a small, brief current flow to earth, especialy in old appliances. RCDs are very sensitive and operate very quickly; they may well trip when the motor of an old freezer switches off, Some equipment is notoriously leaky’, tha is, generate a small, constant current flow (o earth, Some types of computer equipment, and large television sets, are widely reported to cause problems. Persistent nuisance tripping, or an RCD that won't switch on at all are causes for concern, Fither can indicate an intermittent or permanent live-earth fault somewhere inthe circuit (e.g. a faulty appliance flex) 2.12.3 RCD hazards RCDs are an extremely effective form of shock protection. When properly selected and installed in a system th ‘generally sound, they render it almost impossible to receive a dangerous shock. This degree of protection is not centirely without problems, as itis very easy to overestimate the protection that RCDs provide. Increasingly RCDs are seen as a cure for any kind of electrical problem. Many people evidently think that by having and RCD somewhere in the house this gives license to use shoddy and poorly-planned wiring and equipment. This can be very dangerous. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston m2CDs don't offer protection against current overloads. The widespread, dangerous practise of taking long spurs from a power ring willbe just as dangerous. Neither does an RCD protect against long-term overloads that are just below the tripping current of the protective device. Both these problems are consequences of poor design, The later, for ‘example, often arises when the same ring circuit is used for a kitehen and the rest of the socket outlets on one floor of a building. An RCD will not protect against a socket outlet being wired with its live and neutral terminals the wrong way round. ‘An RCD will not protect against the overheating that resulls when conductors are not properly serewed into their terminals An RCD will not protect against live-neutral shocks, because the current in the ive and neutral is balanced. So if you tou live and neutral conductors atthe same time (e-g., bth terminals of alight fitting), you may sill get a nasty shock. In summary, an RCD is intended to shorten the disconnection time in the event of a live-earth fault, and to give a ‘measure of protection against carth failure in an appliance. If you rely on it for anything else, you're living en borrowed time, 2.13 RCBOs As discussed above, an RCD does not provide overcurrent protection. If you rely on an RCD to trip in an overload it will probably be damaged and stop working completely. To make it possible to replace an MCB with an RCD, ‘manufacturers have introduced a new range of equipment called RCBOs. An RCBO combines an RCD with an RCB, in an enclosure that will ft into tae same distribution board as the RCD. When choosing an MCBO, remember that its overload and its earth-Fault protection capabilites are completely separate, You should apply exactly the same design and selection procedutes as you would for two separate units 2.14 Special considerations for bathrooms [As far as possible, mains-operated equipment should be kept away from a tub. In general, there should not be clectrical socket outlets in a bathroom. Fixed equipment should be protected by an RCD, unless specifically designed for bathroom use. Any electrical equipment in a bathroom (including light fittings) should be of a type that is specifically designed to be safe fora bathroom, Shaver sackets can be fitted, provided they're the type with an isolating transformer that are specifically designed for bathrooms. [TEE 601-08] allows socket outlets that are placed atleast 3 metres from a shower, in a room containing a shower cubicle, but this does not appear to apply to “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston 2bathrooms that contain a bath. Under-floor heating grids should be protected by an earthed metal screen, 2.14.1 What constitutes a bathroom? ‘The IEE Wiring Regulationsnot mention bathrooms, it deals with locations containing a bath or shower’ (IEE 601, 3rd amendment). Specifically, the Regulations recognize that rooms other than a ‘bathroom’ may eontain a bath or shower, For example, if you are fiting a shower cubicle in a bedroom, then you will want to take some care with electrical fittings in the vicinity of the shower, For example, you need to be careful about locating it with respect to ‘mains outlets and lightswitches, Any electrical outlet in a room that contains a bath or shower should be protected by aan RCD [IEE 601-08-01], even if outside the 3-metre zone. 2.15 Special considerations for gardens and outbuildings In general, extra-low voltage (12V) equipment isto be preferred for garden use. It is now possible to get 12V lighting, pumps, lawn sprayers, among others, Where you must use mains power, you will need to use RCD protection for socket outlets ‘There is a widespread misconception that the use of RCD protection outside the house is because the environment ‘may be wet, and increase the electrical contact between person and ground. Clearly this is likely to be a problem in a garden. However, itis less obvious why we should need to provide RCD protection in outbuildings. The JEE Wiring Regulationsto something called the 'main equipotential zone’. This is, essentially, the part of the premises that has a very low resistance contact to the main earthing terminal. Any part ofthe site that is outside this zone should be considered a candidate for RCD protection, as it will be difficult to meet disconnection time regulations otherwise, The 'equipotential zone! probably does not include a separated garage, and certainly does not inelude the garden. The reason for using an RCD in a garage is therefore not that it may get Wer, but because it may be difficult to control shock voltage and disconnection time otherwise. 2.16 Special considerations for kitchens ‘You may well fel that special consideration needs to be given to electrical equipment in kitchens; there is, infact, n0 legal or regulatory requirement for this. However, itis probably sensible to use RCD protection on kitchen power ‘outlets, and to use supplementary bonding for metal sinks and taps where the pipework is metallic. “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston we2.17 Effect of plastic water pipes on earthing There has been a lot of controversy lately about the benefits and hazards of plastic plumbing in kitehens and bathrooms. Remember that traditional metal pipework is a very good conductor of electricity, and can be used to supplement earthing. Plastic piping is a very good insulator, but the water it contains may conduct, toa degree, AS hs already been suggested, ifthe basic principle ‘any earth should be a good earth’ is applied, this implies that metal equipment (eg., radiators and sinks) supplied by plastic piping should be earthed by bonding cables. ‘The electrical resistance of a 15 mm pipe containing tap water is about 100 kilohms per metre; with eorrosion inhibitor (in radiator pipes) it may be as low as 20 kilohms per meter (source: Electrical Research Association). While water purity and content varies fiom place to place, iti unlikely that there will be much variation from the above figure for any tap water. Even in the worst case (radiator pipes), the amount of current that can be cartied by the water inthe pipes will be about 11 milliamps (230/20,000) divided by the length of the pipe to the nearest good earth So even ifa radiator is connected by a plastic pipe to a metal pipe at as litle as 1 metre away, it cannot earry ‘enough current to present a significant hazard. This means that earthing the radiator will increase the risk of electric shock, rather than reduee it Is increasingly common, therefore, to treat plastic pipe - even containing water - as an insulator. It makes no more sense to earth a radiator with plastic piping than it does to earth a filing eabinet or window frame, even in the bathroom, There is no particular requirement to earth bath or sink taps that are connected by plastic pipe, any more than you would earth « metal shelf or towel ral It is increasingly common to find that radiators are plumbed using plastic pipe, except forthe part that is visible above floor level. There is no need to use supplementary bonding on the visible part. 2.18 Special considerations for PME supplies Remember that if you have a PME supply (and you have no control over that, except by moving house), that your ‘main earth is the supply company's ncutral. There is no earth connection brought into the house. This is fine so long as the supply neutral remains intact. If the neutral connection breaks, then you could be left with no effective earth. A fault in these conditions could be extremely dangerous, While it is good practice with all forms of supply to enhance the earth connection by connecting the main earth terminal to the incoming service pipes (e.., 288 and water), with a PME supply ths is absolutely essential Moreover, the use of supplementary bonding within the premises, is even more important than with other supplies, In fact, you - the householder, not the supply company - are legally obligated to ensure the integrity of supplementary “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston msbonding in this ease. The main bonding conductors (from the earth terminal to incoming services) should normally be 10 mm? with a PME supply, but check with the supply company because larger sizes are required in some eases. If you have a PME supply, there may be # label ncar the incoming cables indicating that fact, but itis probably safer to check with the supply company or the local authority. 3. Example of selecting cable size ‘This appendix describes how to select the appropriate cable size fora given application, to be in accordance with the IEE Wiring Regulations. For your convenience I have extracted the information from the tables given in the Regulations that are likely to be applicable to typical domestic installations and summarized it in appendix A. However, this appendix makes certain assumptions about your installation, and if these assumptions are not true, you should not use this information. Instead, you should refer to the approriate sections of the EE Wiring RegulationsIEE appendix 4] or, better still calculate the appropriate figures yourself The assumptions are as follows. ‘= The over-current device which is protecting the cable is an MCB ora cartridge fuse (not a rewirable fuse). This is important: rewirable fuses blow at a current level about $0% higher than an MCB, © The cable is general-purpose PVC two-core-and-carth, with a maximum temperature rating of 70 degrees celeius = The protective device provides overload protection, and not just short-cireuit protection (ths is nearly always the case in domestic installations; we expect the MCB to trip ifthe current load is too high for the cable, not just ifitis catastophically high) = Where cables are bunched together, they ate all the same size, camrying the same current, and have the same ‘maximum temperature. In practice it has not been found to be @ problem when the cables are not the same size or atthe same current, but they rust be of the same type, and with the same maximum temperature, for these guidelines (and those of the /EE Wiring Regulations) to be applied. [Note that in domestic wiring you will hardly ever need to use this procedure, It is nearly always appropriate to use 2,5 mm? cable for power circuits and 1.5 mm? cable for lighting. You will need to apply this procedure if you are planning long runs of cable (e.., fo an outbuilding with a power circuit) or high current appliances (ee, electric showers or cookers) ‘The procedure to be described ean be followed by anyone who has a pocket ealeulator and can follow instructions no “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston 22‘more complicated than "multiply this number by the one you calculated in step 2", However, it will make more sense ifyou have a basic understanding of electrical theory and Ohms's law. 3.1 Outline of the procedure TThe basic procedure isto select a cable whose nominal current rating appears appropriate forthe load it will have to cary - or the overcurrent device fited, then check it meets the current carrying capacity’ requirements, the ‘voltage drop’ requirements, and the isconnectiont time! requirements, after applying various correction factors. IF any requirement is not met, you should try again with the next largest cable. Ifyou can't meet the disconnection ti requirements with the largest cable, then you will need to use an RCD to protect against earth faults. 3.1.1 Step 1: calculate the nominal current ‘The nominal current will be rating of the MCB selected to protect the system. Ofcourse this must be higher than the nt required by the appliance(s) connected, otherwise it will tip immediately. If we don't know the eurent required, we calculate it from the appliance power, which will usually be marked on it (or ask the manufacturer. Caleulate the current by dividing the power in watis by the supply voltage. Now choose an MCB whose current rating isa close as possible above the calculated figure, This is the nominal current 3.1.2 Step 2: pick a cable size that appears appropriate for the nominal current ‘To do this, refer to table A. In this table, ‘enclosed in @ wall! refers toa cable that is concealed in plasterwork, directly or in a protective conduit, ‘Enclosed in conduit means fully enclosed in conduit or trunkin tothe surface of a wall or ceiling. "Clipped to a surface’ means fastened at intervals toa flat surface such as brickwork or joists. Free’ means completely surrounded by air. A cable that is passed across a line of joists, running through ample holes, could probably be classed as free’ (but see discussion of thermal insulation below). Free’ also applies to cables that are laid on metal cable trays, but tis is unusual in domestic installations ‘There will be some cases where your installation does not conform to any of the installation methods shown in table A.1. In these circumstances you should usually pick the closest, worst case. For example, lighting cables will ‘oflen be run partly free, partly along. ists, and partly in plasterwork. In such a case you would be well advised to assume that it will all be in plasterwork, for purposes of cable selection, “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston m2‘One case that requires special mention is that of cables that are clipped or free on one side, and in contact with thermal insulation on the other. This is often the ease in lo wiring, because cables will run along joists which are in contact with insulation, or on the top of the insulation. In these circumstances the IEE recommends that we use the same figure as for cable enclosed in a wall Make a note of the current carrying capacity of the cable you have selected 3.1.3 Step 3: correct for ambient temperature Having picked the cable size, we then correct its rating for ambient temperature, if necessary. The nominal ratings in table A.1 assume that the ambient emperature is no more than 30 desgrees eeleius. While this is usually true in the UK, some parts of a building may be warmer than this. Lofls, shower rooms and small kitehens may well be affected; in this case we should correct the current carrying capacity determined in step 2 by multiplying by the appropriate figure from table A.2. Note thatthe /EE Wiring Regulationsus to over-rate the cable ifthe ambient temperature is below 30 degrees, but we would have to be sure that it would always be lower, and this is not really a safe assumption to make. For example, if we assume that the ambient temperature is likely to get as high as 40 degrees, ‘we would multiply the ealeulated current capacity by 0.87. 3.1.4 Step 4: correct for cable grouping ‘The nominal currents in table A. assume that cach cable will be run separatcly, with no other cables nearby. I'there are cables nearby, then they will tend to heat each other up, so we must reduce the current rating accordingly. Table A.3 shows the figures by which to multiply for various grouping methods. Note that when cables are grouped side-by-side and not ouching, the reduction in current rating is quite small. When they are bundled together, itis suite significant. 3.1.5 Step 5: correct for thermal enclosure fa cable is in contact on one side with thermal insulation, we have already dealt with this at step 2, by choosing a ower nominal current. Ifa cable is completely enclosed by an insulating material, even for a short length, then this hhas a significant impact on its ability to conduct away heat, and we must reduce the current rating accordingly. The appropriate multiplier can be found from table A.4 [Note that if'a cable passes through tight hole in a wall ora joist, this could be taken as being completely enelosed in insulating material. In this case it might be necessary to apply a suitable correction from table A. “tpoamu sodremeratctlerelter vente se3.1.6 Step 6: check the corrected rating If the current rating after applying corrections is still higher than the nominal current from step 1, then we have satisfied the ‘current carrying capacity’ part of the Regulations. We then procecd to step 7, Ifnot, pick the next largest size of cable and try again from step 3 3.1.7 Step 7: calcuate the voltage drop ‘The IEE Wiring Regulationsthe voltage drop between the ‘origin! of the installation and the appliance to be no more than 4%, With & 230 volt mains system, that's the same as a voltage drop of 9.2V. We would normally take the ‘origin’ as the main distribution board in a domestic installation, There isa voltage drop because the cable conductors have some resistance; i's small, but i's not zero. Therefore Ohm's law tells us that there will some voltage across the length of the cable, and then voltage must be subtracted from the supply voltage to get the appliance voltage. Things are complicated by the fact that when a cable warms up, its resistance will increase, thereby increasing the voltage drop. To take account of this, we normally use figures for cable resistance at 70 degrees celcius, We don't have much ‘idea what the temperature willbe in practice, but we know it will be no higher the 70 degrees, because we picked @ cable size in step 2 that ensured this was the ease. So, to work out the voltage drop, we multiply the applicance current by the cable resistance, To get the cable resistance we multiply the length of the cable by the figure shown in table A. [Note that itis not the nominal current that we use to Work out the voltage drop; itis the current that we expect to be flowing in normal conditions, The voltage drop requirements of the IEE Wiring Regulationsto ensure proper ‘operation of appliances, not for electrical safety 3.1.8 Step 8: check the voltage drop the voltage drop calculated in step 7is Tess than 9.2 volts then the cable size is OK. Otherwise, pick the next highest size and go back to step 7 3.2 Step 9: check the disconnection time and/or shock voltage I your circuit is protected by an earth-fault device (RCD), you won't need to check this step. This is true whether the “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston weRCD serves the whole premises, or just one circuit, ‘The disconnection time depends on the circuit thatthe cable isto supply. Ifit isa “high risk’ (bathroom, garden) cirouit, the disconnection time must always be less than 0.4 seconds. Ifit isa ‘medium risk’ circuit, the shock voltage ‘ust be less than SOV, of disconnect in 0.4 seconds. If itis a low risk’ (fixed appliances, tc) circuit, the disconnection time must be less than 5 seconds. ‘The shock voltage is caleuated by multiplying the resistance of the earth conductor over the length of the eable by the ccurrent that will tip the protective device in five seconds (see table A.7), ‘The disconnection time is checked by finding the current that will tip the device in the required time (0.4 or 5 seconds), and determining whether the current flow in an earth fault will reach this level. This requires knowledge of the earth loop resistance, Part of the earth loop is outside the premises, of course, so you will need to get the information from the supply company, or use the worst-case figures in table 11. 3.3 Example Here is an example to demonstrate the above process. T want to install an electric shower in my bathroom. According to the manufacturer i requires 6.9 kW (kilowatts). ‘The total length of cable run to the main distribution board wall be 15 metres, of which the last 2 metres will be buried in plaster behind the shower cubicle. The rest of the run will be clipped to joists under the floor, The shower ‘will have its own MCB fitted in the distribution board, What size cable do T need? First, need to know what current the shower will require. It's 6.9 kW, which is 6900 watts, and since Current = Power /Voltage on this gives Current = 6900/230 G2) pn enietoreraleteatr web weswhich is 30 amps. Since this appliance will have ils own MCB, we can choose the rating of the MCB at this stage; a ook at the manufacturer's catalogue tells me that there is a type-1 MCB with exactly that rating (otherwise T would have to pick the nearest higher one), so 30 amps is the nominal current of the system.w Now I refer to table A. 1 to find a basie cable size Since a substantial part of the eable will be buried in plaster, Twill play safe and use the figures for eables that are ‘enclosed in a wall from this table. I see that a 6 mm? cable has a rating of 32 amps in this configuration, which looks OK, [Now for the correction factors. First, itis quite likely that the ambient temperature will be greater than 30 degrees for atleast part of the cable, as itis behind a shower cubicle. It's unlikely to be above 40 degrees, however, so I use that as the basic figure, table A.2 tells me that I need to multiply my cable rating by 0.87 to compensate for this, which gives me an effective cable capacity of 0.87 x 32 amps, which is 27.84 amps. So I've hit a problem already: the nominal current was 30 amps, so the cable I've selected is not going to be up to the job. I don't need to apply the rest of the correction factors, since they ean only make things worse. So I will pick a cable one size bigger. Ths is 10 mm?, which has a rating of 43 amps when enclosed in a wall “Applying the correction for ambient temperature (0.87) gives an adjusted figure of 37.41 amps. which is fine. I don't need to correct for cable grouping, provided I keep the new cable away ftom other cables in the arca, I don't need to correct for thermal insulation, because there ist any inthe vicinity ofthe cable. (If was running the cable ina loft I might have to, which would make things quite difficult). So the final, corrected current rating of the cabling is 37.41 amps, which is well above the 30 amp nominal current, so no problem there, ‘Now I need to check the voltage drop. From table A.5 | see that the resistance per metre of this cable is 0,004 obs. Thave 15 metres to run, so the total resistance is 0.0044 * 15 ohms, which is 0.066 ohms. Multiplying this by the appliance current of 30 amps gives 1.98 volts, which is well within the 9.2 volts allowed. So in the end, I seitle on a 10 mm? cable As this cable serves a shower, we will have to use a 30 mA RCD for earth fault protection. So in principle I don't need to check the disconnection time in the event of an carta fault. However, let's do it anyway, forthe practice. ‘The cable is 17m long. The combined resistance of the earth and live conductors (table A.5) is 0.0077 obms/mete, so for 7m this is 0.13 ohms. As we are assuming the external part of the earth loop is 0.8 ohms, the total earth loop “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston neresistance is (0.13 + 0.8) ohms, oF 0,93 obms. The earth fault current is therefore 230/0.93 amps, or 247 amps. The 30A MCB selected has (see table A.6) will trip in 0.4 seconds with a current of 120 amps. So the disconnection time ‘would be adequate, even without the RCD. Now a drum of 10 mm?® cable is likely to be quite expensive. It's also going tobe very heavy and dificult to manage. | would far rather do this job with 6 mm? cable, The reason that I can't do this is because the cable is buried in plaster - fora short run = which reduces the nominal rating of a 6 mm? cable from 46 amps to 32 amps. Suppose for 8 moment that this werent the eas, andthe cable would be clipped to a surface for its whole ran. Taking the basic current carrying capacity of a6 mm? cable as 46 amps, and applying the previous correction for temperature (0.87) ives a corrected rating of 40 amps. This is well above the nominal current, so no problem there, The voltage érop ‘works out as 0,0076 okimsimetre x 15 metres x 30 amps, which is 342 volts, so no problem there either. So if we ean avoid running the eable in the plaster behind the shower cubicle we could use 6 mm? cable, and save money and effort, One solution might be to run the cable up the other side of the wall from the shower, ifthe construction allows. I'the shower cubicle abuts a cupboard, for example, I could do this easily. I could clip the eable tothe cupboard wall up to the point where it eross the wall into the shower. I could also install tin trunking in the cupboard, which would be neater, because the rating forthe cable inthis mode of installation is ust high enough to allow it. Alternatively, {could run most of the cable as 6 mm?, to a junction box (it would have to be 2 40 amps junction box) just outside the shower room somewhere. From the junction box I could run the last few metres using 10 mm? cable. If I didn’t want to use any 10 mm? cable at all, {could quite legitimately [IEE 523-02] run two 6 mm 2 cables in parallel from the junction box to the shower. This is only legitimate ifthe two runs are the same length {they will be inthis case), andthe terminals of the shower are large enough to eccomodate the double cable. However, to comply with (IEE 513] I would probably have to install the junction box in such a way that it was aceessible for inspection, which could be tricky ifit was under atte floor. 3.4 Using the simplified cable length selection Table A.12 presents a simplified table for determining whether a selected cable type and length meets the regulations for voltage drop, and earth Fault protection, Note that the longer a cable is, the less likely itis to meet these requirements, Before you can make use of this table, you need to decide whether the earth fault limitation will depend on shock voltage, 0.4-second disconnection, of 5-second disconnection, as discussed on page bell with this information, you ean look atthe appropriate columns in the table. In the example above, we were considering a cable for an electric shower, and earth-falt protection would be provided with an RCD. In that ease, we only need to check the table fr the voltage drop requirements. The table shows that for a 30-amp type-1 RCD on a 10 mm? cable the maximum length to salisly voltage drop is 73 metres, so “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston4. Design tables ‘our 17 m cable is well within that limit. Ifthe cable was serving a cooker, for example, and we were not using an RCD, we would need to check that the $-second disconnection time requirement was met. From the table we find that ‘the length limic inthis case is 135 m, again much longer than the cable run requited, ‘This appendix presents simplified design tables for use in planning domestic electrical referred to in various parts ofthe book. Please note that all these tables related to PVC-insulated cables ofthe type normally used for domestic wiring. They don't apply to armoured cable or cables with non-standard conductor sizes, ‘or single-core cables (except where indicated). 1 current-carrying capacity of general purpose, two-core, PVC-insulated copper cables at 30 degrees celcius, Source: IEE Wiring Regulations table stallations. These tables are ‘ee a l(mm?) [Enclosed [Enclosed [Clipped | Free cee free ot conduit |surface eee Bs ass eo pn enietoreraleteatr web‘Table: Correction of current carrying capacity of ‘general purpose PVC cables for ambient temperatures different from 30 degrees celeius. Source: JEE Wiring Regulations table 4C1 (Correction factor ‘Ambient temperature (deg. C) 1.03 oe 087 (079 ‘Table: Correction of current carrying capacity for grouping of cables ‘when bunched and clipped, or clipped side-by-side. Source: IEE Waring Regulations table 4181 [Correction factor with N cables| nS N=3_[No4 [Method of grouping [w=2 fo.6s [0.60 0.70 fo.s0 (Clipped in a bunch pn enietoreraleteatr web[Clipped side-by-side, touching _jo.ss_{jo.79_|o.75_o.73 (Clipped side-by-side, not touching [0.94 [0.90 [0.90 [0.90 ‘Table: Correction of current carrying capacity for complete enclosure in thermal insulation, Source: IEE Wiring Regulations table 52. [Lengih in insulation (mm)|| Correction factor| 30 (049 100 (08 [200 (0.68 400 (055 more than 400 (030 ‘Table: Resistance per metre of two-core cable, at 70 degress celcius. Figures are given for the two power cores (for voltage drop and short-circuit current calculations), the power and earth cores (for disconnection time calculations), and the ‘earth alone (for shock voltage calculations). Source: /EE Wiring Regulations table 4D28 ring Regulations ble 7? pn enietoreraleteatr web ws|Conductor |Resistance of | Resistance of Resistance of] \size both power power and | earth (powerlearth) |conductors | earth ‘conductor mm?) \(ohms/metre) \conductor alone (ohms/metre) | (ohmsimetre) iL 0.045 0.048 (0.022 rss [0029 0.029 (001s Bsns [0018 0.023 (0.015 (as (oot 0.020 oy (62s (0.0076 (0.013 (0.0090 1014 (004 (0.0077 __[0.0085 ‘Table A.6: ‘worst case’ currents that will cause a protective device to trip in 04 seconds. Source: MEM Ld, product information. By worst-case is meant the ‘smallest current that will trip 95% of devices Rating BSI361_— [Type | Type B (amps) fuse (amps) |MCB | MCB (amps) (amps) a2 20 nla 6 Ina 2 30 20 135 ‘80 100 pn enietoreraleteatr web a2pn enietoreraleteatr web 30pm 0 Ine a Co 20 [na fio 200 6 ona Table A.7: ‘worst case! currents that will cause a protective device to trip in 5 seconds. Source: MEM. Ld, product information. By worst-case is meant the smallest current that will tip 95% of devices. Note that the MCB figures are identical to those for 0.4 second ‘tipping. Rating BSI361—[Type-l | Type-B famps) se (amps) |MCB MCB (amps) amps) 4 20 wa 6 n'a 24 30 20 82. 80 100 30 15; 120 wa 32 Ina 128 160 40 nla 160) 200 6 [240 wa wa‘Table: Maximum earth loop resistances that will allow a protective device to disconnect in 0.4 seconds. These are the complete loop resistances, including the supply ‘company's past, and the full length of cable inside the premise, The figures are derived by dividing the supply voltage by the current that will trip the protective device in 0.4 seconds. Source: IEE Wiring Regulations table 41B1 Rating | Loop ‘Loop (Loop (amps) resistance resistance | resistance with with type-t | with ppe-B BSI361—|MCB MCB [fuse 3 109 12.00 la 6 na 10.00 8.00 10 aa 6.00) [4.80 15 3.48 [4.00 ala 16 wa 3.00 20 78 2.40 30 1.20 [2.00 nla 32 nia 1.88 150) [40 wa 150 1.20) 45 0.60 ina nla pn enietoreraleteatr webpn enietoreraleteatr web Table: Maximum earth loop resistances that will allow a protective deviee to disconnect in 5 seconds. Note that the figure for MCBs are identical to those in the table above, because any current that will disconnect an MCB in 5 seconds is enough to disconnect in 0.4 seconds. Source: IEE Wiring Regulations table 41B1 Rating | Loop Loop Loop famps) resistance resistance | resistance ‘with BSI361 |with type-I | with nppe-B fuse MCB MCB 3 1 12.00 wa 6 wa 10.00 8.00pn enietoreraleteatr web ‘Table: Maximum earth conductor resistances that will allow the shock voltage to be kept below S0 volts, and. allow a 5 second disconnection time rather than 0.4 seconds. These figures assume thatthe trip current of the protective device limits the loop current, rather than the total loop resistance. Source: JEE Wiring Regulations. table 41C Rating [Conductor Conductor || Conductor (amps) | reistance resistance | resistance with BSI361 |with type-I | with ype-B fuse MCB MCB 5 357 250 la 6 wa 2.09 167 10 na 125 1.00 15 109 O88 nla 16 nia O78 0.63 20 on 0.68 050 30 0.40 al nia 2 a 039 031 40 nla 031 025 4s 021 nla nla ‘Table A.11: typical ‘worst case’ values ofthe suppliers ‘part of the earth loop resistance, to be used forapproximate calculations. Most premises have a TN-S supply, but many new developments use TN-C-8. Some rural areas use TT supplies. If you don't know what type ‘of supply you have, don't guess: ask your supply company. Note that TT supplies have a much higher earth loop resistance than the others [Meaning Swoplers earth loop resistance Supply type code ‘Supplier provides a_|0.8 ohms INS ‘separate earth nection Supplier provides a 0.35 ohms ‘combined ‘earth/neutral ‘connection ‘Supplier provides no 20 ohms learth; you have an ‘earth spike near your [promises ‘Table A.12: cable length selection guide, Tais table shows the maximum acceptable lengths of cable that will satisfy voltage drop, shock voltage, and disconnection time requirements, Note that disconnection times are tabulated for two values of external earth loop resistance; you will need to decide which is appropriate at your premises. In general, the correct maximum length to use will be the lower ofthe voltage drop and shock voltage figures. In high risk’ areas itis the lower of the voltage drop and 0.4-second disconnection time figures. If an RCD is used, only the ‘voltage drop figure needs to be checked. pn enietoreraleteatr web wasec “Maximum lengih to meet criterion (metres) pn enietoaraeteair webpa enirtoaraletedaier webPMesrynet ich web ypea Meh sie cena ie BDL, | Sitgny sma oy ee int se i apa eg oa i tbe er ae 4s apa chin hl eer sno ad a nly ai i ape i a Sot MEO sg eMC ken sa i MRED iin une sn Sa EE pgs pa ly iy tin, yo at a ese REM wah ype Footnotes pn enietoreraleteatr web sosLa types ‘You don't need to know this, but in case you're curious, the use of both numbers and leters relates to the fact that there are two different standards in use for MCBs, Devices that conform to BS 3781 are numbered and those that conform to BS EN 60898 are lettered. current! ‘This explains why lightbulbs usually conk out when they’te switched on, rather that when they're running. hour! This is a simplification: technically it’s the ‘conventional time’, which isnt always one hour. For most domestic installations, however, | hour is appropriate. wall! Itis common to use 1 mm? cable for lighting circuits. However, doing say may not appropriate in all circumstances. This cable has a fairly high resistance, and therfore it will slightly reduce the voltage available tothe lamps themselves. Ths reduction should be less than 4% of the supply voltage [TEE 525-01, The longer the cable run is the more likely you are to fll foul of this regulation. The procedure for calculating the voltage drop is given in appendix 3. Wit eight 100 watt bulbs, as i this example, cable runs of up to about 50 metres should not be a problem. However, i's surprisingly easy to use up 50 mettes of cable, and if in doubt you should use the next size up (1.5 mm?) around! Sce appendix 3, We may also have to adjust these ratings to allow for temperature and cable bundling together”! To illustrate the difference between earthing and bonding, consider the ease of 'earthefree equipotential boning’. Tis is sometimes used in science labs to protect against electric shock. Al the equipment casings and metal surfaces are connected together, but they are no earthed. This is perfectly safe as long as no-one brings areal’ earth connection into the aca abbreviations? If'youte interested, T=terr, N-neutrale, C=combiné, S=separé typically” 2.5 mm? is OK if the cable is flly enclosed. Celsius “The maximum operating temperature for PVC eable is 70 deg temperature, we have to assume the worst ease s. If we don!t know the true operating, “tpsamu sodremeratctleclter weston sespn enietoreraleteatr web