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Best Quant Articles by Handa Ka Funda
Best Quant Articles by Handa Ka Funda
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RAVI HANDA
PREFACE
Over the past few years, I have written a bunch of articles for various
websites like Pagalguy.com, Minglebox.com, GyanCentral.com,
MBAUniverse.com, Rediff.com, InsideIIM.com, etc. It becomes very
difficult for me to keep track of all of them. So I thought it would be
much better if I compiled all of them in a PDF and put it up for
download. And that is exactly what I have done. I will keep on
updating this PDF from time to time to include the latest posts.
Please do provide feedback about the same at my email or my
number given below.
Please check out my online CAT coaching course here:
http://www.wiziq.com/course/9277-lr-vr-di-ds-speed-calculationsquant-general-awareness
Ravi Handa
ravihanda@gmail.com, +91- 9765142632 , +91- 9637446417
Version 1.02, Date: 1st April 2013.
INDEX
Number System
Algebra
Divisibility Rules
Factor Theory
Dealing with Factorials
Basic Ideas of Remainders
Cyclicity of remainders
Basic applications of remainder theorem
Remainders Advanced
Number of Trailing Zeros
Determining second last digit
Maxima and Minima in Quadratic and other polynomials
Basics of functions and modifications of graphs
Roots of an Equation
Number of Integral solutions
Arithmetic
Geometry
Geometry Fundas -1
Geometry Fundas -2
Modern Maths
Logical Reasoning
Data Interpretation /
Data Sufficiency
General Knowledge
Extra Fundas
NUMBER SYSTEMS
Divisibility Rules
The concept of divide and conquer, derived from the Latin phrase Divide et impera, was put into
use effectively by everyone from Caesar to Napoleon to The British in India. Even Gaddafi tried using
the same but as current events show us he wasnt very effective. Dividing rather divisibility rules to
be specific can come in really handy at times in solving problems based on Number Systems.
The standard rules which nearly all of us are very comfortable with are the ones for 2 n and
5n. For these all that one needs to do is look at the last n digits of the number. If the last n digits of
a number are divisible by 2n or 5n, then the number is divisible by 2n or 5n and vice versa. For details
about other numbers, I suggest that you read on.
Funda 1:
For checking divisibility by p, which is of the format of 10n 1, sum of blocks of size n needs to be
checked (Blocks should be considered from the least significant digit ie the right side). If the sum is
divisible by p, then the number is divisible by p.
Eg 1.1 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 9
9 is 101 1
Sum of digits is done 1 at a time = a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = X
If X is divisible by 9, N is divisible by 9
Also, N is divisible by all factors of 9. Hence the same test works for 3.
99 is 102 1
Sum of digits is done 2 at a time = ab + cd + ef + gh = X
If X is divisible by 99, N is divisible by 99
Also, N is divisible by all factors of 99. Hence the same test works for 9, 11 and others.
999 is 103 1
Sum of digits is done 3 at a time = ab + cde + fgh = X
If X is divisible by 999, N is divisible by 999
Also, N is divisible by all factors of 999. Hence the same test works for 27, 37 and others.
Funda 2:
For checking divisibility by p, which is of the format of 10n + 1, alternating sum of blocks of size n
needs to be checked (Blocks should be considered from the least significant digit ie the ri ght side). If
the alternating sum is divisible by p, then the number is divisible by p.
(Alternating Sum: Sum of a given set of numbers with alternating + and signs. Since we are using it
to just check the divisibility, the order in which + and signs are used is of no importance.)
1001 is 103 + 1
Sum of digits is done 3 at a time = ab - cde + fgh = X
If X is divisible by 1001, N is divisible by 1001
Also, N is divisible by all factors of 1001. Hence the same test works for 7, 11, 13 and others.
Step 2: Remove the last digit and multiply it with the seed number.
Step 3: Add the product with the number that is left after removing the last digit.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 2 and 3 till you get to a number which you can easily check that whether or not
it is divisible by p.
133 is divisible by 19
131537 is divisible by 19
I hope that these divisibility rules will enable you to divide and conquer few of the Number Systems
problems that you encounter during your preparation.
Factor Theory
I understand that the title might be a little misleading but at least I could not come up with
something better. So before you end up getting disappointed, let me first list down the topics that I
am going to cover in this particular blogpost:
We know that a number N can be written as a product of its factors as given below
N = ap x bq x cr
Here a,b,c are prime factors of N
& p,q,r are the powers of the prime factors of N.
The obvious question which arises is, why this formula in particular. It is actually a game of choices
and options available. Let us see how.
Suppose you are going on a camping trip and you have packed all the necessary items. Now you are
wondering how many movie DVDs, music CDs & MP3 players you should take. (Please do not judge
me by the example. I have no experience about camping trips but I guess that is obvious by the
example mentioned). In your collection, you have 5 movie DVDs, 4 music CDs and 2 MP3 players.
How many choices / options do you have for the number of movie DVDs that you can take?
How many choices / options do you have for the number of music CDs that you can take?
How many choices / options do you have for the number of MP3 players that you can take?
Are the answers to all the above questions independent of each other?
Now, for finding out the number of even factors consider the camping trip case.
If one of your friends insists that he wants to watch Twilight while on the camping trip and you
should bring the movie DVD because you own a copy. (Once again I will restrain myself and not pass
a judgement on you or your friend or the choice of the movie)
So, in this case the number of choices for picking up the movie DVD has reduced from 6 to 5 because
you HAVE TO bring the Twilight DVD.
So, the total number of choices that you have now is 5 x 5 x 3 = 75
Same logic can be extended to finding out the number of even factors.
Number of even factors = 5 x 5 x 3 = 75 {Because your factor has to contain at least one 2, analogous
to the twilight DVD}
Number of odd factors = 5 x 3 = 15 {In this case, your factor cannot contain any 2s, analogous to not
being allowed to take a movie DVD}
As a matter of fact, if you have the total number of factors and the total number of even factors;
their difference would directly give you the total number of odd factors.
Such logic can be extended to find out the number of factors divisible by a particular number.
Number of factors divisible by 12 = 4 x 4 x 3 = 48 {In this case, your factor will have to contain at least
two 2s and one 3}
We know that a number N can be written as a product of its factors as given below
N = ap x bq x cr
Here a,b,c are prime factors of N
& p,q,r are the powers of the prime factors of N.
The logic remains the same in this case also. If you expand the above expression, you will end up
with all the factors.
For N = 25 x 34 x 52
Sum of all factors
I hope that this post was helpful and you will not face any problems in finding out the number of
factors and related stuff.
Course Details: http://bit.ly/handaCAT13
[134/3] = 44
[44/3] = 14
[14/3] = 4
[4/3] = 1
Power of 3 in 134! = 44 + 14 + 4 + 1 = 63
[134/5] = 26
[26/5] = 5
[5/5] = 1
Number of ending zeroes = 26 + 5 + 1 = 32
I hope that this gets you started with factorials and you might start singing this song.
Figuring out the last digit is the same as figuring out the remainder of a number when divided by 10,
but I guess you already know that. Figuring out the last two digits is the same as figuring out the
remainder of a number when divided by 100. However, if you wish to figure the remainder when the
divisor is not 10 or 100, I suggest you read on.
Funda 1: Basic idea of remainders can be used to solve complicated problems.
There is nothing special or unique about this idea. At first glance it seems like something really
obvious. But it is its usage that makes it special and helpful in questions related to remainders.
Let us look at couple of examples to see how this can be used effectively. In the first example we will
see the idea that will work in cases of a b and in the second example we will see the idea that will
work in case of
is divided by 7.
Note: As you can see in solving this example, we have used the concept of negative remainder. In
some cases, using the negative remainder can reduce your calculations significantly. It is
recommended that you practice some questions using negative remainders instead of positive o nes.
Funda 2: While trying to find out the remainder, if the dividend (M) and the divisor (N) have a factor
(k) in common; then
Cancel out the common factor
Find out the remainder from the remaining fraction
Multiply the resulting remainder with the common factor to get the actual remainder
In equation format, this can be written as:
Funda 3: While trying to find out the remainder, if the divisor can be broken down into smaller coprime factors; then
{HCF (a,b) = 1}
Let
Note: If you wish to read more about it and how it happens, I suggest you read about the Chinese
Remainder Theorem.
By using the above fundas, solving remainder problems will get a little easier. But if you are thinking,
that this is all you need to know to solve remainder problems in CAT I beg to differ. Great
mathematicians like Euler, Fermat & Wilson developed some theorems that come in handy while
solving remainder questions. We will discuss these in my next post.
Cyclicity of Remainders
In this post I would like to discuss some of the really fundamental ideas that can be used to solve
questions based on remainders. If you have just started your preparation for CAT 2012, you might
find this article helpful. On the other hand, if you are looking for some advance stuff, I suggest that
you check out some of my posts from last year on the same topic.
First of all,
What I am trying to say above is that if you divide a^n by d, the remainder can be any value from 0
to d-1.
Not only that, if you keep on increasing the value of n, you would notice that the remainders are
cyclical in nature. What I am trying to say is that the pattern of remainders would repeat. Let me try
to clarify this with an example:
Funda 1: a^n when divided by d, will always give remainders which will have a pattern and will
move in cycles of r such that r is less than or equal to d.
With the help of the above idea, you can solve a large number of remainder questions. All you need
to do is to figure out the cycle / pattern in which the remainders are moving, and it will lead you to
the answer.
Let us look at an example to illustrate the above idea.
Eg: What will be the remainder when 4^143 is divided by 9.
From the calculations that I did in the beginning of the post, I know that:
Remainders of 4^n when divided by 9, move in a cycle of 3.
So, I need to express 143 = 3k + x and that would lead to the answer.
I know that 143 = 141 + 2 {141 is divisible by 3}
So, my answer would be the 2nd value in the list, which is 7.
n the questions where you have to find out the remainder of a^n by d, as a rule you can follow this
process:
Step 1: Find out the cycle of remainders when a^n is divided by d and make a list of those values.
Step 2: Find out the cyclicity, say r
Step 3: Find out the remainder when the power is divided by the cyclicity i.e. Rem[n/r] = p
Step 4: The answer would be the pth value in the list. {If p = 0, it would be the last value in the list}
Funda 2: While trying to find the cycle / pattern of remainders when a^n is divided by d, just
multiply the previous remainder with a to get the next value.
If you notice in the example mentioned in the beginning of this post, I have calculated 4^5 and 4^6
and then found out the remainder. As you might have realized by now that it is a long and tedious
process. But the good part is you can avoid that tedious process by just multiplying the previous
remainder. In that example instead of calculating 4^5 and then dividing by 9, I could have just
multiplied the previous remainder, which was 4 with 4 to get 16, which would have directly given me
a remainder of 7.
Got confused? Well, let us look at a new example.
Eg: Find out the cyclicity of remainders when 3^n is divided by 11.
As you can see that till here there is no problem in calculating the remainders.
{In this case instead of using 3^4 = 81, I took the previous remainder, which was 5 and multiplied it
with 3 to get 15, which lead to my current remainder = 4}
{In this case instead of using 3^5 = 243, I took the previous remainder, which was 4 and multiplied it
with 3 to get 12, which lead to my current remainder = 1}
{In this case instead of using 3^6 = 729, I took the previous remainder, which was 1 and multiplied it
with 3 to get my current remainder = 3}
As you might have noticed that the remainder 3 repeated itself and so the cycle / pattern of
remainders as -> 3,9,5,4,1 and the cyclicity as 5.
Let us try and solve a slightly more complicated problem with this idea.
Eg: Find out the remainder when
is divided by 7.
Step 1: Find out the cycle / pattern of remainders when 4^n is divided by 7.
Rem [4^1 / 7 ] = 4
Rem [4^2 / 7 ] = 2
Rem [4^3 / 7 ] = 1
So, the cycle/pattern is 4,2,1.
I hope you found this post useful. Suggestions for future posts are more than welcome.
However, it would be easier to find out the individual remainders of 79, 80 & 81; which come out to
be 2, 3 & 4 respectively and adding them up later to get the answer. This process is shown below:
I hope you would agree that the second method is easier. May be the difference in difficulty level is
not highlighted here. Let us look at another idea on the same lines.
Funda 2: Remainder of a product when it is being divided is going to be the same as the product of
the individual remainders.
However, it would be easier to find out the individual remainders of 79, 80 & 81; which come out to
be 2, 3 & 4 respectively and multiply them to get 24, which will eventually lead to the remainder of
3. This process is shown below:
I guess there is no doubt in this question that the second method is easier. To be honest, I would
take more time to just find out the product of (79 x 80 x 81) than to solve the entire question.
That is the reason I recommend breaking down the problem into smaller parts.
Funda 3: Negative Remainders When the absolute value of the -ive remainder is lesser than the
absolute value of the positive remainder, it is recommended that you consider a multiple greater
than the divisor.
When 7 is divided by 4, the remainder can be considered as 3 or -1.
When 18 is divided by 7, the remainder can be considered as 4 or -3.
When 689 is divided b 23, the remainder can be considered as 22 or -1.
As you can see from above, the calculations would reduce drastically in the third case if you consider
a negative remainder. As a tip, in remainder questions, you should always think of multiples or
powers which can lead to a remainder of 1 or -1.
Till now, the examples I have taken are too simple to be asked in CAT or for that matter any other
MBA entrance exam. Let us look at an example that uses all the above-mentioned ideas and is of a
slightly higher difficulty level.
We know that
It would be easier if consider the remainder as -2 because our calculations would be lesser. So
essentially, our question reduces to:
Now, referring to the tip I gave above, think of a power of 2 that would give a remainder of 1 or -1
from 17.
24 is 16 and would give a remainder of -1 from 17.
We have a 2261 here. We will have to break it down to (2260 x 2) so that we can convert it to a power
of 16. This step is shown below:
I highly recommend that in this question and other questions of this type, you should verify the
answer from Wolfram Alpha.
Hope you found this article useful. I look forward to your suggestions for future posts.
REMAINDERS ADVANCED
In previous posts, we have already discussed how to find out the last two digits and basic ideas of
remainders. However, there are theorems by Euler, Fermat & Wilson that make calculation of
remainders easier. Lets have a look at them.
Funda 1 Euler:
Number of numbers which are less than N =
A very common mistake that students tend to make while using Eulers Theorem in solving questions
is that they forget M and N have to be co-prime to each other. There is another set of students (like
me in college) who dont even understand what to do with the theorem or how to use it solving
questions. Let us look at couple of examples in which Eulers Theorem is used.
Note:
Example 1:
Funda 2 Fermat:
If p is a prime number and a and p are co-primes
If you notice, the three statements above are saying the exact same thing but in a different way. It is
important to keep all three in mind because sometimes it becomes a little difficult to analyze which
interpretation of Fermats little theorem is to be used.
A simple illustration of this would be:
Another way that you can remember Fermats Little Theorem (I am not joking, that is the official
name check this) is that it is a special case of Eulers Theorem where N is a prime number.
Because, if N is prime then
Funda 3: Wilson
Sometimes people find the history behind Wilsons theorem to be more interesting than the
theorem itself. Actually, it was know to the great Muslim polymath Alhazen approximately seven
and a half centuries before John Wilson was born. Alhazen, being the great scientist that he was,
never bothered to prove it and tried to regulate the floods in river Nile. After being ordered by AlHakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth ruler of the Fatimid caliphate, to carry out this operation, Alhazen
quickly perceived the impossibility of what he was attempting to do, and retired from engineering.
Fearing for his life, he feigned madnessand was placed under house arrest, during and after which
he devoted himself to his scientific work until his death.
The English mathematician, John Wilson, stated it in the 18th century but he could not prove it
either. Actually Wilson was a student of Edward Waring, who announced the theorem in 1770. None
of them could prove it. Lagrange proved it in 1771. There is evidence that Leibniz was also aware of
the result a century earlier, but he never published it.
I think I will end the history lesson here and continue with the mathematical part.
For a prime number p
Example:
Note: I have checked the related result for primes up to 120 and found it to be valid. I could not find
a proof for it that I could understand. Do note that the key part of the previous sentence is not find
a proof for it but that I could understand. May be one of you can help me out in comments.
I also recommend that while trying these ideas or any other remainder questions, keep Wolfram
Alpha open.
But before I begin, let us first try to understand what exactly are trailing zeroes. It is nothing else
but the number of zeroes at the end. I do not want to sound pedantic but on many occassions when
you see a question which asks about, What is the number of zeroes in ___ it is incorrect, because it
should actually say What is the number of trailing zeroes? or What is the number of ending
zeroes? It is virtually impossible to predict the exact number of zeroes without actually doing the
calculation and finding out the answer.
Just to clarify, 170130000 has 5 zeroes but 4 trailing / ending zeroes.
In questions based on these ideas, you should assume that the examiner is asking about trailing
zeroes unless specified otherwise.
Number of trailing zeroes in an expression
If we look at a number N, such that
Number of trailing zeroes is the Power of 10 in the expression or in other words, the number of
times N is divisible by 10.
For a number to be divisible by 10, it should be divisible by 2 & 5.
Consider a number N, such that
For the number to have a zero at the end, both a & b should be at least 1.
If you want to figure out the exact number of zeroes, you woul d have to check how many times the
number N is divisible by 10.
When I am dividing N by 10, it will be limited by the powers of 2 or 5, whichever is lesser.
Number of trailing zeroes is going to be the power of 2 or 5, whichever is lesser.
Let us look at an example to further illustrate this idea.
Looking at the expression, we can say that the power of 5 will be the limiting factor.
All we need to do is to figure out the number of 5s in the expression.
11, 22, 33 , 1717 , 8989, will not give us any 5s.
55 will give us five 5s.
1010 will give us ten 5s.
1515 will give us fifteen 5s.
And so on.
So, the total number of 5s that I have is
The above formula gives us the exact number of 5s in n! because it will take care of all multiples of 5
which are less than n. Not only that it will take care of all multiples of 25, 125, etc. (higher powers of
5).
Tip: Instead of dividing by 25, 125, etc. (higher powers of 5); it would be much faster if you divided by
5 recursively.
Let us use this to solve a few examples:
Writing the end of the posts is the hardest part for me because I cannot figure out a decent way to
end it. It seems like I am in flow when I am writing this and it gets broken at the end. Read the wiki
page, you will learn something much more important than Math.
Algebra
The above formula gives us the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
For this post, I am assuming that you are aware of the basics of quadratic equations and know how
to use the above mentioned formula. In case you are not, spending five minutes on the wiki page of
Quadratic Equations wont hurt. Wikipedia can be daunting at times, so come back here as soon as
you start feeling woozy.
In this particular post, I am going to discuss ideas related to maxima and minima with respect to
equations and quadratic equations in particular.
The first thing that you need to understand is that a quadratic equation will either have a maxima or
a minima but it cannot have both. The reason for that is, a quadratic equation is shaped like a
parabola which is either open upwards or downwards.
As you can see here, the parabola is open upwards and it will only have a minima
As you can see here, the parabola is open downwards and it will only have a maxima
The nature of the graph of the quadratic equation is decided by the co-efficient of x2.
If the co-efficient of x2 is greater than 0, the parabola will be open upwards and hence it will have a
minima.
If the co-efficient of x2 is less than 0, the parabola will be open upwards and hence it will have a
maxima.
Once you have decided whether it will be a maxima or a minima the next task is to figure out two
things:
a) The point at which the maxima / minima occurs
b) The maximum / minimum value of the quadratic equation
Let us try to figure these values out with the help of an example of both types i.e. when co-efficent
of x 2 is greater than 0 and when it is less than 0
Case 1: a > 0
To make things a little more complicated, you might get a question in which the quadratic equation
is in the denominator. It is sometimes also referred to as the rational function.
Example 1: Constant / Quadratic Rational Function
Find out the maximum or minimum value of 3 / (2x^2 5x + 7)
We know that the denominator is a quadratic equation with a > 0
The denominator will have a minimum value at b/2a = 5/2 and the value will be (4ac b2) /
4a = 31/8
The function will have a maximum value at 5/2 and the value will be 3/(31/8) = 24/31
Maximum value of the function is 1 and the minimum value of the function is -1/7
Example 3: Quadratic / Quadratic Rational Function
Find out the least value of
Assume
5
5
5
5
When we do y = -f (x) we will have to reflect the graph in the x-axis. Given below is what it is going
to look like. As you can see, this image would be obtained if we had put a mirror on the X -axis.
When we do y = f(-x) = -x3 + 7 we will have to reflect the graph in the y-axis. Given below is what it is
going to look like. As you can see, this image would be obtained if we had put a mirror on the Y-Axis
We also know that for even functions, f(x) = f(-x), so their graphs would be identical in nature. We
can also say that a function is even if its mirror image in the Y-axis is identical to the original.
Given below are the graphs of even functions cos(x) and cos(-x)
We also know that for odd functions, f(-x) = - f (x) The graph of an odd function has rotational
symmetry with respect to the origin, meaning that its graph remains unchanged after rotation of 180
degrees about the origin. This means that if you reflect the graph of an odd function first in the Xaxis and then in the Y-axis, the resultant graph would be same as the identical. Let us check this out:
y = f(x) = x + 5 sin(x)
As you can see, if you reflect the above graph in Y-axis, you will get back the original.
In the modifications discussed above, we talked about reflection about the X-axis or the Y-axis.
However, there can be other modifications as well, in which the graph shifts up, down, left or right.
Let us look at those.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x) + c (where c is a constant) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units
upwards (in the direction of the y-axis).
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x) - c (where c is a constant) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units
downwards (in the direction of the y-axis).
If we consider f(x) = x 2, given below are the graphs of f(x), f(x) + 20 and f(x) 10. As you can see, the
red graph is shifted 20 units upwards and the orange graph is shifted 10 units downwards from the
original blue graph.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x + c) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units to the left.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x c) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units to the right.
If we consider f(x) = x 2, given below are the graphs of f(x), f(x+5) and f(x-3). As you can see, the red
graph is shifted 5 units left and the orange graph is shifted 3 units right from the original blue graph.
The graph of y = af(x) is a stretch scale factor a in the y-axis. This is because all the y-values become
'a' times bigger.
The graph of f(ax) is also a stretch. This time the multiple affects the x-values. (Everything happens
'a' times quicker.) Therefore:
The graph of f(ax) is a stretch scale factor 1/a in the x-axis.
Another modification which happens is in the case of y = |f(x)| In this case, whatever portion is
below the X-axis gets reflected in the x-axis.
Check the examples below:
I guess we will wrap it up here and hope this would help you with your functions.
Roots of an Equation
I am quite sure that most of you, if not all of you would be aware of the basics of quadratic equation
but just to provide a brief refresher:
Roots are given by (-b + sqrt(b^2 4ac))/2a & (-b - sqrt(b^2 4ac))/2a
Sum of the roots is b/a
Product of the roots is c/a
You can expect a problem or two based upon the idea of roots and solving equations in CAT and
other exams. If you are lucky, it would be something on the simpler side like this:
Example 1: Amar, Akbar and Antony solve a given quadratic equation. Amar commits a mistake in
the constant term and finds the roots as 8 and 2. Akbar commits a mistake in the coefficient of x and
finds the roots as -9 and -1. If Antony solves the equations without making any mistakes, what roots
does he find?
Amars equation
(x 8)(x 2) = 0
x^2 10x + 16 = 0
Akbars equation
(x + 9)(x + 1) = 0
x^2 + 10x + 9 = 0
Antony will form the correct equation by taking the coefficient of x from Amars equation and the
constant term from Akbars equation.
So, Antonys equation will be:
x^2 10x + 9 = 0
(x 1)(x 9) = 0
But sometimes, questions can be a little more complex and deal with polynomials of higher degree.
It is important to note that the pattern of sum of the roots, product of the roots, etc. is followed in
polynomials of higher degree as well.
Given below are couple of examples of Cubic and Biquadratic equations which are basically
equations of degree 3 and 4 respectively.
Cubic equation
ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d = 0
I guess that with the help of the above two equations you would be able to identify the fact that for
a polynomial:
Sum of the roots is given by (Coefficient of second highest power of x)/ (Coefficient
of highest power of x)
Product of the roots is given by (+ or )Constant/(Coefficient of highest power of x)
The + / - sign alternates and the other coefficients help us determine the sum of
product of roots taken 2 at a time, 3 at a time, etc.
Example 2: If a, b and c are the roots of the equation x^3 3x^2 + x + 1 = 0 find the value of
Example 3: Given that three roots of f(x) = x^4 + ax^2 + bx + c are 2, 3, and 5. What is the value of a
+ b + c?
I have a feeling that these ideas would be more helpful in XAT than CAT as on most occasions,
quantitative aptitude is tougher in XAT. May be I have a sample bias but I feel that XAT paper setters
favor topics like algebra and functions than their CAT counterparts.
Funda 1: a + b + c + d = n
No. of integral solutions will be infinite.
As you can see, there is not going to be an end to this list and this will have infinitely many solutions.
To get a finite answer, you need to put in some sort of restrictions on it. One such restriction could
be
|a| < 100 and |b| < 50
In such a case,
a can take any integral value from -99 to 99 whereas b can take any value from -49 to 49.
One solution for this would be a = 51 & b = 49
Now, we can only decrease the value of b. So, we will have to increase the value of a. So,
Another solution would be a = 52 & b = 48
Funda 2: a + b + c + d = n
No. of whole number solutions will be (n+r-1) C (r-1)
So, the total number of solutions in this case is 101. We could have also used the formula for finding
out the number of whole number solutions. n = 100 and r = 2 in this case ( r represents the number
of variables in the equation in which the sum has to be distributed)
By applying the formula, we would have got (100+2-1) C (2-1) = 101 C 1 = 101
I agree that for something as simple as this, we do not need the formula but even for a smaller value
with even 3 variables, finding out the cases / solutions without the formula would be extremely
hard. In case you do not believe me, try and find out the number of whole number solutions for
a + b + c = 10
It is also important to understand why this formula works but I think I will reserve that idea for
another post. I have a feeling that by the time I reach the end of this post, I would have crossed the
prescribed word-limit.
Funda 3: a + b + c + d = n
No. of natural number solutions will be (n-1) C (r-1)
Consider, a + b + c + d = 100
Number of natural number solutions for this would be (100-1) C (4-1) = 99C3 = 99*98*97/3*2*1 =
156849
Funda 4: ax + by = n
Let us look at a question from CAT 2003 to understand the application of this idea:
If x and y are integers then the equation 5x + 19y = 64 has:
(a) a solution for 250 < x < 260
(b) no solution for x > 250 and y >-100
(c) no solution for x < 300 and y < 0
(d) a solution for -59 < y < -56
So, the value of y in case of negative integers will always end in 4 or 9. This eliminates option ( d)
There will be a solution for x = 256 & y = -64. This eliminates B & C and makes option (a) as the
answer.
Please note that this idea can also be applied if you are trying to find out whole number solutions or
natural number solutions as well.
Funda 5: ax + by + cz = n
First of all, it is highly unlikely that you will get something like this in CAT. Even if you do get
something like this in the exam, I recommend trying out some other questions because the time you
will spend on calculating something like this in the exam might be better used elsewhere.
To solve, such questions it is best to take cases. If you select your cases smartly, you will find out the
answer a lot faster.
Now, the coefficient of z is the biggest so let us define our cases based upon various values of z
which are possible.
z = 0, 1, 2, 3 .. 10
If you did not agree with me earlier that such questions should not be attempted in CAT, may be you
would agree with me after reading the solution.
I hope you found this post useful. Please provide feedback and suggestions for future posts via the
comment section.
Arithmetic
If the various speeds which are mentioned are in AP, then the corresponding times taken will be
in HP.
If the various speeds which are mentioned are in HP, then the corresponding times taken will be
in AP.
Eg 2.1 Arun, Barun and Kiranmala start from the same place and travel in the same direction at
speeds of 30,40 and 60 km per hour respectively. Barun starts two hours after Arun. If Barun and
Kiranmala overtake Arun at the same instant, how many hours after Arun did Kiranmala start? [CAT
2006]
Note: Arun Barun Kiranmala is a 1968 Bangladeshi film. Now you can guess what inspires CAT
question setters. Here is a song from the film.
Solution As you can see that the speeds are in HP, so we can say that the times taken will be in AP.
Time difference between Arun and Barun is 2 hours, so the time difference between Barun and
Kiranbala will also be 2 hours.
Hence, Kiranbala started 4 hours after Arun.
Eg 2.2 Rishi Kapoor can swim a certain course against the river flow in 84 minutes; he can swim the
same course with the river flow in 9 minutes less than he can swim in still water. How long would he
take to swim the course with the river flow?
Solution
Let us say Speed of the Rishi Kapoor in still water is RK and Speed of the river is R. Hence, Ri shi
Kapoors speeds against the river flow, in still water and with the river flow are:
RK R, RK and RK + R.
As you can see, they are in AP.
Hence, the corresponding times taken will be in HP.
Let us say that the time taken to row down with the stream is t, then 84, t+9 and t are in HP. So,
5
5
Also, the time taken by a & b to meet (i.e. to reach point R from P & Q respectively) is given by:
Note: The same formulae will be valid if two bodies a & b start at different times from two points P
& Q towards each other. They meet at a point R in between after travelling for t a and tb time
respectively. After meeting, they take the same amount of time (t) to reach their respective
destinations (Q & P).
I hope that these ideas will help you reduce the number of equations that you form while solving
TSD problems if not completely eliminate them.
To begin with, some of the very basic ideas that you should be aware of are:
In this particular post, I am going to talk about the motion of two bodies in a straight line starting
from opposite ends.
Case 1:
Two bodies start from opposite ends P & Q at the same time and move towards each other with
speeds S(1) & S(2). They take times of T(1) & T(2) to reach their destinations.
In such a case, the relationship between the times taken and the speeds will be
S(1) / S(2) = T(2) / T(1)
The distances that both bodies have travelled are PQ and QP respectively.
PQ = S(1) T(1)
QP = S(2) T(2)
Also, PQ = QP so the above equations can be equated to get the desired result.
Case 2:
Two bodies start from opposite ends P & Q at the same time and move towards each other with
speeds S(1) & S(2). After meeting each other, they take times of T(1) & T(2) to reach their
destinations.
In such a case, the relationship between the times taken and the speeds will be
Also, the time taken for the two bodies to meet will be
Let us assume that the two bodies meet at a point R, after time T.
For the first body, PR = S(1)T and RQ = S(1)T(1)
For the second body, QR = S(2)T and RP = S(2)T(2)
We know that PR = RP
S(1)T = S(2)T(2)
We know the QR = RQ
S(2)T = S(1)T(1)
Dividing the above two equations, we will get
Case 3:
Two bodies start from opposite ends P & Q to reach their destinations at the same time and move
towards each other with speeds S(1) & S(2). Before meeting, they take times of T(1) & T(2) to reach
the meeting point.
In such a case, the relationship between the times taken and the speeds will be
Also, the time taken for the two bodies to meet will be
The logic for this would be exactly the same as Case 2. Try working this out on your own.
Case 4:
Two bodies start from opposite ends P & Q at the same time and move towards each other with
speeds S(1) & S(2). They reach the opposite ends and reverse directions. They continue this to and fro
motion.
If the distance between the two bodies in the beginning is D, then
Time taken by them to meet for the first time, T = D / S(1) + S(2)
If R is the first meeting point, PR / QR = S(1) / S(2)
The idea that I am going to discuss now is only valid in the case when the greater speed is less than
twice of the lesser speed. {If S(1) > S(2), then S(1) < 2S(2)}
After the first meeting, if the bodies continue to move they will reach their respective ends and start
the return journey. They will meet again on the return journey and then proceed further. After the
first meeting, they would have covered 2D distance. Since the distance has doubled, time taken will
also double. So, the total distance covered by the bodies for their first, second, third nth meetings
will be:
D, 3D, 5D and (2n-1)D
So, the total times taken by the bodies for their first, second, third nth meetings will be:
D / S(1) + S(2), 3 D / S(1) + S(2), 5 D / S(1) + S(2) and (2n-1) D / S(1) + S(2)
In case you need to figure out the point at which the bodies meet for the nth time, consider only one
of the bodies, say 1.
Distance covered by 1 till the nth meeting = [S(1)/S(2)]*(2n-1)D . The remainder of the above when
divided by 2D will give you the exact location of the nth meeting point.
For example, if the distance covered by 1 till the nth meeting comes out as 700 meters and D = 150
meters, the nth meeting point can be obtained by the remainder of 700/300 which is 100. So, the
nth meeting point will be 100 m from P.
I know you would hate me for saying this, but this is not the end of TSD. This is not even the end of
motion of two bodies in a straight line. The destination is still far away and hopefully we will reach
there in time.
a) Problems on angles
b) Problems on incorrect clocks
Problems on angles
Before we actually start solving problems on angles, we need to get couple of basic facts clear:
Speed of the hour hand = 0.5 degrees per minute (dpm) {The hour hand completes a
full circle or 360 degrees in 12 hours or 720 minutes}
Speed of the minute hand = 6 dpm {The minute hand completes a full circle in 60
minutes}
At n o clock, the angle of the hour hand from the vertical is 30n
Example 1: What is the angle between the hands of the clock at 7:20
At 7 o clock, the hour hand is at 210 degrees from the vertical.
In 20 minutes,
Hour hand = 210 + 20*(0.5) = 210 + 10 = 220 {The hour hand moves at 0.5 dpm}
Minute hand = 20*(6) = 120
Example 2: At what time do the hands of the clock meet between 7:00 and 8:00
Ans: At 7 o clock, the hour hand is at 210 degrees from the vertical.
In t minutes
Example 3: At what time do the hands of a clock between 7:00 and 8:00 form 90 degrees?
Ans: At 7 o clock, the hour hand is at 210 degrees from the vertical.
In t minutes
Hour hand = 210 + 0.5t
Minute hand = 6t
The difference between them should be 90 degrees. Please note that it can be both before the
meeting or after the meeting. You will get two answers in this case, one when hour hand is ahead
and the other one when the minute hand is ahead.
Case 1: 210 + 0.5t 6t = 90
5.5t = 120
t = 240/11 = 21 minutes 9/11th of a minute
Case 2: 6t (210 + 0.5t) = 90
5.5t = 300
t = 600/11 = 54 minutes 6/11th of a minute
So, the hands of the clock are at 90 degrees at the following timings:
7 : 21 : 9/11 th and 7 : 54 : 6/11th
Example 4: A watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes and was set right at 8 AM. What time will it show at
10 PM on the same day?
Ans: The watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes => 100 seconds in 1 hour.
From 8 AM to 10 PM on the same day, time passed is 14 hours.
In 14 hours, the watch would have gained 1400 seconds or 23 minutes 20 seconds.
So, when the correct time is 10 PM, the watch would show 10 : 23 : 20 PM
Example 5: A watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes and was set right at 8 AM. If it shows 5:15 in the
afternoon on the same day, what is the correct time?
Ans: The watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes => 1 minute in 36 minutes
From 8 AM to 5:15, the incorrect watch has moved 9 hours and 15 minutes = 555 minutes.
When the incorrect watch moves for 37 minutes, correct watch moves for 36 minutes.
When the incorrect watch moves for 1 minute, correct watch moves for 36/37
minutes
When the incorrect watch moves for 555 minutes, correct watch moves for
(36/37)*555 = 36*15 minutes = 9 hours
9 hours from 8 AM is 5 PM.
The correct time is 5 PM.
I am sure you would have heard the proverb that even a broken clock is right twice a day. However,
a clock which gains or loses a few minutes might not be right twice a day or even once a day. It
would be right when it had gained / lost exactly 12 hours.
Example 6: A watch loses 5 minutes every hour and was set right at 8 AM on a Monday. When will it
show the correct time again?
Ans: For the watch to show the correct time again, it should lose 12 hours.
It loses 5 minutes in 1 hour
Percentage as Fractions:
One of the most useful tips, when it comes to percentage, is the use of fractions in calculating them.
Given below is a table which can help you get started. There is no better way to remember these
values than to start using them in your daily calculations.
Fraction
%age
Fraction
%age
1/2
50%
1/9
11.11%
1/3
33.33%
1/10
10%
1/4
25%
1/11
9.09%
1/5
20%
1/12
8.33%
1/6
16.66%
1/13
7.69%
1/7
14.28%
1/14
7.14%
1/8
12.5%
1/15
6.66%
b) 136
c) 136.28
d)136.43
As you can see here the option are really close and you might think that you would have to calculate
the actual value. But if you are well versed with the table given above you can save some effort and
time in doing so. These seconds you save might be vital in the exam.
To calculate 28.5%, I urge you to have a closer look at 1/7.
1/7 represents 14.28%, so 2/7 would represent 28.56% which is freakishly close to the percentage
that we are looking for.
Also, calculating 2/7 of 476 is not that difficult as 476/7 is divisible by 7 and it is 68. So, 2/7 of 476
will be 136.
Now, we know that 2/7 is 28.56% and we also know that that it is 136.
Our answer will be little less than 136 as we are trying to find out 28.5% which is a little less than
28.56%. So, our answer would be 135.66. Option A
Percentage Change:
To find out the percentage change, you can use the formula
% change =
A lot of people make a mistakes in calculating values related to the given formula because they do
not calculate % change based upon the initial value.
Example: My current salary is Rs. 1000 a day, which is 25% higher than what it was last year. What
was my salary last year?
If you think that the answer to the above question is Rs. 750 per day then you are making the same
mistake that lot of students make. The raise that I got (25%) was not on my current salary but the
initial value, which was my salary previous year.
To calculate it correctly, let us assume my last years salary to be x Rs. per day.
The simplest way to change a number by a given percent is to simply multiply it by the final
percentage.
That is, to increase a number by x%, simply multiply it by (100 + x)% or
, and to decrease it by
Example: A piece of paper is in the shape of a right angled triangle and is cut along a line that is
parallel to the hypotenuse, leaving a smaller triangle. There was a 35% reduction in the length of the
hypotenuse of the triangle. If the area of the original triangle was 34 square inches before the cut,
what is the area (in square inches) of the smaller triangle?
a.16.665
b. 16.565
c. 15.465
d. 14.365
If the hypotenuse reduced by 35%, it became 100 35 = 65% of the original or in other words it
became 0.65 times the original. The other two sides also become 0.65 times the original. Area will
become (0.65)^2 = 0.4225 times the original.
New area = 0.4225*34 = 14.365. Option D
I hope that you liked this introductory article on Percentage. In part 2, I will cover two important
concepts:
Percentage as Fractions
Percentage Change
Changing Quantities by Percents
I would like to discuss couple more ideas in this post. Let us begin.
I am sure you would have seen retail stores with offers like 50% + 40% off. If my memory serves me
right, these type of offers were made extremely popular by Koutons. I always thought of it as a 90%
off offer but clearly I was wrong. I guess some of you might have made the same mistake as well. A
50% + 40% off does not mean a 90% off. It actually means that you will be given a discount of 50%
first and then on the reduced price you will given another 40% discount. Let us calculate to figure
out how much this actually means.
Let us assume that the T-shirt you are trying to buy costs 100 Rs. A 50% discount would bring down
the price of the T-shirt to 50 Rs. Another 40% discount on the reduced price of 50 Rs. would further
bring down the price by 20 Rs., which is 40% of 50, to 30Rs. So, the price has effectively gone down
from 100 Rs. to 30 Rs. which means that the effective discount has been 70% and not 90%.
Let me ask you another question. Try to answer it in your head before you actually scroll down and
check the answer.
Example 1: Shop A is selling a T-shirt at a discount of 50% + 40% on the MRP whereas shop B is
selling the same T-shirt at a discount of 40% + 50%. You should buy the T-shirt from Shop A or Shop
B?
Now, there might be a few things going on in your head like A is better because it is offering higher
percentage first or B is better because it is offering higher percentage later or this cannot be
determined until and unless we know the MRP of the T-shirt. Well, stop your internal monologue.
The answer is that it would not make a difference whether you buy it from Shop A or from Shop B.
Dont believe me do the math.
In case you are wondering as to why it is the same in both cases, it is because percentages are
multiplicative in nature and p*q is always the same as q*p.
For future reference, you can use the formula for effective % change in case of successive % changes
of a% and b% is
Note: Please keep in mind the +/- sign while using the formula.
If you put a = 50% and b = 40% (from the above example), you would get 110% which would be the
incorrect answer. You should use -50% and -40% to get the correct answer of -70%. You will have to
use ive values for the above example because the % changes considered are discounts.
Example 2: A companys revenue grew by 10% and 20% in the 2009 and 2010 but fell by 25% in
2011. What was the net % change?
Use the formula for the first two years = 10 + 20 + 10*20/100 = 32
Combine this with the last year = 32 25 + (32)(-25)/100 = 7 8 = -1%
b) Ravi got a salary hike of 10%. The new boss thought this shouldnt have happened because
Ravi doesnt deserve it, so he slashes Ravis salary by 10%. Is Ravi back to the original? If no,
then by what % should Ravis boss deduct his salary.
Now there are couple of ways of doing these questions. One is using the concepts of fractions,
proportionality, etc. The other one is by using the formula. Let us discuss both of them
a)
b) A hike of 10% and then a reduction of 10% wont be fair as Ravi would end up getting less than
the original. Using the successive % change formula {10 10 + 10*(-10)/100 = -1}, we can say
that he would end up getting 1% lesser than the original. To get the correct deduction value:
Ravis salary was hiked by 10%
I hope you found this post useful and it would help you get a higher percentage and percentile in
your exam.
Geometry
Geometry Fundas-1
I got a lot of feedback via comments on my previous posts that people are looking for a post on
Geometry. I have been avoiding it for sometime because of two main reasons:
a) It is not one of my strong areas.
b) It takes a lot of time to draw the diagrams that are sometimes required to explain the
fundas.
With Diwali and CAT approaching I realized that I could not procrastinate anymore because
Geometry, as you would agree, is a very important part of CAT-prep. I have compiled a list of fundas
that you might find helpful in solving CAT level questions. I am splitting those in two posts so that
one post does not become too long / intimidating. In this post, we will discuss Geometry fundas
related to lines, triangles, parallelograms, trapeziums, polygons, etc.
You might find some of them very simple or ideas that are obvious to you. If that is the case, be glad
that your prep is up to the mark. If not, then be glad you got them in time. (Yes I am inspired by
two-face )
Funda 1:
The ratio of intercepts formed by a transversal intersecting three parallel lines is equal to the ratio of
corresponding intercepts formed by any other transversal.
Funda 2:
Centroid and Incenter will always lie inside the triangle. About the other points:
-
For an acute angled triangle, the Circumcenter and the Orthocenter will lie inside the
triangle.
For an obtuse angled triangle, the Circumcenter and the Orthocenter will lie outside the
triangle.
For a right-angled triangle, the Circumcenter will lie at the midpoint of the hypotenuse and
the Orthocenter will lie at the vertex at which the angle is 90.
Funda 3:
The orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter always lie on the same line known as Euler Line.
-
The orthocenter is twice as far from the centroid as the circumcenter is.
If the triangle is Isosceles then the incenter lies on the same line.
If the triangle is equilateral, all four are the same point.
Funda 4:
Appolonius Theorem {AD is the median}
Area =
Funda 6:
Funda 8:
Trapeziums
Sum of the squares of the length of the diagonals = Sum of squares of lateral sides + 2
Product of bases.
AC2 + BD2 = AD2 + BC2 + 2 x AB x CD
If a trapezium is inscribed in a circle, it has to be an isosceles trapezium.
If a circle can be inscribed in a trapezium, Sum of parallel sides = Sum of lateral sides.
Funda 9:
I will wrap up this post here. In my next and final post on Geometry we will discuss fundas related to
circles (specifically common tangents), solid figures, mensuration and co-ordinate geometry.
Geometry Fundas-2
This is my second post on PG with respect to Geometry Fundas. We discussed lines, triangles,
parallelograms, trapeziums, polygons, etc. in my previous post. <please hyperlink>
Let us look at few of the fundas / formulae in Geometry that are often neglected by students and
can fetch some crucial marks in the exam.
Two Circles
No. of Common
Tangents
< r1 - r2
Touch internally
= r1 - r2
Intersect
r1 - r2 < d < r1 + r2
Touch externally
= r1 + r2
> r1 + r2
Funda 3: Solids
If a sphere is inscribed in a cube of side a, the radius of the sphere will be a/2. If a sphere is
circumscribed about a cube of side a, the radius of the sphere will be
a /2.
If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cylinder of radius a and hei ght h, its radius r will
be
o r = h/2
{If 2a > h}
o r=a
{If 2a < h}
If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cone of radius r and slant height equal to 2r, then
the radius of sphere = r/
If a cube is inscribed in a hemisphere of radius r, then the edge of the cube = r
With this I will like to wrap up this post on Geometry. Best of Luck to all of you for CAT! But
remember:
Sitaron ke aage jahan aur bhi hain;
Abhi ishq ke imtihan aur bhi hain!
MODERN MATHS
Permutations&Combination-Fundamental principles
of counting
For this series of articles, I am assuming CAT 2013 would be the first time you would be attempting
CAT, which essentially implies that you are not well versed with the basic ideas behind the
Quantitative Aptitude portion. In the latter half of the year, I would move to slightly more advanced
topics as by then, you would also have moved to the advanced stage of preparation.
I have often seen students struggle with the topic Permutation & Combination. As a matter of
fact, I have even seen some faculties shy away from conducting those classes. This fear, for the lack
of a better word, stems from the fact that the options are often very confusing. Even if you make a
mistake, miss out a case, take a wrong factorial the answer you obtain is invariably in the options.
One of the most basic tips that I would like to give you is this if you are not able to solve the
question, look at the answer and then try to figure out the logic behind the answer.
I think one of the main reasons behind lot of students making mistakes in questions based on
Permutation & Combination is the fact that they start the chapter with the two formulas which are
given below:
It is wrong to start off with these formulas. It is very important to understand the logic behind these
formulas. And that is precisely what I wish to achieve with the help of this post by talking about
Fundamental Principles of Counting.
decision. The formula of m x n ways is valid if and only if the decisions are independent of each
other.
In case the decisions are not independent, then you would have to take care of the restrictions
which are applicable.
Rule of Sum: If there are m ways to do something and there are n ways to do another and we
cannot do both at the same time, then there are m +n ways to choose one of the actions.
To elaborate this with an example, assume that you have 5 Formal Shoes and 3 Cowboy Boots. The
total number of ways in which you can decide your footwear is 5 + 3 = 8.
In case you are wondering Why is it 8?, the logic is pretty simple. You can either wear Formal Shoes
or Cowboy Boots but not both. The choices are illustrated below.
Choices of footwear: FS1, FS2, FS3, FS4, FS5, CB1, CB2 and CB3
A slightly more complicated example on the same would go something like this.
Question 1: You have 4 T-shirts, 2 Jeans, 6 Sarees, 5 Formal Shoes and 3 Cowboy boots. In how many
ways can you decide what to wear?
I hope the logic behind the answer would be clear to you by now.
Continuing with the same idea, try to answer this question.
Question 2: You have 50 students in a class and you have to select three out those for the posts of
President, Vice-President and General Secretary. In how many ways can you do that?
The President can be any one of the 50 students. Suppose you choose X.
The Vice-President can be any of the remaining 49 students (Not X). Suppose you choose Y.
The General Secretary can be any of the remaining 48 students (Not X or Y).
So, the total number of ways in which you can decide the students for the positions are = 50 x 49 x
48.
Question 3: In how many ways can you select and arrange r items out of n distinct items?
Does the above formula look familiar? If not, just scroll up and see what n P r is.
Question 5: In how many ways can you select r items out of n distinct items?
From Question 3, I know that the number of ways of selecting and arranging is n P r.
The above equation not only gives us the formula for n C r, but it also gives us a very important
relationship n P r = n C r x r!
I hope with the help of this post, the logic behind n P r and n C r would have become clear to you
and you would not make a mistake in the same area ever again.
Funda 1: De-arrangement
If n distinct items are arranged in a row, then the number of ways they can be rearranged such that
none of them occupies its original position is:
Eg1.1: A person has eight letters and eight addressed envelopes corresponding to those letters. In
how many ways can he put the letters in the envelopes such that exactly 5 of them get delivered
correctly?
Solution: At first, select the five letters that get delivered correctly. That can be done in 8C5 ways.
Now, the other three must get delivered to the wrong address. That can be done in Dearr(3) = 2
ways.
So, total ways is 2 x 8C5 = 2 x 56 = 112 ways.
Funda 2: Partitioning
n identical items in r
distinct groups
n distinct objects in r
distinct groups
n +r-1
No restrictions:
Cr-1
n-1
No group empty:
Cr-1
No restrictions:
rn
Arrangement in a group is important:
Note: Other than standard distribution / partitioning problems, these ideas can be used to solve
questions in which number of solutions are asked.
Eg 2.1: How many solutions are there to the equation a + b + c = 100; given that
a) a, b and c are whole numbers.
b) a, b and c are natural numbers.
Solution:
Case a) is identical to a case in which 100 identical chocolates are being distributed in three kids a, b
and c. It is possible that one kid gets all the chocolates. In this case, we will use the formula for
distributing n identical items in r distinct groups where n = 100 and r = 3.
So, it can be done in 102 C2 ways.
Case b) is identical to a case in which 100 identical chocolates are being distributed in three kids a, b
and c. Every kid must get at least one chocolate. In this case, we will use the formula for distributing
n identical items in r distinct groups where no group is empty and n = 100 and r = 3.
So, it can be done in 99 C2 ways.
Ring 5 can go in any of the four fingers but it will now have 8 choices.
So, the total number of way of distribution of rings is = 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 =
This is essentially how the formula
is derived.
Funda 3:
Number of ways of arranging n items, out of which p are alike, q are alike and r are alike given
that p + q + r = n
Number of ways of distributing n distinct items, in groups of size p, q and r given that p + q + r =
n
I hope that this would help you solve problems in the exam. May be the chocolate you end up
getting is a Bournville. May be you would have earned it.
The concepts of Set Theory are applicable not only in Quant / DI / LR but they can be used to solve
syllogism questions as well. Let us first understand the basics of the Venn Diagram before we move
on to the concept of maximum and minimum. A large number of students get confused in this so I
have listed out each area separately.
A venn diagram is used to visually represent the relationship between various sets.
What do each of the areas in the figure represent?
I only A;
II A and B but not C;
III Only B;
IV A and C but not B;
V A and B and C;
VI B and C but not A;
VII Only C
n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) n(A B) n(A C) - n(B C) + n(A B C)
As per the above diagram,
n(A) = I + II + IV + V
n(B) = II + III + V + VI
n(C) = IV + V + VI + VII
n(A B) = II + V
n(B C) = V + VI
n(C A) = IV + V
n(A B C) = V
n(A B C) = I + II + III + IV + V + VI + VII
Note: While doing such questions, it is advisable that you take the least no. of variables to fill up the
empty space. As a practice if n(A B C) is missing, take that as x and proceed.
For Maximum and Minimum of values, the key point to note is:
If you allot the a value to the intersection, it will get added to all the indivudal sets but will bring
down the total.
Example: In a survey it was found that 80% like tea whereas 70% like coffee. What is the maximum
and minimum number of those who like both?
Ans: First thing to note is that no information is mentioned about the people who dont like either of
them. So that value is flexible and can change.
n(tea) = 80
n(coffee) = 70
n(total) = 100 {This includes those who like neither.}
n(tea U coffee) = ??? {We dont know this value and it is flexible}
If we want to maximize those who like both, we have to maximize the value in the intersection. So,
we have to minimize the value of the union.
n(tea
In this case, our venn diagram will look something like this (Red is tea & Purple is coffee):
If we want to minimize those who like both, we have to minimize the value in the intersection. So,
we have to maximize the value of the union. We know that the maximum possible value of the
union ie n(tea U coffee) = 100
So, we need to figure out the surplus : n(tea) + n(coffee) = 80 + 70 = 150.
The surplus is = 150 100 = 50
So, the value of the intersection = value of the surplus = 50
This could have also been obtained by the formula
n(a U b) = n(a) + n(b) n (a
b)
In this case, our venn diagram will look something like this (Red is tea & Purple is coffee):
In this case, there is no one who likes neither coffee nor tea.
Let us look at a slightly more complicated problem when we have to deal with three sets and the
value of union of the sets is fixed.
Example: In a survey it was found that 40 % like tea, 50 % like coffee and 60 % like milk. Every
person likes at least one of the three items tea / coffee / milk. What are the maximum and
minimum possible values of those who like all three?
Solution: Currently our Venn Diagram looks like this:
milk) = 25
Note: If the union of the sets was not fixed i.e. the line Every person likes at least one of the three
items tea / coffee / milk was not given in the question then the answer would have been .
Our venn diagram will now look like this:
If we want to minimize those who like all three, we need to minimize the intersection of all three.
But we have to take care of the surplus of 50. We can do that adding them to the intersection of any
two of them. Adding 1 to the intersection of two sets, takes care of a surplus of 1. So,
n (tea coffee
milk) min = 0
We can take care of the surplus 50 in many ways by adding them in any order to the intersection of
two sets. Three of those many ways are given below in Venn Diagrams.
I hope that this will help you in solving problems related to Set Theory
CAT 2012 had a little surprise for some of the students in the form of a question based on four sets.
As far as I can remember, questions from set theory in CAT have always been based on two or three
sets and CAT 2012 was the first time a question based on four sets was asked. As a concept, this had
been neglected by many coaching institutes as it had never been asked and can be time consuming
to solve in the exam.
Let us first try and understand what a Venn Diagram for four sets would look like. If there are 4
sets (A, B, C & D), then our Venn Diagram will need 15 separate sections. Every object can either be
in a particular set or not. This would give us a total of 2222 = 16 choices. 1 of these choices would
be when the object will not be any of the sets. Hence, the Venn Diagram will need 16 1 = 15
separate sections.
Couple of representations that I could find on Googling Venn Diagram 4 sets is given below:
Both of them are valid, but that does not mean that you can use them. May be you could, but it
would be extremely difficult to draw and manage these.
Given below is the one that I have been using for solving questions based on four sets and I do not
even remember where I first picked this up. It also indicates the 15 regions separately which need to
be covered in a Venn Diagram of four sets. Over and above that, it is really easy to draw which is a
big plus for someone like me who once in class 6th tried to draw a deer for an assignment to draw an
animal and got pass marks because the teacher thought it was a buffalo. #TrueStory
I think it can be best understood if we solve couple of questions based upon it.
Example: In a college library, four different business newspapers - Economic times, Business
standard, Business Line and Financial Express - are available. All students visit the library regularly
but 20% of them do not read any business newspaper. The four newspapers given in the abo ve
order are read by 230,180,180 and 220 students respectively. The number of students reading
exactly 2 newspapers for any two newspapers is 20. There are 30 students who read all the four
news papers but there is nobody who reads exactly three out of four newspapers.
Questions based upon the above information are given below.
Let us first draw the Venn Diagram with the information that is given to us. It will look something
like what I have drawn below:
We should now try to fill the missing areas such as people reading only one newspapers.
People reading only Economic Times: 230 (20+20+20+30) = 230 90 = 140
People reading only Business Standard: 180 (20+20+20+30) = 180 90 = 90
People reading only Business Line: 180 (20+20+20+30) = 180 90 = 90
People reading only Financial Express: 220 (20+20+20+30) = 220 90 = 130
If we put the above information in the Venn Diagram, it should look something
like this:
2) What percentage of the people reading Business Standard also read at least one other
newspaper?
Answer: Out of the 180 students who read Business Standard, 90 read only Business Standard. This
means that the other 90 students also read at least one other newspaper.
Required percentage = (90/180) 100 = 50%
3) If all the students in the college including those who do not read any newspaper read at least one
newspaper, (Out of the four newspapers above) which he is not reading at present, then what is the
least number of students reading all the four newspapers?
Answer: If the above mentioned condition happens, all those who are reading no newspaper will
start reading one; all those who are reading one newspaper will start reading two; all those who are
reading two newspapers will start reading three and all those who are reading three newspapers will
start reading all four. The ones who were reading all four newspapers earlier will continue to read all
four.
Least number of students reading all four = No. of students reading three newspapers earlier + No.
of students four newspapers earlier = 0 + 30 = 30.
I hope after reading this you will be better placed than the students who were surprised when they
saw four set related question in CAT 2012.
I have also started a thread on Pagalguy Forums, which contains a list of all my articles till date. The
articles are sorted topic-wise and you can suggest topics for future posts on that thread.
Problems based on grids / chessboards have been asked in CAT and other MBA entrance exams over
the years. They seem really difficult when you encounter them for the first time but once you get the
hang of things they become really simple. The key lies in understanding the basic concepts involved.
The most common grid structure that we are all familiar with is the chessboard. Let us look at some
of the common questions based upon grid.
Q3. In how many ways can you place 2 rooks on a chessboard such that they are not in attacking
positions?
The first rook can be placed in 64 ways
The second rook cannot be placed in the same row or the same column. So, it has 7 rows and 7
columns left for it. It can be placed in 49 ways.
But the order in which the rooks are placed is not important. So, it will be divided by 2!
Total ways = 64*49/2 = 1568
Q4. In how many ways can you place 8 rooks on a chessboard such that they are not in attacking
positions?
Q5. In how many ways is it possible to choose a white square and a black square on a chess board so
that the squares must not lie in the same row or column? [CAT 2002]
The white square can be chosen in 32 ways.
If we remove the row and the column which contains the chosen white square, we will be left with 7
Rows & 7 Columns containings a total of 49 squares (24 black and 25 white). We would have
removed 15 squares (7 white and 8 black)
Required ways = 32*24 = 768
A to P can be done in 4C2 = 6 ways (Select 2 right moves from a total of 4 moves)
P to Q is only one way (The path through the red rectangle)
Q to B can be done in 3C1 = 3 ways (Select 1 right move from a total of 3 moves)
Total ways = 6 x 1 x 3 = 18 ways
Total ways (if the red rectangle was not there) = 10C4 = 210
PQ is the road which has been removed. It would make all the routes which included the road PQ as
invalid.
So, all routes consisting of APQB will be invalid
A to P = 5C3 = 10
P to Q = 1
Q to B = 4C3 = 4
Invalid ways = 10 x 1 x 4 = 40
Total valid ways = 210 40 = 170 ways
[CAT 2008] The figure below shows the plan of a town. The streets are at right angles to each other.
A rectangular park (P) is situated inside the town with a diagonal road running through it. There is
also a prohibited region (D) in the town.
Q9. Neelam rides her bicycle from her house at A to her office at B, taking the shortest path. Then
the number of possible shortest paths that she can choose is
Q10. Neelam rides her bicycle from her house at A to her club at C, via B taking the shortest path.
Then the number of possible shortest paths that she can choose is
I hope you enjoyed this post and if you get a grid based question in CAT, you will be able to crack it.
Probability has always been a fascinating topic to teach. The pleasure that I get out of correcting silly
mistakes, which are plenty in questions based on probability can be considered sadistic by some or a
truly noble thing to do by others. I hope the percentage of the latter would be higher but I think the
percentage of the former is higher. Let me try to redeem the reputation a little bit by talking about
the basics of the topic, which most of the readers here might know but would be really important bit
for those who dont.
Funda #1
P(A) =
Probability of an event is defined by the above formula. Now where people make mistakes is in the
understanding of the word outcome. The outcomes, which are considered for probability, have to
be equally likely in nature. They cannot be any random outcomes of your choice. If you think this is
obvious then let me give you an exercise:
What is the probability of getting a 4 on the throw of a regular dice?
Many of you would say the answer is 1/6 because there are six possible outcomes getting a 1 or a
2 or a 3 or a 4 or a 5 or a 6; and out of these six possible outcomes one is favorable. If that is what
you are thinking you are right.
What do you think is wrong in my explanation if I say that the answer is because there are two
possible outcomes getting a 4 and not getting a 4; and out of these two possible outcomes one
is favorable. What is wrong in this? I am covering all possible outcomes. The wrong part is that the
outcomes are not equally likely.
In probability, the outcomes which are considered or counted have to be equally likely outcomes.
Funda #2
Exhaustive events are those which will cover all the possible outcomes. For example, in the throw of
a dice getting a 1, getting a prime and getting a composite are exhaustive events because if you
consider all of them together they cover all the possible outcomes {1; Primes 2,3,5; Composites
4,6}
For Exhaustive Events: P(A) + P(B) +P(C) = 1
Mutually Exclusive events are those which will have nothing in common between them. For
example, in a race A winning the race and B winning the race are mutually exclusive events. It is
possible that someone other than A or B might win the race but it is not possible that both of them
will the race.
For Mutually Exclusive Events: P(A B) = 0
Complementary events are a sub-type of exhaustive events, which have nothing in common
between them and there is no other event possible. For example, in a coin toss getting a head or
getting a tail are complementary events. For example, in case of sex of students in a class boys or
girls are complementary events. For example, in case of shooting a target hitting or missing are
complementary events.
For Complementary Events: P(A) + P(A) = 1 & P(A A) = 0
All Complementary Events are Exhaustive & Mutually Exclusive events.
Funda #3
Addition Rule:
P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A
B)
Multiplication Rule:
P(A
P(A B) = P(A).P(B)
P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A).P(B)
Funda #4
The questions of the type when the same person tries to do something multiple times are pretty
common in tests. A good example would be when you are trying to bomb a bridge in how many
attempts the probability of the bridge getting blown would go above 80%. Or if you are an archer
trying to hit a target, what is the probability that you will hit the target 4 times out of 7. These type
of questions are primarily based on complementary events, so if the probability of one event is p;
then the probability of the other event will be 1 p
If the probability of an event occurring is P, then the probability of that event occurring r times in
n trials is = nCr x Pr x (1-P)n-r
Funda #5
In cricket and more so in football, you might have seen the betting odds displayed on the top right /
left of the sports page. Those odds are just a way of representing the probability of a particular team
winning or losing. If the odds in favor of India in an India Vs. Australia match are 4:5; then the
probability of India winning the match is not 4/5 but 4/9. Odds do not represent favorable and total
outcomes but they give a ratio of the favorable and unfavorable outcomes.
Odds in favor =
Odds against =
I think this should suffice for an introduction to probability. I hope you liked this post and do provide
feedback and / or ideas for future posts via the comment section.
Logical Reasoning
Type 1:
Cube problems: A cube is given with an edge of unit N. It is painted on all faces. It is cut into
smaller cubes of edge of unit n. How many cubes will have x faces painted?
In these types of questions, the first thing that we need to figure out is the number of smaller cubes.
For this, we look at one particular edge of the big cube and figure out how many smaller cubes can
fit into this. It will be N/n. So, the number of smaller cubes will
A cube has 6 faces and none of the smaller cubes will have all faces painted. As a matter of fact,
none of the smaller cubes will have even 5 or 4 faces painted. The maximum number of faces, which
will be painted on a smaller cube, will be 3. This will happen only in the case of the smaller cubes
that emerge from the corners of the big cube.
So, number of smaller cubes with 3 faces painted = 8 (Always)
For 2 faces to be painted, we will have to consider the smaller cubes that emerge from the edges of
the big cube (leaving out the corners). So, the smaller cubes on every edge will be
. There are 12
edges in a cube.
So, number of smaller cubes with 2 faces painted =
For 1 face to be painted, we will have to consider the smaller cubes that emerge from the face of the
big cube (leaving out the corners and the edges). So, the smaller cubes on every face will be
. There are 6 faces in a cube.
So, number of smaller cubes with 1 face painted =
For no face to be painted, we will have to consider the smaller cubes that emerge from the inside of
the big cube (leaving out the outer surface which was painted). Imagine this as taking a knife and
cutting a slice of width n from every face of the cube. You will be left with a smaller cube with an
edge of N-2n. Number of smaller cubes that you can make from the resulting cube is
Type 2:
Matchstick Game: You are playing a matchstick game with Mr. Bond. There are n matchsticks on a
table. On a players turn, he can pick any number of matchsticks upto p (p is typically quite smaller
than n). Whosoever picks the last matchstick loses the game. It is your turn first. How many
matchsticks should you pick (assuming that you are smart and will play to win) that you will always
win?
First remove 1 matchstick from consideration, as that would be the matchstick that Mr. Bond will
pick and lose the game.
Find out Remainder
You should pick q matchsticks in the first turn.
After that if Mr. Bond picks r sticks, you should pick p+1-r sticks and you will win the game.
Once again, let us take an example.
Eg 2: There are 105 matchsticks on a table and a player can pick any number of matchsticks from 1
to 10. The person who picks the last matchstick loses the game. You are playing the game against
Mr. Bond and it is your turn first. How many matchsticks should you pick in the first turn such that
you always win the game?
Solution: You should pick Remainder
Let us look at few scenarios, in which you have picked 5 sticks and there are 100 sticks left on t he
table. It is Mr. Bonds turn now.
Round ID
Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Round 5
Round 6
Round 7
Round 8
Round 9
Sticks Left
100 5 = 95
89 8 = 81
78 7 = 71
67 4 = 63
56 10 = 46
45 8 = 37
34 1 = 33
23 2 =21
12 9 = 3
You Pick
10 + 1 5 = 6
10 + 1 8 = 3
10 + 1 7 = 4
10 + 1 4 = 7
10 + 1 10 = 1
10 + 1 8 = 3
10 + 1 1 = 10
10 + 1 2 = 9
10 + 1 9 = 2
Sticks Left
95 6 = 89
81 3 = 78
71 4 = 67
63 7 = 56
46 1 = 45
37 3 = 34
33 10 = 23
21 9 = 12
3 2= 1
As only 1 stick is left, Mr. Bond will have to pick it and lose the game. I recommend, that you try out
such scenarios with a friend. Nothing validates a concept more than a real -life implementation,
especially if it is on a bet.
For those who are still wondering what did just happen (as I did when I first read this concept), I
suggest you pick up Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy and read about how God vanished in a puff of
logic.
Type 1: The questions are typically in a set where the data will be either in the standard tabular
format or a format which you would never find on Cricinfo or for that matter any other ESPN
website. The different for the sake of being different format essentially tests a CAT takers ability to
infer data in newer formats.
Runs by Kaif
Runs by Rahul
Runs by Saurav
Runs by Virender
Runs by Yuvraj
Runs by Top 3
Top 3 as a %age of total
Total runs
Pakistan
28
South Africa
51
49
75
130
40
90%
Australia
55
50
87
70%
80%
As you can see, the triangular format is no different from providing the same information to the
student in a table. It is just a little more intimidating in a pressure situation and that intimidation is
exactly what you should avoid. With some very simple addition and calculation you will be solve this
problem set.
Bottom line: Even if it takes a couple of minutes, it is best to represent information in a format that
you are comfortable with.
Type 2: For some reason, Tennis appears to be a favorite among exam setters. Actually Tennis does
offer some very interesting possibilities such as seeds, an unconventional scoring and the knockout
feature. Knockouts are inherent in the sport of Tennis and hence used frequently by exam setters.
Note: In a knockout tournament,
No. of matches = No. of players 1
Let us look at few ideas related to questions on seeded players. Lets say in a tournament there are
n players and they are seeded (ranked) from 1 to n. Typically this n is a power of 2 like 32 or 64 or
128.
In the first round the highest seeded player plays the lowest seeded player, the second highest
seeded player plays the second lowest seeded player and so on. To put it into perspective:
Round 1 Match 1 Seed 1 Vs Seed n
Round 1 Match 2 Seed 2 Vs Seed (n-1)
Round 1 Match 3 Seed 3 Vs Seed (n-2)
.
.
Course Details: http://bit.ly/handaCAT13
In the second round, winner of Match 1 plays winner of Match n/2; winner of Match 2 plays winner
of Match n/2 1 and so on.
In this kind of questions, an upset comes into the picture which essentially means that a lower
seeded plays beat a higher seeded player.
The questions are typically of the format:
Ques: Who will play match 36 in Round 1?
Ans: It will be played between the 36th highest seed and the 36th lowest seed.
The 36th lowest seed can be sometimes difficult to figure out but you can figure it out easily by
calculating (n+1) 36.
Note: The rth match in Round will be played between Seed r and Seed n+ -r
Ques: If there are no upsets, then in Round 2 who will play the 5th match?
Ans: One way of solving this question would be figuring out the winners of Round 1 and then figuring
out the 5th from the top and the bottom.
If there is no upset, then seed 5 will be there. The other player would be (n/2+1 5)
Note: If there are no upsets, then the rth match in the p th round will be played between
Seed r and Seed
Ques: Who will meet Seed 37 in the Quarterfinals of a tournament in which 64 players are taking
part? Other than Seed 37s matches, there were no other upsets.
We first need to analyze which round would be the quarterfinal:
Round 1 (32 matches), Round 2 (16 matches), Round 3 (8 matches pre-quarter), Round 4 (4
matches quarterfinals).
In Round 1, Seed 37 must have defeated 64 + 1 37 = 28
In Round 2, Seed 37 played the match that Seed 28 would have played. Seed 28 would have played
against Seed 32 + 1 28 = Seed 5
In Round 3(pre-quarters), Seed 37 played the match that Seed 5 would have played. Seed 5 would
have played against Seed 16 + 1 5 = Seed 12 and won it.
In Round 4 (quarterfinals), Seed 37 would meet the player that Seed 5 would have met. Seed 5
would have met 8+1-5 = 4.
Hence, Seed 37 will meet Seed 4 in the quarterfinals.
As a matter of fact, even the above solution is not the most optimal one. Because once you realize
that Seed 37 defeated Seed 5, he would keep meeting the opponents that Seed 5 would have met.
I think I have taken enough of your time with this lengthy post but this time would be well spent if
such a question appears in CAT or some other management entrance ex am.
In my previous post, we discussed about two of the popular types of questions when it comes to
games and tournament questions. So, if you are looking for questions on new types of data
representation or questions based on seeding in a tennis tournament, probably you should read
that. However, there is another popular type of questions with respect to Games & Tournaments
and that is Football / Hockey tournament questions in which we have to find out Goal s scores,
winners, ties, etc.
In such tournaments, all competitors play a fixed number of matches. Points are awarded for wins /
draws / losses. Then an overall ranking is decided by total points or average points per match.
Sometimes other factors such as goals scored / goals faced also come into the picture to resolves
ties in ranking.
Let us look at a question from CAT 2000. (Full set of questions here)
Question: Sixteen teams have been invited to participate in the ABC Gold Cup cricket tournament.
The tournament was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the teams are divided into two
groups. Each group consists of eight teams, with each team playing every other team in its group
exactly once. At the end of first stage, the top four teams from each group advance to the second
stage while the rest are eliminated. The second stage comprised several rounds. A round involves one
match for each team. The winner of a match in a round advances to the next round, while the loser is
eliminated. The team that remains undefeated in the second stage is declared the winner and claims
the Gold Cup.
The tournament rules such that each match results in a winner and a loser with no possibility of a tie.
In the first stage, a team earns one point for each win and no points for a loss. At the end of the first
stage, teams in each group are ranked on the basis of total points to determine the qualifiers
advancing to the next stage. Ties are resolved by a series of complex tie-breaking rules so that
exactly four teams form each group advanced to the next stage.
Now questions were asked on Total number of matches, minimum number of wins required for a
team to guarantee advance (or possible advance) to next stage, maximum number of matches that a
team can win in the first stage without advancing, etc.
In first stage, teams are divided into two groups of 8 teams each. There they play a match against
everyone exactly one ie 8C2 matches in every group. So 2*8C2 = 56 matches for the first stage.
In second stage, there are 8 teams in a knockout stage. There will be one winner, so 8 1 = 7
So, total number of matches is 56 + 7 = 63
For a team to advance to the second stage, it should be among the top 4 in its group. Total points on
stake in a group is the same as the total number of matches which is 8C2 = 28. To guarantee
advance, it can have 3 teams with the same or more points. There can be 5 teams with 5 wins or 5
points. So, 5 wins is not good enough to ensure a birth in round 2. However, 6 wins will guarantee
its advance. This also tells us that a team might have 5 wins but still not advance.
To figure out the minimum wins required to possibly advance, let us look at the method for n
teams.
n/2 1 teams should win maximum no. of matches.
n/2 + 1 teams should have exactly the same number of wins.
So in this question, the top 3 teams can have a maximum of 7 + 6 + 5 = 18 points.
All other teams (5) have a combined score of 28 18 = 10 points. Their individual score is 2 points
each and one of these five teams will advance to second stage.
So, minimum wins required to advance is 2.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Let us look at another type of question in which we are given a table and we have to fill it. Given
below is a random table at the end of hockey tournament. For each win two points were awarded
and for a draw one point was given. We also know that the South Africa Spain match was a draw.
No two teams have the exact same count for Win/Draw/Loss and Australia has won more matches
than Spain. Figure out the result of every match from the table given below:
Team Name
India
Pakistan
Australia
Spain
South Africa
Played
Won
Draw
Lost
0
Points
6
6
3
3
India did not lose, so it will have 2 wins and 2 draws whereas on the other hand Pakistan will have 3
wins
No. of matches played will be 5C2 = 10
The total no. of points at stake is 20. South Africa has the left-over points which is 2.
We also know that the South Africa Spain match was a draw.
So, now our table looks like this:
Team Name
India
Pakistan
Australia
Spain
South Africa
Played
4
4
4
4
4
Won
2
3
Draw
2
0
Lost
0
1
Min(1)
Min(1)
Points
6
6
3
3
2
Team Name
India
Pakistan
Australia
Spain
South Africa
Played
4
4
4
4
4
Won
2
3
Draw
2
0
Lost
0
1
Min(1)
2
2
Points
6
6
3
3
2
Team Name
India
Pakistan
Australia
Spain
South Africa
Played
4
4
4
4
4
Won
2
3
1
0
0
Draw
2
0
1
3
2
Lost
0
1
2
1
2
Points
6
6
3
3
2
Now, let us try and analyze the match results for the 10 matches (in no special order):
Pakistan has won 3 and lost 1. Pakistan cannot win against India as India did not lose a match. So,
Match 1 India beat Pakistan
Match 2 Pakistan beat Australia
Match 3 Pakistan beat Spain
Match 4 Pakistan beat South Africa
We also know the result of South Africa Vs Spain
Match 5 South Africa & Spain drew the match.
Spain has lost against Pakistan and it needs to draw all other matches.
Match 6 India & Spain drew the match
Match 7 Australia & Spain drew the match
Australia cannot draw another match as it has only 1 draw. It cannot win against India as India has
no losses. So, it must have lost against India and the win must have come against the remaining
team ie South Africa.
Match 8 India beat Australia
Match 9 Australia beat South Africa
The only match remaining between India & South Africa must have been a draw as India scored wins
against Pakistan and Australia.
Match 10 India & South Africa drew the match
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Phew!! I hope that you lasted this long without actually playing the game of Banging head against
the wall.
Data Interpretation
Data Sufficiency
Calculating Squares
Type 1: Numbers ending in 5
If we remove the last digit 5 from our number and are left with x, then the square will be [Product of
x and x+1]25.
115^2
First part = 11 * 12 = 132
Last part = 25
Answer = 13225
395^2
First part = 39 * 40 = 1560
Last part = 25
Answer = 156025
44^2
Distance from 50 = 6
First part = 25 6 = 19
Last part = (-6)^2 = 36 = 36
Answer = 1936
107^2
Distance from 100 = 7
First part = 107 + 7 = 114
Last part = 7^2 = 49
Answer = 11449
98^2
Distance from 100 = 2
First part = 98 2 = 96
Last part = (-2)^2 = 4 = 04
Answer = 9604
71^2
Nearest multiple of 5 = 70
Square of the nearest multiple of 5 = 70^2 = 4900
Number + Multiple of 5 = 70 + 71 = 141
Answer = 4900 + 141 = 5041
134^2
Nearest multiple of 5 = 135
Square of nearest multiple of 5 = 135^2 = [13*14][25] = 18225
Number + Multiple of 5 = 134 + 135 = 269
Answer = 18225 269 = 17956
Now some of you might be thinking, Where am I going to use this? This will come in handy in very
few situations. Well, I agree with you. Prima facie, it does look like something which might not
come in handy on the first day or even the first week. But if you spend 10 minutes practicing the
above tips, I can guarantee that you will save lot more time during your preparation. And if you can
save some time during the exam, well that is a big fat bonus.
Having said that, given below is something that you can start using from today.
Multiplying Two Digit Numbers
In your normal way of multiplication, when you multiply 32 with 41, this is what you normally do:
The idea here is instead of two steps, you should calculate the answer in just one step. Consider your
answer as a combination of three parts
Last digit = Product of the last digits (may generate a carry, does not in this case) = 2 * 1 = 2
Second last digit = Cross product of the digits (may generate a carry, does in this case) = 3 * 1 + 2 * 4
= 3 + 8 = 11 = 1 written down and 1 carry
First part = Product of first digits (might include previous carry, does include in this case) = 4 * 3 + 1 =
13
Answer = 1312
Hopefully, you will save some time using these tips, if not in the exam then at least in your
preparation.
Case 1: 762 is 12 above 750, so I will subtract 12 from the denominator. Keeping the factor of 2.5 in
mind, I will subtract 25 from the numerator.
My new fraction is
Actual answer is 2.34776.
As you can see, with very little effort involved in approximation, we got really close to the actual
answer.
Case 2: 762 is 38 below 800, so I will add 38 to the denominator. Keeping the factor of 2.5 in mind, I
will add 95 to the numerator.
My new fraction is
As you can see, even this is close to the answer. The previous one was closer because the magnitude
of approximation done in the previous case was lesser.
Note: This question can be solved much simply by just looking at the numbers and approximately
comparing them with . I used this long explanation to illustrate the funda given above.
#Given below are few other shortcuts that might come in handy in calculations.
Funda 3 Percentage Growth
If the percentage growth rate is r for a period of t years, the overall growth rate is approximately:
Note: Derived from the Binomial theorem, this approximation technique works best, when the value
of r is small. If the rate goes above 10%, then this approximation technique gives bad results. Also, if
the rate is 5% then r = 0.05; if the rate is 7.2% then r = 0.072.
Note: There are only two exceptions to this funda. I hope someone in the comments will point them
out.
As I end this post, I am also wondering if Approximation of Dreams Oops! Data would have been
a better title.
Let us look at a few simple questions to understand the concept in a better way. Please note that
these questions are way too simple to be asked in an exam like CAT, but they are necessary for
understanding the idea.
x < 10
Statement B:
x >8
By combining both statements, I can say that x lies between 8 and 10. The only integer between 8
and 10 is 9. So my answer should be Option 3
WRONG!
Nowhere in the question it is mentioned that x is an integer / natural number. Until and unless that
is specified, we cannot uniquely determine the value of x. It can take any value from 8 to 10 {eg:
8.1, 8,2, 9.999, etc.}
So, the correct answer would be Option 4
3x + 7y = 10
Statement B:
2x + 9y = 8
Two equations, two variables. I can solve the equations to find out the values of x & y and hence, I
can find out the value of x+y Option 3
3x 7y = 10
Statement B:
14y = 6x + 19
By combining the two statements I get Two equations, two variables. I can solve the equations to
find out the values of x & y. Hence, I can find out the value of x+y Option 3
WRONG!
These two equations represent a set of parallel lines. They are inconsistent with each other. I will
not be able to determine the values of x & y. Hence, I cannot find out the value of x+y Option 4
x^2 5x + 6 = 0
Statement B:
x^2 6x + 8 = 0
From the first statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 3. I do not have a unique answer.
From the second statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 4. I do not have a unique answer.
After combining the two statements, I get the unique value of x as 2. Option 3
x^2 5x + 6 = 0
Statement B:
x^2 4x + 4 = 0
From the first statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 3. I do not have a unique answer.
From the second statement, I get the value of x as 4. I have a unique answer so there is no need to
combine the two statements. Option 1
x^2 9x + 9 = 0
Statement B:
x^2 4x + 4 = 0
From the first statement, I get the value of x as 3. I have a unique answer.
From the second statement, I get the value of x as 4. I have a unique answer.
I am getting a unique answer from both the statements individually. Option 2
Now some of you might be thinking that we have got a different answer from both the statements
and so the answer is not unique. Well, that thinking is incorrect. We have to figure out whether or
not the given data was sufficient. When I am looking at Statement A, I am just looking at Statement
A. If I can get a unique answer from Statement A, I will not even bother with what is going on in
Statement B.
Q7 Is x a prime number?
Statement A:
x^2 5x + 6 = 0
Statement B:
x^2 10x + 24 = 0
But that is not what the question is. The question is whether or not x is a prime number. My answers
should not be values of x, they should be Yes or No or Cant Say.
So, let us calculate again.
From the first statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 3. So, x is a prime number. I can answer the
question and my answer is YES.
From the second statement, I get the values of x as 4 & 6. So, x is not a prime number. I can answer
the question and my answer is NO.
I am getting a unique answer from both the statements individually. Option 2
I hope you would be comfortable with Data Sufficiency questions now. I would like to repeat that
the questions mentioned above are on the simpler side and probably you should practice some real
Data Sufficiency question to get a hang of the topic.
General Knowledge
Nobel Prizes :
In exams, the probability of a question on Nobel Prizes is reasonably high. Having said that, it would
be a waste of time to go through the entire list. It would make a lot more sense if you looked at the
past couple of years and / or Indian winners.
Given below is a list of Nobel Prize Winners for 2011 / 12
Given below is a list of Nobel winners from India or those who have some connection with India.
Booker Prizes
Year
Author
Title
Comments
1969
P. H. Newby
First
1971
V. S. Naipaul
In a Free State
Indian Connection
1981
Salman Rushdie
Midnight's Children
Indian Connection
1982
Thomas Keneally
Schindler's Ark
1992
Michael Ondaatje
1997
Arundhati Roy
Indian
2002
Yann Martel
Life of Pi
2003
DBC Pierre
2006
Kiran Desai
Indian
2008
Aravind Adiga
Indian
2009
Hilary Mantel
Wolf Hall
United Kingdom
2010
Howard Jacobson
United Kingdom
2011
Julian Barnes
United Kingdom
2012
Hilary Mantel
United Kingdom
In 1993 to mark the 25th anniversary it was decided to choose a Booker of Bookers Prize. Three
judges chose Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children (the 1981 winner) as "the best novel out of all
the winners.
A similar prize known as The Best of the Booker was awarded in 2008 to celebrate the 40th
anniversary of the prize. A shortlist of six winners was chosen and the decision was left to a public
vote. The winner was again Midnight's Children
Pulitzer Prize
Pulitzer Prize is a U.S. award for achievements in newspaper and online journalism, literature and
musical composition. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American (Hungarianborn) publisher Joseph Pulitzer, and is administered by Columbia University in New York City.
Gobind Behari Lal won the Pulitzer Prize for journalism in 1937.
Jhumpa Lahiri won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction for her book "Interpreters of Maladies" in 2000.
Geeta Anand was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 2003 for her work on Pompe Disease, a muscular
condition, which was made into a movie, "Extraordinary Measures", and later a book, "The Cure".
Siddhartha Mukherjee won the Pulitzer Prize for general non-fiction in 2011 for his book, "The
Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer".
I hope you enjoyed this post and hopefully you will be able to better in CMAT because of this. In my
next post, I would cover other important awards like Bharat Ratna, Padma Awards, Ramon
Magsaysay Awards, etc.
1959
C. D. Deshmukh
1994
Kiran Bedi
1996
T N Seshan
2003
1965
Jayaprakash Narayan
1974
M.S. Subbulakshmi
1985
Baba Amte
1958
Vinoba Bhave
1963
Verghese Kurien
2008
2008
2009
Deep Joshi
2012
Kulendei Francis
1967
Satyajit Ray
Government Service
Public Service
Community Leadership
Arun Shourie
1984
R. K. Laxman
1992
Ravi Shankar
1997
Mahasweta Devi
2007
P. Sainath
1962
Mother Teresa
2006
Arvind Kejriwal
2011
Nileema Mishra
2011
Harish Hande
Peace
Emergent Leadership
Bharat Ratna
Bharat Ratna is the Republic of India's highest civilian award, for performance of highest order in any
field of human endeavor.
It was first awarded in 1954 to C. Rajgopalachari, C V Raman & S Radhakrishnan. It was last awarded
in 2008 to Bhimsen Joshi.
Of the 41 awards so far, there has been one award to a naturalized Indian citizen, Mother Teresa
(1980), and to two non-Indians, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1987) and Nelson Mandela (1990).
In 2011, the Government of India modified the eligibility criteria to allow sportspersons to receive
the award.
Living recipients:
Other Awards
Awardee
Category
Award
2012
K. G. Subramanyan
Arts
2012
Mario Miranda
Arts
2012
Bhupen Hazarika
Arts
2012
Medicine
2012
T. V. Rajeswar
Civil Service
200910
Saina Nehwal
Badminton
201011
Gagan Narang
Shooting
Vijay Kumar
Shooting
Yogeshwar Dutt
Wrestling
2012
Athletics
2012
Gundeep Kumar
Hockey
2012
Vinod Kumar
Wrestling
2012
Para-Sports
2010 (58th)
K Balachander
Director
Padma Vibhushan
Soumitra Chaterjee
Actor
2009 (49th)
Shrilal Shukla
Hindi
2009 (50th)
Amarkant
Hindi
2010 (51st)
Chandrasekhar Kambar
Kannada
India:
Department / Position
Person
Pradeep Kumar
Chairman, ISRO
K Radhakrishnan
Chairman, LIC
D K Mehrotra
Chairman, NABARD
Prakash Bakshi
Chairman, NASSCOM
Natarajan Chandrasekaran
Sam Pitroda
Manmohan Singh
Markandey Katju
R Lakshmipathy
Chairman, SEBI
U K Sinha
Chairman, TRAI
Rahul Kullar
Chairman, UIDAI
Nandan Nilekani
Raghuram Rajan
V S Sampath
Altamas Kabir
Admiral D K Joshi
Vinod Rai
Defence Secretary
Director, BARC
Sekhar Basu
Rajan Katoch
Foreign Secretary
Ranjan Mathai
Governor, RBI
D. Subbarao
Shivshankar Menon
President, BCCI
N. Srinivasan
President, CII
Adi Godrej
President, FICCI
President, IOA
R Chidambaram
International:
Department / Position
Person
Commonwealth, Head
Queen Elizabeth II
Commonwealth, Secretary-General
Kamalesh Sharma
FIFA, President
Sepp Blatter
Peter Tomka
Alan Isaac
Guy Ryder
Jacques Rogue
INTERPOL, President
INTERPOL, Secretary-General
Ronald Noble
NASA, Administrator
Charles F Bolden
OPEC, President
Rostam Ghasemi
OPEC, Secretary-General
Abdallah el-Badri
SAARC, Chairman
SAARC, Secretary-General
Ahmed Saleem
UNESCO, Director-General
Anthony Lake
Ban Ki Moon
Kaushik Basu
Pascal Lamy
I hope you will find this list useful. This list was last checked / updated on 18 th February
2013.
Extra Fundas:
Sr.No.
Section
Total Marks
1.
40
2.
40
3.
General Awa reness : General Knowledge, Current Affairs , Business Scena rio
40
4.
60
Total
180
The above information is via www.snaptest.org I would also recommend that you join the official
SNAP Facebook page if you havent done it already. They keep posting questions / information about
the exam which might come in handy.
Few basic things that you should note based upon the official information available and papers from
last two years are:
Given below is a broad categorization of questions that have come in the exam in the past three
years (2008 / 09 / 10).
Topic-wise distribution:
Topic
# of Ques (08)
# of Ques. (09)
# of Ques (10)
12
12
People
Politics
Awards
Sports
Geography - World
Total
35
40
40
Time-wise distribution:
# of Ques (08)
# of Ques. (09)
# of Ques (10)
Current Affairs
10
16
Time independent
25
33
24
Total
35
40
40
There are few things that I will like to point out from the above data:
There is no substitute or short cut to keeping yourself up-to-date and reading newspapers /
magazines regularly. However, sample papers and old SNAP papers will come in handy in such
situations.
You can download a chapter (link this to the PDF) from my book Biz World. It wont be much but it
will help you get started.
Students should revise the basics across all chapters. You can do that from t he
revision section of minglebox [Please provide the appropriate link] and also from my
website. This is recommended because CAT has over the years tested students on
their ability to comprehend basics rather than the ability to tackle advanced
problems.
While solving advance level questions the focus should not be on time taken to solve
the question but rather on the understanding of the method used to solve it.
You should also try out a few topic tests. When you gain confidence in several topics,
it will be time to start taking a couple of full-length QA tests. I would recommend
taking every mock test as seriously as the real CAT. Time yourself for every test that
you take and have a target time in which you have to finish the test.
You can also revisit the mock tests which you have given in the past. I recommend
that you spend a few hours to analyse the tests you have already given. Try and
figure out the topics that you are doing well in. Also, try and figure out the topics in
which you are not performing well. I recommend while doing this analysis, you
divide the Quantitative Aptitude in these categories:
a) Number System
b) Geometry
c) Arithmetic and Algebra
d) Modern Maths (P&C, Functions, Probability, etc.)
If you notice that you are messing up in one particular category, you still have time
to repair that chink in your armour.
With this I would like to wrap up this session of Handa Ka Funda. Until next time, Shine On!!!
1) You should not fiddle with your test-taking strategy at this stage. As long as you know that the
strategy you are using is giving you rewards, don't change it.
2) Do not over prepare. You should not take more than 5-6 full length tests in the remaining time. In
the last one week you should ideally take only test.
3) The IRMA and IIFT entrance exams are scheduled for 8th November and 22nd November
respectively. Normally, these exams are scheduled after CAT but as CAT is no longer a one-day test,
they had to prepone. Do not let your performance in these two exams effect your CAT performance
in a negative way. Some students get disheartened if they perform badly in couple of tests. On the
other hand, some become complacent because of their performance in an exam. Make sure you are
not a victim of the phenomenon mentioned above.
4) Avoid random guessing. I have never seen it work and I dont think that you are a special child of
Goddess Fortuna. However, intelligent guessing is a smart idea. If you are down to two options, you
should definitely go for it.
5) If you have practiced enough amount of variety, CAT DI should not be tough to tackle. And out of
a set of five questions, at least three are bound to be easy. Learn the art of skipping questions in DI.
The misconception is that you have to solve the whole set before you move on to the next set. I
think this is the time which you should devote to DI more than anything else. The return on time
invested is going to be the highest.
6) Know your limitations. If your percentiles in the Simulated CATs that you have taken are
consistently below 80%ile then you should not attempt a large number of questions.
7) It happens often that high potential students fail to perform because of the pressure. So, I suggest
that you unwind, go for movies, hangout with friends. Let me be a little more specific here, non CAT
taking friends and the movie should be anything other than London Dreams. It is quite possible that
you shoot yourself after watching that absurdity.
With this I would like to wrap up this session of Handa Ka Funda. Cheers!
Do you believe that you can tramp the last mile? What is your response?
- I am doing great ; bring on the CAT
- I am doing great, but I hope I dont stumble now
- Man! I am sure I can crack the CAT. If only Math would stop killing me
- When is SNAP??
Whatever is your response, to tramp the last mile - Have a fresh outlook
* Rejuvenate
Imagine you have just started your prep
Imagine the last comprehensive test you took is your first test
* Re-focus
The Goal : The CAT
The Time : Few days to go
The Attitude : Everything to gain and nothing to lose
Few other suggestions:
# During the last week of the exam, students often resort to junk food, but if you really want
to maintain your confidence it is extremely important to maintain the right kind of diet.
Research shows that eating smaller meals more frequently is vital to maintaining high
energy levels. Avoid foods with high sugar and fat - they will make you sluggish. Eat a
nutritious breakfast (or meal) before the exam, but do not overeat.
# The most common mistake that we commit during last week's preparation is by skipping
the problems that we are unable to solve because of time-shortage. Make sure that your
have instant access to a knowledge base. Your trainers are the best knowledge base that
you have. Call them whenever you want to have the problem solved right away. You can
mail me at ravihanda@gmail.com for similar stuff.
2. Knowledge
4. Listening skills
Career-related
Subject-related
Major in undergraduate
Emphasis on fundamentals
Attitude-related
Opinions on reservation
Stand on ethics
You want to
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Ravi Handa
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