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    The City. R. E. Park

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    University of Chicago Press

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    The city. R. E. Park

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    University of Chicago Press

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    4 views28 pages

    The City. R. E. Park

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    Guillermo Reyes
    University of Chicago Press

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    THE HERITAGE OF SOCIOLOGY A Series Edited by Moreis Janowite | Robert E. Park | Ernest W. Burgess Roderick D. McKenzie | THE CITY With an Introduction by MORRIS JANOWITZ i THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICACO PRESS [cReAGO AND LONDON 125, 67h The Uncriyof Chicasa Alright Put 925 Maa or 4 IAN. 14: 979022646114 Gp) TSUN 100.26 46 po) © epg ed nth pasion met tei rman the Ameren Near Senard er Tnlrmtinn Src Permanenn of Paper Pred Contents swrnosver0% by Moris Jarouite vt ut Ww. vL vu. van, ‘The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior in the Urban Environment Robert E. Park 7 ‘The Growth of the City ‘As Introduction toa Research Project Ercit I, Barge " ‘The Ecologies! Approach to the Study of the Haman Community RD. MeKenale o ‘The Natural History of the Newspaper Rober E. Park e Community Orgunitation and Juvenile Delinquency ober: E. Fark ” Community Organization andthe Romantic Temper Rober B. Park Magic, Mentality, and City Life Robert E. Park a Can Neighborhood Work Have a Sciemitc Basis? Eres W. Burgess We inrRopucTION tenporry city and contemprary wba scology cannot operate {ERR th we of computer tecnly Tse Chics seilogts Teed thirds by hand woot sk ne res of ‘repay scl cence te, Dt hey would comin, a thi senBeta hove Soe, to show te eancem with indivi by ee enton tthe mere eft a he Robo and the tx Pal dancer, Morris Janowite CHAPTER 1 ‘THE CITY: SUGGESTIONS FOR THE INVESTI- GATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ‘THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT "The city, from the pont of view ofthis paper, something more than a congeris of individual men and of socal conveniences streets, buildings, eletec Hights, tramways, and telephones, ete; tormething more, also, than a mere constlation of institutions and fudministrative devces—courts, hospital, school, police, and civil functonares of various sorts, The city i, rather, a state of mind, ‘body of customs and traditions, and of the organized atiudes fn sentiments that inhere in thee customs and aze tansmitted with thistradition. The city is notin other words, merely a physical ‘mechanism and an artical construction. Tt iiavaved in the vital proceses of the people who compote i; it is a product of nature, ‘and particularly of human nature ‘The city has, a8 Oswald Spengler as recently pointed out, it ‘own culture: “What his house i to the peasant, te city isto civ Tined man. As the house has its houschold gods 0 has the ity its protecting Deity itt local skint. The city also, ike the peasant's Tut, has is root In the ol" “The city hasbeen studied, in recent times, fem the point of view ofits geography, and ail more recently from the pont of view ofits ecology, There are forces at work within the Limits of the urban ‘ommimnity-within the inis of any natural area of human habi- ‘tation, in fact—which tend to bring about an ordely and typical ‘grouping of is population and institutions. The science which seeks "ool Spree, Der UntragdtAbdandes, 1 (nn, 99 18 : ‘THE CITY to toate these factors and to desribe the typical constaliations of and intitutions which the co-operation of thee foreespro- fie, is what we call human, a5 distingulshed fom plant and oni smal, econy. “Transportation and communication, tramways and telephones; newspapers and advertising, steel construction and elevators—all things infact, which tend to bring about at once a greater mobility tnd e greater concentration ofthe urban populations—are primary {actors inthe ecological organization of the ity. "The city is not, however, merely a geographical sod eeslogical nit; fin atthe same tie am economic unit, The economic organi- ton of the eit & based on the division of labor, The maltiplica- tom of occupations and professions within the limits ofthe urban population is one of the most striking and last understood aspects Dt modern city lif, From thls point of view, we may, {we chomse, think of the city, that it say, the place and the people, wit al he ‘nachinery and administrative devices that go with them, as organi cally slated; a ind of psychophysical mechanism in and through ‘which private and political interests find not merely a coletive ‘but a corporate expression. ‘Much of what we ordi read ws he clits carters formal organization, building, street callways, and 20 " or sems toe, mere artifact. But these things in themselves are Uti, adventitious devices which become part ofthe living ety only when, and in so far ax through we and wont they connect themselves, like a tool in the hand of man, with the sital forces ‘resident in individuals and in the emmy. "The city fs cally, the natural habitat of civilized man, Tt i for that reson a ealtual are characterized by its own peculiar cultural type "Jt is a gulte certaln, but never fully recognized, fact” saye Spengler, “thatell greateltaresare cty-born. The outstanding man ofthe second generation sa ity-alldng animal Tiss the actual HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 5 criterion of worl history, a ietingushed from the history of man- Kind: worl history is the history of ety men. Nations, gover- ments, pois, and religions est on the basic phenomenon of Jnuman existence, the ety" “Anthropology, the slence of man, bas been mainly concerned up tothe present with the study of primitive peoples. But civilized tan fs quite as interesting an object of favestigation, and at the fame time his ie Is more open to observation and study. Urban life and culture are more varied, subte, and complicated, but the fundamental motives are in both instances the same. The same patient methods of observation which anthropologists Ike Bous| {nd Lowie have expended on the study of the Kfe and manners of ‘the North American Indian might be even moe fruitfully employed in the investigation of the customs, belts, social practices, and general conceptions of fe prevalent in Lite Ttaly on the lower [North Side in Chicago, or in recording the more sophisticated fal ‘ways of the inhabitants of Greenwich Village and the neighborhood of Washington Square, New York. ‘We are mainly indebtod to writers of fiction for our more inti- imate knowledge of contemporary urban life. But the life of our cites demands 2 more searching and disinterested study than even ‘Emile Zola es given inhi “experimental” novels andthe anna ofthe Rougon-Macquart family. ‘We need ch studs, if for no other reason than to enable us to read the newspapers intligently. The reason that the daily chronicle of the newspaper 80 shocking, and at the same time so fascinating, to the average reader is because the average reader [knows so litle about the life of which the newspaper isthe record, ‘The observations which follow ae intended to define a point of ‘vow and to indicate a program forthe study of urban life its physi- cal organization, fs occupations, and its eure Onl See, Uta rAd, 1,28 ‘4 ‘THE cITy 1, Tu GIy PLAN AbD LOCAL ORGANIZATION ‘The city, particularly the moder American city, strikes one at ‘st lash ass tle a product ofthe atlas processes of nature and rom, that itis difcule to recognize it as a living entity. The igroud plan of most American citi, for example, is @ checker- board, The unit of distance is the Block. This geometrical form suggests thatthe city i purely artifical constraction which might Conceivably be taken apart end put together again lke a house of| blocks. "The fact i, however, that the city is rooted in the habits and customs ofthe people who inbabit it. The consequence i that the City possesses a moral aswell asa physical organization, and these two mutualy interact in characteritic ways to mold snd modify fone another, Its the structure of the city which fret impresses us by its visible vastness and complizty. But this stricture has its basis nevertheless im human mature, of which itis am expression Gn the other hand, this vast organization which has arisen in re- sponse to the needs ofits inbabltants, once formes, imposes Ite pon thems as a crude extemal fact and forms them, in turn, in fecordance with the design and interests which it incorporate. Structure and tradition are but diferent aspects ofa single cultural complex which determines what fs characteristic and peculiar to iy, as dietingvished ftom village, life and the life of the open lds The iy lan Tt because the city has lif quite its own that ‘here is a linit tothe arbitrary modcations wich tis possible to make (i) in its physical structure and (2) in its moral order, "The city plan, for example, establishes metes and bounds, fixes ina general way the location and character of the city’s construc: tons an imposes an orderly arrangement, within the city area, ‘upon Ue buildings which are ereted by private initiative aswell as bby public authority, Within the imitations prescribed, however, the inevitable procesea of human nature proceed to give these HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 5 gions and these buildings a character which is len easy to con~ ‘aol. Under our system of individual ownership, for instance itis not posible to determine in advance the extent of concentration of population which is likely to occur in any given sree. The ety annot fx land values, and we leave to private enterprise, for the ‘most part the task of determining the citys limits and the locaton of ie residential and industrial dstects, Personal tastes and con- venience, Yorational and economic interests, inflibly tend to fegregate and thr to classify the populations of great cities. In this way the city acquires an organization and distribution of popu- Tation which s nether desiged nor contrlle. ‘The Bell Telephone Company is now taking, particularly in New York and Chicago, elaborate investigations, the purpose of ‘which to determine, in advance oft actual change, the probable srowth and distribution of the urbea population within the metro- palitan areas. The Sage Foundation, in the couse of is eity-plan= ‘ing studies, sought to find mathematical formulae that would enable them to predict future expansion and limits of population in New York City. The recent development of chain stores has rade the problems of loetion a matter of concer to diferent chain- store corporations. The reslt as been the rse of «new profession ‘There is now a class of experts whose sale occupation isto dis- cover and locate, with something like scientific accoracy, taking account of the changes which present tendencies seem likely to ‘bing about, restaurants, gn stots, drugstores, and ote smaller etal business units whose success depends largely on locaton [Realestate men are not inequently willing to finance 2 local bus! ‘ess ofthis sort in Toeations which they belive wil be proStabe, accepting as ther rent a percentage of the profs. Physical geography, natral advantages end disedvantages, {inching means of tansportation, determine in advance the general ‘outlines ofthe whan plan. As the city increases in population, the subtler indences of sympathy, rivalry, and economic necessity 6 ‘THE CITY tend to control the distribution of population, Business and i ‘Santry sck advantageous locations and draw around them certain portions of the population, ‘There spring up fashionable residence (garters from which the poorer classes are excluded because of the fbeteased value of the land, Then there grow up slams which ace inhbited by great nuzabes of the poorer elates who are unable to defend themselves ftom asocation with the deeict and vicious, “i the eourse of time every section and quarter of the city takes ‘on something of the character and qualities ofits inhabitants Each separate part ofthe city is inevitably stained with the peculiar senti- tents ofits population, The ellctof this sto convert what was ft ist a mete geographical expression into a neighborhood, that to say; a locality with eentiments traditions, and a history of ite own, Within this neighborhood the continuity ofthe historical ‘processes somehow maintained, ‘The past imposes itself upon the present, and the life of every locality moves on with x certain mo- entum of its own, mote or less independent ofthe larger circle of lie and interests about “The orgenizaton ofthe city, the character ofthe urban environ- ment and ofthe dlcptne which i imposes i finally determined by the sie ofthe population, its eonentraton and distibution within the ity orea, Fortis resom it is important to study the growth of tite, fo compare the idiosyncrasies in the distribution of city pops lations. Some ofthe first things we want to know about the city, therefore are What ae te murs of he cy’ popaatin? ‘Whot pt fa plating oral eto eee of ith ore deat? What rt eto maton a) of mative toch? (fren stk? ‘tae te outing nar” ates, Le, are of population eset tion ‘ow is dts of poate itn the cy aa afte y (0) coasted al? (0) by ueninentl inert? voce, HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 7 ec within he ty ie he population dang? Whee expanding? “Whore re pouition growth tn thes of fens within the erst sue hy orate th it nd eh, i arg and The megitorhod.—Proximity and neighborly contact are the ‘asi forthe simplest and most elementary form of sstociation with ‘hich we have to do in the organization of ity life, Local interests ‘and astociations breed loca seatiment, and, under a system which makes residence the besis for participation in the government, the neighborhood becomes the basis of political contol, In the sci and politcal organiaation of the city it isthe smallest local unit ete suey oe of the met eaable fl i cts tht, cig own fom utd ne thee sad be thi astnctve andar tat ean sto etabthes home beside your begin to haven chim up yar sens of fomredhip.» .«- The nigibehond sa soda rt which by car deat ton fou, is ines crgtle completes hg ents, uy ‘etal cotlred ws anetoning Ike «wl ind,» The loa bos, ‘were autocratic he may be in he pe aphreof the iy i the power ie seo the sgiberiod, mast alps be aan ol oe els bo vey ‘fl otf try to deve the fel pepe so fara ol tee ae ‘Soceaed. I is bard eel nneihbated abut sown fs ‘The neghborhood exits without formal organitation. The local limprovement society i structure erected on the basis ofthe spon taneous neighborhood organization and exists forthe purpose of iiving expression to the local sentiment in regard to tates of local interest. "Under the complex infsences ofthe city fe, what maybe called ‘the normal neighborhood sentiment has undergone many curious and intersting changes, and produced many unusual types of leeal communities More than that, there are nascent neighborhood ands ‘neighborhoods in process of dissolution. Consider, for example, Fifth Avenue, New York, which probably never had an improve- ‘Rate Won “The Mager in Sl Recto” Poe ‘Prati of Ba Am! Maing th Amn Std Say 93. 8 ‘THE CITY ‘ment association, and compare with it sth Steet in the Bron (rhere the Negra population is probably more concentrated than Sn any other single spot in the world), which is rapidly becoming a ‘yey intimate and highly organized community Th the History of New York the sigcance ofthe name Maem has changed tom Dat to rsh to Jewish to Neg. OF tse changs te Is fa sme mat avy, Tiong eared Amer, rom Maracas 0 tcp and com the contiet to Lat Anges at Sent, oe, Src nate a tern ye go scaly Bon bi, now ann fete ‘Neg metro, Haren iy inde, the gent Mra forthe eee, The plamesetey, the ass, tbe vere, the enmerpcing the abt (Sun aod theta of the Neyo wok fore rea thas ech ove va Mand the Cu Sea and speed even nto Alten ‘eis important to know what are the fores which tend to brea ‘up the tensions, interests, and sentiments which give neighborhoods ‘hee indvicual character, In general these may be sad to be uny- thing and everything that tend to render the popultion unstable, to divide and concentrate attentions upon widely separated objets of interest, ‘What pet ofthe population a eating? (Ofrrbt coments, ce, assy ths ppultlon compel? ‘ow mesy peeve abot, aprtnts, ab enrats? Hw may people om thir evs tomes? ‘Wan propartion of the pputon aniston, hbo vps? (On the other hand, certain urban neighborhoods suffer from luolation, Elfrts have been made at diferent times to reconstruct tnd quicken the life of ety neighborhoods and to bring them ia touch with the larger interets ofthe community. Such iin part, the purpose of the eoddal eettlementa. Those orgaoizations and piers which ae attempting lo reconstruct city life have developed feriain methods and s technique for stimulating and controling focal communities. Weshould study, ia connection with the fave fn of these agence, these methods and this technique, since it Juss Wein Fino The Male an," ris March 95. HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 9 is jt the mead By which bet are pata contd tat reve ther een! ate th fo ey, tr redtube ca eter (Gente) Te many ofthe Esropean cy, nd tosomeetent nhs oun toy cmtaton of ty eh gone to the eg bing fern sabre or rela ete nd down tenets ih mel bung owned and cote hy the manip. Mim Amerada the atten as een ade tena scigiboriods bythe emotion of lous sd he no. Gc of spect spt of vars Hy icing np inl aha Tad devs ch pinay to evate the oral tone lhe segepted pop Ios of eat cer hold esta in conection with he ver Stn oh gh ingen. Tey sob ate in stort ot erly forthe on tke ut fr what hey can eve tas of amen boavor and bua ate geal. Con rat inte ey eon he eight Tore much ofthe signee whch ‘din sper and rote pint ome of sey, The sry Iams of communion and of anata, hich able nd ‘isto dtbte the ttention an oo these nin Dovel dfeent wes, tnd to dsoy the pemaneney ad int ‘acy ofthe nelhbend. On th tr han, telat he Inmlgan and nil clones ofthe sored ete aod aa of Depulaton segregation tend to pesrve and, where thee racal jy, tonne nda sity othe loca ond ‘on wie herds Wort Nee gna Te de Wane ‘Binge auc ds aeanen wot in gies etn cee om an ‘tice: le Mater i is Wobebat t Resost ar Allein So ‘eat dan dus Wer eu ele Deduteng” (cet, se re dor ‘hainhchnBpftingy 1) © HE crry neighborhood groups Where individual ofthe sme mice a ofthe fame vento Ive together in aegrested. groups, reigarkoed Sentient tend ofise together with fadalatagonisms and cls interet ‘Physi and sentimental stance elafores cach other, andthe snuraces of oa dnbaton ofthe population priate with the ntucnes fdas andrea the evltion of the soci oe tation very great cy hai ail clniy te the Chinato Sf'San Franchen and New Yor, the Lite Sly of Ching, and Stuiow othr lew pronounced types. Tn adn to thes, moet Ths have thr sees vce dtl, ike that whe ni Secunly ete in Cha, hei renderot orion of various fore Every age ity a is oczupationl sours ke he Stock rd in Chicago, andi eskential endave, Uke Broklne in Boston, the sald "Gold Coast in Chicago, Greenwich Vilage Ji Now Yor, each of hich has the ie nthe charter of Savi aeperate town, village or ty, exept that es poputin fir sleced one. Undoubtedly the mot remarkable of thee tee ‘ibn ces ef wich the most intersting character that hey Tre compared of persons ofthe aun rac, of pesos of erent ces butte secs, East Londen, wth populates of se00e0 bore ‘he pope othe rn ast Lo ae now nee and ee the Las Sa aed heme ove abs td sae en Te itn ee cw hal Aye Team wit pton ty cco, at Tam, wh on Ur mle isonet he “hanes ovrzow Tuy nosee penton weave sagen! nate min Tape ppt get tne it of Brin or Ven, oS Pee Tories Sipe orchard lof nani, ether ae ca drat Sit Kant Homa has es spo metay ese teri en nd tose te er te nt many he ppl al en espe ye ee HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 1 nt Lamon pr th ler Rd. Toh sts oe ys, a sommes Shows Mee eps be, Societe pe ih etme ra ie tng te age ing ofall inf mas pee herrea Tt ea or ht ym te 1s the alder cts of Europe, where the process of seseation fave gone festher,neghborhend distinction are ily to be more smacked than they ae rerio. East London acy of sng ls, bt within be iit that cy the population erga fain and again by rac, and vortices: Neg Vovinod sentiment, deeply rote i oe tadion sadn loa custom, cece decive stv fence pen the populations the cider Buropean ces an show tl lioately at mare syn the chaacterie fthenbatnts What we want to know ofthese eghborboady ail communi ti, and Sogrestd cy aren, existing within or onthe owe Yims of grat ti, what we want fo know of al ether soca ropes Wat ent fl hy compan? Totes thy he od pce? How opie tins et he opt oe? ‘Wan a ne prance iy of pri? What how he py nl wn sh ope sata he Se er mya them yn hw my ‘it hry te mind? What an sinuous he gn dn lel epinef Be ‘intrest tenting j_aknho scrim sal woe atts ‘it ape a mt ut We? We react atin! Wht ole oa tet ar crit we vn it "Bt Te cITy ‘Whats the ani ul, Le wha ens mst oe do inthe nigra Jn nero cae bog rege with supa o ake wow pei? ‘Wo mre the adr? What tere te nelbnrood do they corpo rat hetero what ithe tsi by mich they ence ancl” “The ancient city was primarily a fortes, place of refuge in ‘me of war. The modem city, on the contrary, primarily a con- ‘venience of commerce, and owes its existance tothe marketplace ‘round which ft sprang up. Industrial competition and the vision of labor, which ave probably done most to develop the latent powersof mankind, are possible only upon condition ofthe existence Df markets, of money, and other devices forthe facilitation of trade and commerce ‘An old German adage declares that “city air makes men fee” (Suet Eft macs frei), This ie doubtless reference to the days ‘when the free cies of Germany enjoyed the patronage of the emperor, and laws made the fugitive sera free mani he succended fora year anda dey in breathing city alr. Law, of itself, could not, however, have mede th erafteman free. Am open market in which the might sll the products of hit labor was a necesary incident of is freedom, and it was the application of the money economy to ‘the relations of master and man that completed the emancipation ofthe tert, Vacatienal clases and wceaionaltypet-—The old adage which eseribes the city ab the natural environment of the free man still holds o fara the individual man Gus inthe chances, the diverity of interests and tasks and fa the vast unconscious co-operation of ‘ty life the opportunity to choose his owa vocation and develop ‘is pecaliar individual talents. ‘The ety offers a macket for the spe ial talents of individual men, Pereonal competition tends to select for each special tack the individual whois best suited to perorm it. ‘The freee of saul alot in dflent men i nea, ch los thane ara andthe Yr Alezat eno wich appears stings HUMAN BEBAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 13, soca of diferent profesions, when gova upto matnky, snot wp may fcxlons © much he eu an thee o he von of lk, The ce ‘ce between the most diinlr arse, betwen © poeple and ommon woe ptr, for exp, seme to vent so much om ate to ait cst, and easton, Whe hey ome tthe wed ote Aint ut or eight yer ofthe exten, they were pehape very mach ake slater thle parents nor plac cold prcelve ay rectal der ce: About tht gs son fe, ey came tobe employed a dierent ‘Seapatins The dference tates canes ten to be fake otc sd ‘ides by degre it ast he van of the pilaster tng toatl ‘ge arco any reendlnce Bo witout he dpe ork Date, and ‘chang every man mast have proce to hnal evry ncaa adc ‘eleneyo fe whieh rated All as ave dhe sme den oe [orm and the ube yr do abl thee ave hee ta ach freee of tmployent could abe ve ean tan rat incr feet ‘Asi sth power of exchanging hat ves cast the vison oboe, sotheerantl this divon mes says olin by the exten that pore, ‘nother orl by the extent of te marke. — Ther ae soe srs of imine, even 0 the vet attonn ‘Succes under conditions of personal competition, depends upon ‘concentration upon some single task, and this concentration sim Jates the demand fr rational methods, technical devices, and excep tional kill, Exceptional sil, while based on natural talent, requires special preparation and it has called into existence the trade and profesional schools, and nally bureaus for vocational guidance. Allo these, citer directly or indirectly, serve at once to select and ‘ermphasize individual diferences, ‘Every device which facilitates trade and industry prepares the way fora further division of labor and ao tends further to spealize ‘the tacks in which men find their vocations, ‘The outcome ofthis process isto break down or modily the alder social and economic organization of socety, which was based on family te, local association, on culture, cast, and status, and to * Aden Sh Te Won of ans po ‘hich can be cad os were et In 8 4 THE cry substitute foe it en organization based on occupation and vocational interests, Tn the city every vocation, even that of « beggar, tends to assume the character ofa pofcsion and the discipline which auc ane in aay vocation Imposte, together with the asocations that it fnfores, emphasizes this tendency—the tendency, namely, not merely to specialize, but to rationalize one's occupation and to Aevelop a specific and conscous technique for extrying it on. "The effect of the vocations snd the division of labor isto pro- ‘ace, in the fst instance, not socal groups, but vocationl types: the actor, the plumber, and the lumberjack, The organizations, Tike the txde and labor unions which men of the sume trade or pro- fession form, are based on common interests, In this respect they der from forms of association Uke the neighborhood, which are ‘esol on contiguity, persnal association, and the common ties of Inumanity The diferent trades and professions seem disposed to ‘group themselves in clasts, that i to say, the artann, busines, and professional classes. But inthe modera democratic state the clases hhaveas yet attained no effective organization. Socialism, funded an effort to create an organization based on “ass consciousness Ins never suceeded, exept, perhaps, in Russa, in creating more than a politcal party ‘The elects ofthe division of labor asa discipline i. asmeans of molding character, may therefore be best stated inthe vocational typesit has produced. Among the type which it would be intereat- ing to study are: the shop, the paceman, the peddle, the cab- rman, the nightwatchman, the clairvoyant, the vaudeville performer, the quack doctor, the bartender, the ward bos, the se breaker, ‘he labor agitator, the schoolteacher, the eeporter, the stockbroker, ‘the pawnbrokr; lf these are characteristic products ofthe cond tions of ity lle; each, with ts spec experience, insight, and point ‘of view determines for etch vocational group and for the city as & ‘whole its individuality. HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 15 ‘To what extent the grade of intigence represented in the let tenn and pesos depen ep mata bly? "To what ett ie intligance dete bythe arc ofthe ocape- ‘on 0d the conn dees pact? "To what ett ec the expats cependent pon sod Jade ‘ment aod eons fo wha extent pon tee aitye "Doc atv tlt or peel tle determine suc nthe feet voto? "What pegs and what peje tach to diferent eades and io {aioe and hy Tate coe of the oncption determined by temperament, by coon, ory atinatlconsiertos? Tireha oration omen int oscpatint do women, ce ater, aadviy? How fa i cepa eee than selon, eps forthe manta sted and moral pens? Do men in the ae prfesion a tad, bt ‘epoenng diferent neni sod ferent earl poops hold ute intend ane! olin? ‘Fowhat extent eh naples tha scion, aren, yoda sey Seternled by omeapatin? hy tempera? "To mht evant have scl doctrine and scien pers and sient plc ela lth he reat compton, nd hy? “Do neil case en fo sme the cacao cla rope? That isto syd the ces end to segue he exces td ndpendane a ‘eo maton ea ds swap dpendest upon te exten of ‘ecporig ds? "Tew extent do ilrn flow the vein of tel parent ad vy? ‘Form esant cd ntvsfuls move tom one le onthe nd bo oe hint oly the acter of chases? ‘ews ond the maby of the sci! group —The division of lor, in making indvideal succes dependent upon concentration upon 4 special task, hat had the elect of increasing the interdependence ‘of the diferent vocations, A social organization is thus created in shih the individual beoomes increasingly dependent upon the om ‘munity of which be is an integral part. The effect, under cond tions of personal competiten, ofthis increasing interdependence of the parts ls to create in the industrial organization a8 a whole a 6 THE CITY certain sort of socal solidarity, but a solidarity based not on sent seat and habit, but on community of interest. “Tn the sense in which the terms are here used, sentiment isthe sore concrete, interest the more abstract, term, We may cherish a fentiment for a person, a place, or any object whatsoever. Ttmay be ‘tenthuent of aversion, ora sentiment of posession. But to possess or tobe posessod by asentiment for orn regard to, anything means that we ae incapable of acting toward it in thoroughly rational vay. Temeans that the object of ou sentiment corespondsin some spedial way to some inherited or acquired disposition. Such a dis- poton isthe aflection oft mother ot her ci which fs inainctive. ‘Oreven the feeling she may have fr the childs empty cradle, which is acquired. ‘The exiatence ofa sentimental ativde indicates that there are _mctives for action of which the individual who ie moved by them is ‘nt shelly couscous; motives over which has only a partalcon- trol. Every sentiment haga history, either in the experience of the Individual, or inthe experience of the race, but the person Who acts ‘on that sentiment may not be aware ofthe history. Interests are directed less toward specie objects than toward ‘the ends which this or that particlar abject at one time or another ‘eros, Interests imply, therefore, the existence of means and a ‘consciousness of the distinction between means and ends. Our seatiments are related to our prejudices, and prejudices may atach ‘toanything—persons, aca, aswell as inanimate things. Prejudices are related ao to taboos, and so tend to maintain "socal distances” ‘and the existing socal organisation. Sentiment and prejudice are clementary forms of conservatism, Our interests are rational and ‘mobil, and make for change. ‘Money isthe cardinal device by which values have become ra: Nonlized and sentiments have been replaced by interests. It i just because we fel no personal and no sentimental attitude tomard ‘our meney, such as we do toward, for example, our home, that HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 17 snoneybecimes a valablemeansoferchange. We wil be naested inacuing wctain amount of mony in ofr to achieve w celia porpre, bt proved that purpose may be achieved in anyother Way we ae ely tobe ist et wel sated. Tes oly the miser {ro becomes sentimental about money, and ntact be kal Te reer one sot of money say gold to anche, iespectve fis ‘lr: Ta is cate the vue ‘of gold ie determined By penonal Zentinen ater than by reson, "An organization which ie composed of competing fdviduls and of competing groups of individuals fin sate of unstable tqailtrum, and this eqelfrium can be malntainet only by 0 proces of continous readjotmeat. The aspect of soc ie and Ths pe of social orguiaton are ext epesntd inthe world of ‘ouines-whih the special object of invention of pole "The extension of Indust ogeicton, which is based on the Inmperonal slain deine by money, has goe forward Band and with an increasing mcbilty ofthe population. The Iborng trun and he atsan fied to petfor a specie tsk ae comple, de the conto rated by ty fl, to ove from ove eon tosnotherin search fhe articalas Kd f employment Bich they ‘Se ited to prion The tide of lnmigiton which moves bask ‘forth between Bure and Ameria to some extent a measure tthe sme moby (On the other hand, the tradesman, the manuactrr, the pro felon] maa, the spect in every vocation sesh i cents asthe Giealies of travel and commehicaon decease over ah eet ‘eidening rao teitary. hls isanther way in which the mbity the population may be measured. However, mobi in anid ‘ideaor ima population ts measured, not merely by change of Tieton, but rae by the amber and vast of the sinlatins to which the individ or the population responds, Moby de "re Bart et of Ee amen Gan 89,9 re 8 THE CITY pends, not merely upon transportation, but pan communiction. Education and the ability to read, the extsion of the money economy to an ever incresing number of the interests of life, in so fara it has tended to depersonalize socal lation, has at the sine time vastly incrased the mobility of modern people, “The tem “oy,” et ori, sseatinn may be 0 th extn py pls o comma tat, Ft a peulity of trpeuent aed ek of educa bly hea cnsueref matte means oneneiin oo on getle Iman anda calles ebveaton anode eae tht what we nly cl ck int sence in nv nce and commurtnegunty 4 tel ofa. {nthe tran, te medty popu suena ery Is ctor ninco deyopnet “Tere innate conacin betwen the inbiity ofthe pine san sod hiss cle aly to we abate Toe bree wich 8 ‘enamel poste, fom the ery atte of hi osuptinn ert nd petonal Ile hnowsInvtaly ad peasy evry maior he ‘oc he tend beomes in the eure eyes me taeda the bd be {ils hat the mere aspen rom the aol on which be bas gow up toate wth which he es intimately acquainted by i a ‘ronal on, For ach aman the egoeag lly, even te sp of and Mideotherendafthevllogeisinaertan ses aon ery. Alage arto the pas ein sm astral Istrer depend pon th nina ‘hd personal seqaatance ith th ymca of sgl po land the Cate wich hebben bed, Isapprent that, unde xia es, ‘ery Heo the pasa’ penta Kaowlage wl take the tact fam of ‘Senile eserliatian. He thks be cones term bresie e haps al tecioo ah ‘On the other hand, the latitual characteris of the Jew nd his ser epi ints in bite and adel Hens ne sonoma fonoeced it the fact tat the Jews ae bel ll ee, 4 ty fk Toe "Wandering Jon” acu sara tras wis which dexrbe he vcs esses whieh be visa His knowlege ofthe we bed pon eaten {deena ta tos) on aaa cosaton. Rea intimate ‘Snocition with the Dnt and bose ofthe matt lace, nas nant ‘i theaewd ed fascia of buying abd ving, ch he egy HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 19 tat most itrtng of striction, mane, be has nether epportniy noe Itctoton to sate ha nate ntackinet to place ad peas Wh ‘arctica the inmabe eon? ‘Concentration of populations in cies, the wider markets, the Jivision of labor, the concentration of individuals and groups on ‘specal task, have continually changed the material conditions of Iie nd in ing tis have made reajustments to novel onditons| Increasingly necessary. Out ofthis nocesiy there have grown up a number of special organizations which exist for the special purpose ‘of facilitating these teadjustments. The matket which brought the ‘modern city into exetene is one of thee devices. More intresting, however, are the exchanges, particularly the stock exchange and the board of trade, where prices are constantly being made in r- sponse to changes, or rather the reports of changes, in coonomie ‘mditions allover the word "These reports, 29 far as they are calculated to cnuse readjust- ments, have the character of what we call news. Its the existence fof critical situation which converts what were otherwise mere Information into news. Where thre isan issue at stake, whee, in shoct there i css, there information which might affect the out- came one way or another becomes “live mater,” asthe newspaper ren say, Live matter is news; dead matter is sore information, ‘What ete reation of malty te suggest, initaton, ‘What ace te practi! devi by whch sagt and moby are faceted rs cmaeity o® nena? ‘he toe pb sndtons nem caespnding to hysteie ‘nadie? ls, boat prod an ow ote? "To what extn fiona indent of male? ‘What i he aieence ete manner In Wich esti and castoms are casi “Wn soil une and wht are the conden snder which me. fet iat? “Wet are the cure of progreaive, wha the characte of a sta, community espero stance onal sgt? NCL. Thom Sor Bebo Ss righ » ue cry What mental aracterts ofthe gpa, of the bo, and ofthe ener canbe tec to these mae habit ‘The stock exchanges ad the mab—The exchanges, upon which We ray watch the fluctuation of price in response to the news of eco- nomic conditions in diferent parts of the world are typical, Similar readjustments are taking place in every department of socal life, where, however, the devs: fr aking thes readjustments ate no so complete and perfect, For example, the professional and trade papers, which keep the professions and the trades informed in regard tonew methods, experiences, and devices, serve to keep the members of these trades and profesions abreast ofthe times, which means that they facilitate readjustment to changing conditions. ‘Theres, however, this important distinction tobe rade: Come petition inthe exchanges is more intense; changes are more rapid tnd, as far asthe individuals diectly concerned, more momentous. Tn contrast with auch a constellation of forces as we find on the ‘exchange, whore competing dealers meet to buy and sell, so mobile 2 form of scil organization asthe crowd and the mob exhibits ‘elatve staiity. Tei 8 commonplace that deleive factors in the movements of crowds, a5 in the Buctustions of markets, axe paychologle, This ‘means thit among the individuals who make up the crowd, oF who ‘compose the public which partcpates in the movements reflected in the market, a condition of instability exists which corresponds to what has boon defined cltewhore ae criss, It i tre of the ex: changes, 22 it fe of crowds, that the situation they represent je always critical, that isto say, the tensons are such that a aight ‘extse may predpitat an enormous effect. The current euphemism, “the psychological moment," defines such a etical condition, Psychological moments may arise fn any social situation, but ‘they occur more frequently ina society which as acquired a Bgh state of mobility. They occur more frequently in a society where ‘education is general, where ralways, telegraph, and the prating ‘HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT az Tiave become an indispensable part of the socal economy. fceut more frequently in etee than in smaller communities, land the public every moment may be sti to be py “Griss may be suid tobe the normal condition on the exchanges fre called nancial crise are merely an extension of this rt ton to the lager business community. Financal panics sometimes fllow upon nancial crises area prepitateol this ital condition. The fascinating thing about the study of erises, as of crowds, fs nso faras they ae infact due to psychological causes, that is, faces they are the result ofthe mobility of the communities in they oceur, they can be contrlled. The evidence fr this i that they can be manipulated, and there is abundant evi- ez of manipulation in the transactions ofthe stock market, The ce for the manipulation of crowds is ess accesuble. Labor have, however, known how to develop a petty definite ue for the instigation and contol of strikes, The Salvation worked outa hook of tactics which is very largely devoted Fhandling of street crows; and profesional revivalist, lke ‘Sunday, have an elaborate technique for conducting thir the tte of collective psychology much has been written yeas in regard to crowds and Kindred phenomens of socal “Most tha bas been writen thu fr has been based upon ge ral observation and almost no systematic methods exist for the ‘of this type of social organization. The practical methods practical men lke the politcal boes, the labor agitator, the change specalator, and others hve worked out for the !and manipulation of the public and the crowd {enh a body materials from which itis posable to make « mote detailed, 2 intimate study of what may be called in order to distinguish m that of more highly organized groups, collective behavior. » HE crry ‘What mental hrs ofthe roy, ofthe hobo, ad ofthe nomad een cam btn to hve ae aa ‘The stock exchanges and the mob —The exchanges, upon which we ry wateh the Actuation of price i reponse to the news of e2o- nomic conditions in diferent parts ofthe wold, are typical. Similar readjustments are taking place in every departirent of soda lie, inher, however, the devices for making these readjustments are not ‘> complete and perlect. For example, the profesional and trede pipers which keep the professions and the trades informed in regard tonewmthods, experiences, and devices, serve to keep the members ‘of these trades and professions abreast of the times, which means tha they facilitate readjustments to changiog eanditons ‘There fs, however, ths jmportan distinction to be made: Com- petition in the exchanges fe more intense; changes are more rapid ‘and as far asthe individuals divetly concerned, more momentous. In contrast with such a constellation of forces aa we find on the exchanges, where competing dealers mest to buy and sell, 29 mobile {form of socal organization as the erord and the mob exhibita 2 relative stability ‘eis « commonplace thet decisive factors in the movements of crowds, as in the fuctuations of markets, ace paychologe. This ‘means that mong the individuals who make up the crowd, oF wha | ‘ome the publie which participates in the movements reflected fn the market, conditon of iatablity exists which corresponds to what bas been defined claewhere as cris. Te true ofthe ex changes, a8 itis of cronds, that the situation they represent is always catcl, that isto say, the tenslons are such that a aight ‘ause may precipitate an enormous effect. The earrent euphemism, “the paychological moment," defines such a criti eondtion. ‘Peychologeal moments may arge in any soda situation, but ‘they oesut more frequent ina society which has acquired a high state of mobility. They occur more frequently in a soety where fection fe general, where railways, telegraph, and the peating HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT ax press have become an indispensable part of the social economy. ‘They oceur more frequently in cites than in smaller commantics, In the cromd and the public every moment may be sid to be pay chological.” Criss may best tobe the normal condition on the exchanges. ‘What are called financial rises are merely an extension of thie eiti- tal condition to the larger business community. Finencal panics Wwhichsometimes flow upon Snandial ees ae a precipitate ofthis Critical condition, ‘The fascinating thing about the study of crits, a8 of crowds, that ins far ax they arein fact due to psychological cause, that i ‘ngo ar as they are the result ofthe mobility of the communities in hich they occur, they can be conrlled. The evidence for thie fs the fact that they can be manipulated, and there is abundant evi- ‘dence of manipulation inthe transactions ofthe stack market. The evidence forthe manipulation of crowds i less accesible, Labor ‘organizations have, however, known how to develo pretty definite technique forthe instigation and control of strikes, The Salvation ‘Army has worked out a book of tactics which is very largely devoted ‘to the handling of street crowds; and profesional revivalist, lke Billy Sunday, have an elaborate technique for conducting theit revival, ‘Under the tie of collective psychology much has been written {n recent years in regard to crowds and kindred phenomena of social life, fot that hasbeen written thus far ha been based upon gen- ‘eral observation and almost no systematic methods exist for the study of this type of socal organization. The practial methods hich practical men lke the politcal bos, the labor agitator, the stockexchange speculator, and others have worked out for the ‘control and manipalation ofthe public and the crowd furnish «body ‘of matetials from which i is posible to make a mere detailed, a ‘more Intimate study of what may be called, in onder to distinguish it from that of more hight organized group, cllective behavior. ‘THE CITY ‘The cty, and particularly the great city, im which more than lscorhere human relations are likly to be impersonal and rational ‘Dened be term of interest and in terms of can s im a wery rel see laboratory for the investigation of collective behavior. ‘trikes and minor revolutionary movements are endemic in the Sina environment. Cities, and particlarly Uhe great cites, are fa table eoulfviom, ‘Te veel thatthe vast casual and mobile Sezrgatons which constitute our urban popilatons are ina state SPbetpetul agitation, sept by every new wind f doctrine, subject to vconstant alarms, and in consequence the community i+ ia a chronic condition of crs ‘What has been said suggests frst of all the Importance of a ‘more detailed and fondamental study of collective behavior. The uestions which follow wil perhaps auggest nes of investigation {hat could be followed profitably by students of urban i “What the apology of rd What the eye of erent avd in the eelton of «en pltaloeeomomict ‘To mht etc may the gstimentay stim, inching te etal syste, be mtd a tg w egret and te met and ‘mate rea? “To ntat extent ace mb vec, selena ac poo overnite th wos ofthe some Gena eons that prove San pak, eal Estee, and mane moremeets nthe polation gees? Teena tate the evtng natal elt an sil erent ot totneoment and sor femme habe seer in the tc exchange? "(iar ne tne eects of the ete of communation an of now FEN actin oe ck makes an room hg sell? ‘pu thewleostechon the exchange todo cageae the etarions fn the wnt, t sale hen "bth eerste meveppr, 0 fr 8 they vest the fast te to mead weil changes ott abo ovement enya progres? Pann tn elt fprepmgane stl, nes nee the sarc of scart inion ae ca cl? Jaa et con facetious thestock market contd by frat togution? ‘HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 25, “To what extent can oil changes, ses, and eoltosey movements be contd by the cong? “Tweet cam the set orwating of conc an scl anes cee asf nel ve the endo pe ano events? “Tow extent can he pes coded by the tackeehangs be compared ith pic opaon me recrtd by the newest? "Do what erent can the ky, whch respons mb quickly and wae eso Sig replete oe hl Mt, SECONDARY REIATIONS AND SOCTAL COMTHOL ‘Modern methods of urban transportation and commonication— ‘the electri railway, the automobile, the telephone, and the radio— Ihave silently and rapidly ehanged in recent years the sodal and Sndustiel organization of the modem city. They have been the ‘means of cnoentrating traicin th busines ditrics, have changed the whole character of retail trade, multiplying the residence sub~ ‘orbs and making the department store posible. These changes in the industrial organization and in the dstsibution of population Ihave been accompanied by corespending changes in the habit, sentiments, and character of the urban population. "The general nature of thete changes is indicated by the fact that the growth of cee has been accompanied by the substitaion of indirect, "secondary," fr dec, face-to‘ace, “primary” rela- tdons in the association of individuals in the community. ‘By pimary oupe E mean thse eheretrat by itnate facet ace soci nel croperion They ae pinay i seve eee Dat cley tat thy re fndamental forming the soci tae apd nto te {divide "Te rel of intimate suwotin, payday, ie exo [edb of individ a somo whol 20 hat tes very ll fr msn Darposer at hat i he cramon We 25d purpose ofthe grou. Petags tbe imply of deiing th wholeness by saying that ifs we”; I= {re tbe st of sympathy and mun entiation fo whic we" he “ntl expen, One vs Inthe fing of the wile and fd he cit nu of he wil eat ling.» == hes Harton Coy, Sct rslan,p.5, » ‘THe crry ‘the city, and particularly the great city, im which mote thas. asewhere man relations are likly to be impersonal and rational, ‘Jenne terms of interest and in terms of cas sin a very rel sere a laboratory for the investigation of cllective. behavior. Suites and minot revolutionary movements are endemic in the Schon environment. Cities, and particularly the great cities, are tn Unstable equ. ‘The reel is thatthe vast casual and mobile Eurege ions which constitute our urban popations are in» xate aE perpetual egtation, smept by every new wind of doctrine, subject tovconstant alarms, and in consequence the community is in & cron condition of crt ‘What hes been said suggests ist of all the importance of a more detailed and fundamental study of collective behavior. The ‘usstiona wih follow wil perbaps suggest Hines of investigation {hat could be flowed profitably by students of urban lif. ‘atthe peycholgy of What the cycle af events involved in the cyto of tei pla or esnomic? ‘Joana eteat may the qvlameaty system, adn che dctarat sosten be nye sm attempt regula ceveaion an to met and ‘cnt es? To nbn ext arto visas, nd i! pil vee the sau athe se oc ons hat provoke Sania pans, re ‘Sas bona, sd mas tooement In the popalation geal? Tova aan are the et stb calibro and oil ferment toon set and eed of cna changes 8 refered the tock exchange? "Wa are the eects of the extension of omnia and of mews wo, action ete ck ae and coor ogee? ‘Dos the lect stocks the exrhanges tend tn exageate te Bctatons fn the mkt, oto stabi then? ‘the reports inthe nvepepr, 0 a they represent theft to sped ape chant able ovement hey proees? Pete pope ramos whee the rues scat ormaton ae eof “Form cntnt on tatoo te took mart Ve cota iy em spain? ‘HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 23, set cog mt een eb te waarmee te reemnemraer eae Ee ae en re eres ac aan are hoc cna Staten TO SS ‘Modern methods of urban transprtation and communication~ the electri raibeay, the automobile, the telephone, and the radio— ave silently and rapidly changed in recent years the soc and industrial otganiation of the modem city. They have been the means of concentrating traficin the busines districts, have changed, the whole character of teal trade, multiplying the reidence sub- ‘ibs and making the department store posible, These changes in the industrial organization and in the distbtion of population Ihave been accompanied by corresponding changes in the habits, sentiments, and character ofthe urban population. "The general nstare ofthese changes is indicated by the fact thatthe growth of cites bas been accompenied by the substation of indirect, “secondary,” fr dec, face-to-iace, “primary” rla- tons in the associations of dividuals in the community. ‘By primary soap T mean those character by intinate fceoac ssocntom an coperation, They azo pay neve ees, Bt ey {ent they are fandnetal Sn forming the soc ata and eb af he {ediiak The rel of imate actin, pycblogily, Is « cera fsb of Indias sommon woes hat one's ay el ft man ent, bth comme and prpate tthe group, Paap tbe Fret wy of descrting ci wholeness by sing thet we = "ves tbe srt of sympathy and man entiation fr whic "we" tbe {atu expres One ves in the feng ofthe we and he chit of his in that elg. “Cher Han Coley, Sl nin, 8. 4 ‘THE crry “ouch nd sight, physi contact, athe ais forthe Sat nd ost elementary man relatontpe, Mother and child, band fed ily lather ano, ase and event, Lina and neigh bor, mintes, phyian and teacher—theve re the mot intimate tu eal elon fife and inthe all comment heya practically ince “he interactions which take place among the members of 3 commonly 19 comtited ar mediate and uneecting, Ite cours is cae on rgd witin the reson fasting Sil cotel ares, fr the most part spontanously, is direct. ‘ponte opernl nfuences nd posntinent, Te the rele ffs personal acommofation, rater thn the formulation of ‘ational nd bec prince Tie cach te cho, ad the ony Ina ret ct, where the ‘plain Is unstable, where parents and chileen af employed Out ofthe howe and ete natn ofthe ty, mire ths sands of people ve side by side for yar that so ch ew Dowing srqatins, iar intimate Seti of the pry froupave menkened sd the moral order which ted pen thr gradually dissolved. ‘acer th dintegetingindvencs of ty Hie tof oor inal insti, the che, the schol, nd the fey, ove ten rity mode, The sca, for example hes taken over sme cf the fonctions ofthe family. Te nao the publi soa ands folie fo the moral and physical nelare ofthe children that somthing ke anew nghbochon and omni spi ed o tis orgie. ‘The che, onthe other hand, hich has ot mucho wens sine the print pase ha 0 farsi tke he pee ofthe rip inthe interpretation ile, ems a prevent t be fn proce a reajetment othe nw conto shrank ‘net i hate oh ast hy He HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT 2s ‘What charges have taken pace in een yeas a the ay sentiments? inthe tude of haben omar wivt of nine foverd hat ea tovar pret te? ‘What do te esr fthe jee and mor carts inte aed to inate? Th what repos of cll le have the moreso the bt of he amily ite changed ent? To what extent have thee ches taken plac in respon th ns exceat the ci enviar? ‘Sal nventigntons might be cars on with rele tothe coat sd the cute. Here, to, ere a chnged atte hd changed pale ‘eins toa change event This importa bene the et lysis upon the fsttatons In whieh the immediate an vital terse of eo opt expen tht sol oeaizaton ldmanely ret. {ts probably the breaking down of local attachments and the vweskening ofthe restraints and inhibitions ofthe primary group, under the influence of the urban environment, which ate largely responsible for the increase of vice and crime in great cites, Tt, ‘would be interesting in this camnction to determine by favetiga- tion how far the increase in crime Keeps pace with the incrensing mobility of the population and to what extent this mobility i a function of the growth of population. Iti fom this point of view ‘that we should seek to interpret all thoe statistics which tester the disintegration of the moral order, for example, the statistics of divorce, of truancy, and of ere. What the fet of ommenbi of property, pancake hams tease) on vere ad on ene? In what eins ad dese etn inf eine eden? In hat chses oes woe ant mst fest? Wat tho ie ein this ec been fre a acto? “Towhat exten any given acl group, or exam the Talis in Ne ‘Yor ote Poles a Chic, do prets and cen ve ne race word, ses the sume guag, sd share these See adh far he ol {Ee turd secoust er fee dlnuony fe that parr grup? ow fa are the Roms mores mp for crnibal mariotatins of 48 semigroup? 6 ‘THE crry Criss an ic cours —Thincharactsstic of city life that all sorts ‘of people meet and mingle together who never fully comprehend ne another. The anarchist and the Gab man, the priest and the “Levit the actor and the misonary who touch elbows onthe street stl Iie in totally diferent words. So complete isthe segrezaton Af vocational cles that it is poible within the limits ofthe city tole ia an cation almost as complete as that of some remte rural community. = ‘Walter Besant tells the folloving anecdote of his experience as eaitor of the People's Palace Foural: tat ces Xendered nesarge trary tn be hope of Ughting pon somes ge. The af he Jor tremens ated i cna eat Uh pace Tay woe Joung drt iynaoe othen vey Ba eles ids daing sot whic ated rn tet tine Als They {and on tn det nn urate te ot pointe mst uno Sond te mot sates custo Yo pnd hom fs ‘Erica ket we tere fact ofthe case er thy ape, In val ‘hen preps ctr emay ad ofrel pn for ene Tae, tomy emreeny, tnt annoy tthe tbousads of Ch oun pop nds Sed pi there wa ot diverse th et ainentaryndeation of ny ira poner waver, Inalother tw three une el ho et {tray anion ith sme ceo Lea alt How shoul ee bean inthis town ee wat km ppes fea at (hat ne, ober In the immigrant cclnies which are now well established it every lare city, forelgn populations live in an ication which is Giferent from that ofthe population of East London, but in some respects more complete. "The diference fs that each one ofthese itl slic has amore orles independent poltel and soa organization ofits own, and {is the canter ofa more of Ies vigorous nationalist propaganda. For example each one of these groups has one or more paper printed in its own language. In New York City there were, a few years a0, * Wer Dt Bet den 1. HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT #7 270 publications, most of them supported by the loel population, printed in 2p diferent languages. In Chicago there were x0 dally ‘papers published in 7 foreign languages with a combined dally

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