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Microwave
Microwave
Cheng-Hsing Hsu
Department of Electrical Engineering
National United University
SCOPES:
Passive microwave circuits design and analysis using transmission line
theory and microwave network theory.
Outline
1. Transmission Line Theory
2. Transmission Lines and Waveguides
General Solutions for TEM, TE, and TM waves ; Parallel Plate waveguide ; Rectangular Waveguide ; Coaxial
Line ; Stripline ; Microstrip
5. Microwave Resonators
Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits ; Transmission Line Resonators ; Rectangular Waveguide Cavities
Dielectric Resonators
7. Microwave Filters
Periodic Structure ; Filter Design by the Insertion Loss Method ; Filter Transformations ; Filter Implementation ;
Introduction
*Definition
Microwave: designating or of that part of the electromagnetic spectrum between the
far infrared and some lower frequency limit: commonly regarded as extending from
300,000 to 300 megahertz. (from Webster
s dictionary)
f : 300MHz - 300GHz
: 100cm - 0.1cm
electromagnetic spectrum
From Kirchhoff
s voltage and Kirchhoff
s current law
where
V oe z V oe z
R j L
R j L
Zo
I
Z
phase velocity v
input impedance
in
vp
V
z
z
I
z
; Z0
R jL
; R and G are loss
G jC
jj LC
(0 LC ); Z 0
1
from v pn to obtained v pn
LC
L
C
The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load impedance
V
0 VoVo
ZL
Zo
I
0 VoVo
at z 0
Z Z o
Vo L
Vo
Z L Z o
Vo Z L Z o
Vo
Z L Z o
V
I
z
e
Z
V
z Vo e jz e jz
o
o
jz
e jz
V (0)
1
From ohmic ' s law : Z L
Z O O
I (0)
1 O
Z Z O
L
o Z L Z O
when Z L Z O O 0
For arbitrary of z : V ( z ) V ( e
z
z
V (z)
e
O e
Z in ( z )
Z O
z
z
I (z)
e
O e
Z in ( z ) Z O
Z in Z O
( Z L Z O ) e
( Z L Z O ) e
z
z
O e
VO z
z
) ; I ( z ) (e
O e
)
ZO
Z Z O
; because O L
Z L Z O
( Z L Z O ) e
( Z L Z O ) e
z
z
e x cosh( x ) sinh( x )
sinh( x )
tanh( x )
cosh( x )
Z L Z O tanh( z )
Z O Z L tanh( z )
From z l , then Z in ( l ) Z O
Z in (l ) Z O
Z L jZ O tan ( l )
Z O jZ L tan ( l )
Z L Z O tanh( l )
Z O Z L tanh( l )
1 Vo
2
where Pav
Re 1 *e 2 jz e 2 jz ,
2 Zo
which shows that the average power flow is constant at any point on the line
When the load is mismatched, not all of the available power from the generator is delivered to the
load Loss is called return loss (RL) and is defined in dB
RL = -20log || dB
If the load is matched to the line = 0 and the magnitude of the voltage on the line is |V(z)| =
|Vo+| is a constant
If the load is mismatched the presence of a reflected wave leads to standing waves where the
magnitude of the voltage on the line is not constant
jz
2 jz
V(z) Vo (e jz e
) Vo e jz( 1 e
)
2 jz
2 jz
V(z) Vo 1 e
Vo 1 e
Vo 1 e j 2
V(z) min 1
VSWR 1
VSWR 1
VO e je j
1 e 2 j
Z L jZ O tan ( l )
Z in (
)
j
Z
Z
VO e e j O 1 e 2 j O O Z O jZ L tan ( l )
I
(a) Voltage, (b) current, and (c) impedance (Rin = 0 or ) variation along a
short-circuited transmission line.
(a) Voltage, (b) current, and (c) impedance (Rin = 0 or ) variation along an open-circuited transmission line.
A transmissi on coefficien t T
the voltage for z 0 is
V
z Vo e jz e jz
where Vois the amplitude of the incident voltage wave on the feed line
V
z VoTe jz
for z 0
Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 Z 0
IL (insertion loss )
IL 10 log T
dB
Often the ration of two power levels, P1 and P2, in a microwave system is expressed in
decibels (dB) as
10 log(P1/P2) dB
Using power ratios in dB makes it easy to calculate power loss or gain through a series of
components. For ex. : A signal passing through a 6 dB attenuator followed by a 23 dB
amplifier will have an overall gain of 23 6 = 17 dB.
If P1= V12 / R1 and P2 = V22 / R2, then the resulting power ratio in terms of voltage ratios is
V12 R2
V R2
10 log 2 20 log 1
dB
V2 R1
V2 R1
Smith Chart
Developed in 1939 by P. Smith at the Bell Tel. Lab. -> impedance matching problem and
transmission line issue
It is essentially a polar plot of the voltage reflection coefficient,
let the reflection coefficient be expressed in magnitude and phase (polar) form as =||ej then the
magnitude || is plotted as a radius (||1) from the center of the chart, and the angle (-180o 180o) is
measured from the right-hand side of the horizontal diameter
The real utility of the smith chart, it can be used to convert
from reflection coefficients to normalized impedances (or
admittance)
When dealing with impedances on a Smith chart,
normalized quantities are generally used z = Z / Zo
(zL-1)/(zL+1) = || e ; where zL=ZL/Zo this relation can be solved for zL in terms of to give zL =
(1+||ej) / (1-||ej) where Zin = [(1+e-2jl)/(1-e-2jl)]Zo , l = 0
This complex equation can be reduced to two real equations by writing and zL in terms of their real and
imaginary parts.
Let = r + ji and zL = rL + jxL
rL + jxL = [(1+r)+ji]/[(1-r)-ji]
The real and imaginary parts of this equation can be found by multiplying the numerator and
denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator to give
rL = [1-r2-i2]/[(1-r)2+i2]
xL = [2i]/[(1-r)2+i2]
{r-[rL/(1+rL)]}2+i2 = [1/(1+rL)]2
(r-1)2+[i-(1/xL)] 2 = (1/xL)2
which are seen to represent two families of the circles in the r and i
For ex., the rL = 1 circles has its center at r = 0.5 , i = 0 -------- has a radius of 0.5, and so passes
through the center of the Smith chart
All of the resistance circles have centers on the horizontal i = 0 axis, and pass through the = 1
point on the right-hand side of the chart.
The centers of all the reactance circles lie on the vertical r =1 line (off the chart), and these circles
also pass through the =1 point
The resistance and reactance circles are orthogonal.
Z
O
O
1 e 2 j
Z O jZ L tan ( l )
where is the reflection at the load, and l is the (positive) length of transmission line. If we have
plotted the reflection coefficient ||ej at the load, the normalized input impedance seen looking into a
length l of transmission line terminated with zL can be found by rotating the point clockwise an amount 2l
(- 2l) the radius stays the same , since the magnitude of does not change with the position along the
line
The smith chart has scales around its periphery calibrated in the electrical wavelengths, toward
and away from the generator(the direction away from the load) these scales are relative, so
only the difference in the wavelength between two points on the Smith chart is meaningful.
=> The scales cover a range of 0 to 0.5 wavelengths => a line of length /2 requires a rotation
of 2l = 2around the center of the chart, bring the point back to its original position=>
showing that the input impedance of a load seen through a /2 line is unchanged.
Ex. A load impedance of 40+j70terminated a 100 transmission line that is 0.3long. Find
the reflection coefficient at the load, the reflection coefficient at the input to the line, the input
impedance, the SWR on the line, and the return loss.
<Sol>
The normalized load impedance is zL = ZL / Zo = 0.4 + j 0.7
using a compass and the voltage and the voltage coefficient scale below the chart, the
reflection coefficient magnitude at the load can be read as || = 0.59 -> SWR = 3.87, and to the
return loss (RL) = 4.6dB Now draw a radial line through the load impedance point, the read
the angle of the reflection coefficient at the load from the outer scale of the chart as 104o
On the other hand, drawing an SWR circle through the load impedance point.
Reading the reference position of the load on the
wavelengths-toward-generator (WTG) scale gives a value of
0.106 moving down the line 0.3toward the generator
bring to 0.406
Zin = Zozin = 100 (0.365 j 0.611) = 36.5 j 61.1
the reflection coefficient at the input still has a magnitude
of || = 0.59 ; phase = 248o
Slotted Line
A slotted line is a transmission line configuration (usually waveguide or coax) that allows the
sampling of the electrical field amplitude of a standing wave on a terminated line. with this
device the SWR and the distance of the first voltage minimum from the load can be measured,
and from this data the load impedance can be determined due to the load impedance is in
general a complex number (with two degrees of freedom), two distinct quantities must be
measured with the slotted line to uniquely determine this impedance
Measured impedance
Slotted Line (previous) Vector Network Analyzer (now)
Assume that, for a certain terminated line, we have measured the SWR on the line
and lmin, the distance from the load to the first voltage minimum on the line. The
load impedance ZL can be determined as follows.
|| = (SWR-1)/(SWR+1) ; a voltage minimum occurs when ej(- 2l) = -1, when is
the phase angle of the reflection coefficient, = || ej
=> = + 2lmin where lmin is the distance from the load to the first voltage
An X-band waveguide slotted line.
minimum
Since the voltage minimums repeat every /2, where is the wavelength on the line,
and multiple of /2 can be added to lmin without changing the result in = + 2
lmin, because this just amounts to adding 2n/2 = 2n to , which not change
the complex reflection coefficient at the load can be find by SWR and lmin
To find the load impedance form with l = 0 : ZL = Zo [(1+)/(1-)]
Z in Z1
RL jZ1 tan
Z1 jRL tan
we can divide the numerator and denominator by tan l and take the limit as l /2 to get
Zin = Z12 / RL
In order for = 0, we must have Zin = Zo, which yields the characteristic impedance Z1 as
Z1 Z o RL
Ex. Consider a load resistance RL = 100, to be matched to a 50 line with a quarterwave transformer. Find the characteristic impedance of the matching section and plot the
magnitude of the reflection coefficient versus normalized frequency, f/fo, where fo is the
frequency at which the line is /4 long.
<Sol>
z1
50
10070.71
Z in Z o
Z in Z o
4
v
4
f
p
o 2 fo
For higher frequencies the line looks electrically longer,
and for lower frequencies it looks shorter.
The magnitude of the reflection coefficient is plotted versus f / fo
T
T
T
T
T
T
......
1
1 2 3
1 2 2 3
1 2 2
3
T1T2 3
2 3
1
n
n 0
when 3 1 and 2 1, the infinte series can be using the geometric series result that
for x 1
x 1
n 0
to give
T1T23
T T
1 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
1 2 3
1 2 3
Z1 Z o
4 Z1 Z o
3 T1T2
3
3
1
1
1
2
2
Z
Z
Z
o
1
o
1
Z1 Z o
RL Z1
RL Z1
Z1 Z o 2 Z12 Z o RL
Z1 Z o
RL Z1
Z1 Z o
RL Z1
2
1
1 e 2 j
Z jZ o tan
Z o
2 j
1 e
Z o jZ tan
Z Z
where is the reflection coefficient of the load o
Z Z o
and we can find V from the voltage at the generator end of the line , where z -
Vg
Vo Vg
Zo
e j
V Vg
Z o Z g 1 g e 2 j
Z in
Vo e je j
Z in Z g
Z in
1
j
Z in Z g e e j
2
1 1
1
1
1
Z in
2
P Re Vin I in* Vin Re Vg
Re
2
2
Z in Z g
Z in 2
Z in
Now let Z in Rin jX in and Z g Rg jX g
1
P Vg
2
Rin
Rin Rg 2 X in X g 2
Zo
Z o Rg 2 X g2
Rg
4 Rg2 X g2
Conjugate Matching
Assuming that the generator series impedance, Zg, is fixed, we may vary the input impedance Zin until we achieve
the maximum power delivered to the load.
=> Knowing Zin easy to find Zvia an impedance transformation along the line
To maximum P, we differentiate with respect to the real and imaginary parts of Zin
2 Rin
Rin Rg
P
1
0
0
Rin
Rin Rg 2 X in X g 2 Rin Rg 2 X in X g 2 2
Rg2 Rin2
X in X g 0
or ,
2 Rin
X in X g
P
0
0
X in
Rin Rg 2 X in X g 2 2
X in
X in X g
0
or ,
X in X g
Z in Z g*
This condition is known as conjugate matching, and results in maximum power transfer to the load, for a fixed generator impedance
The power delivered is
2 1
1
P Vg
2
4 Rg
jC
R jL
G jC jL
1
1
jL
G RG
R
j LC 1 j 2
L C LC
with RG 2 LC
G
R
j LC 1 j
L C
If we were to ignore the ( R//G//) and using Taylor series expression
j R
G
1
C
L
1 R
j LC
1
,
so
that
GZ
o
C
2
L
C
2
LC
Zo
R jL
L
G jC
C
Vo z
I
z e ez
Zo
e 2 je 2e 2 the reflection coefficient at a distance from the load
The input impedance Zin at a distance from the load
V
Z Z L Z o tanh
Z in
I
o Z o Z L tanh
Vo 2
Vo
1
2 2
2
Pin Re
V
I
e e
1
e 2
2
2Z o
2Z o
The power actually delivered to the load is
2
Vo
1
2
*
PL Re V
0 I
0
1
2
2Z o
The difference in thee powers corresponds to the power lost in the line
2
Ploss
Vo
2
Pin PL
e 21 1 e 2
2Z o
The first term accounts for the power loss of the incident wave,
while the second term accounts for the power loss of the reflected wave
note : that both terms increase as increases