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    Nationalist Sentiments and Perceived Threats Public Opinion in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore and Implications To The Establishment of ASEAN Community

    Uploaded by

    Guido Benny

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 26
    Lin chin ning Chow Cie nd KayCee hi ISSN 1027-4979 i July 2014 ‘TAMKANG JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, Publisher Flora C. 1 Chang Editorial Board Archie Brown. Pu-chang Chang ‘York W. Chen Roger E. Kanet David Kleykamp Srikanth Kondapalt ‘Tai Wan-chin Editor ‘Tai Wan-chin Managing Editor Hsichsun Tsei Assistant Editors (Chia-wei Chien Sie-chie Hsiung Tamkang Journal of International Affairs is an ntrdiscilinary ‘and professional quarterly published in January, April, July and ‘Qctober Is main goal is o provide an open forum on a wide range of topics related to international relations, political economy and security inthe contemporary world ‘Subscription Rates In Taiwan, NTS500 per year. For subscribers elsewhere: USS30.00 per year (Gurice mai. Direct all subscription inquiries to: Tamang Journal of International Affairs, College of International Studie, ‘Tamkang Univesity, 151 Yn-chuan Rd, Tamsui (251), New Tuipe Cy, TAIWAN Printed on recycled paper snd Percelved Thrents 5? od Threats: Public Opinion in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore and Implications to the Establishment of ASEAN Community” Guido Benny, Rashila Raml, and Tham Slew Yean"* Inspired by the success of European initiative of integrating Western Europe, ten member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Notions (ASEAN) commenced thelr ASEAN Vision 2020 in 1997 40 build an ASEAN Community which is road minded: living peacefully stead, and prosperous; bourded Iogether in a partnership and in @ dynamic development in a caring community. Yet, the formation process of ASEAN Community has never seriously taken the nationalist sentiments ‘no its consideration. This article examines the result of public ~The recarch is parily findod by she Mtn of Higher Edveon Maless' Rsearh Uiverity Gat (OUP), UM. GUP-TKS.07-1096, The tutors wald ike exes tir athlete fing ge pe Guid Beny int ser este tthe Faculty of Socal Secs and Muna,” Univers Kebagsat Malgs Pelosi | ots fellow afte of Maesian and lratonl Sees, Univer Ketangiaan Maps, Hang, Mays He cn be fsche 90 ‘al pidbenytagscom, Fools Rami Diosor ofthe nat of Malin an Interna Studs, Utes Kebungiaan Maly, Bang, Naas She an be reached ‘ise rilagnimed my Prot br Tham Sew Yen Deputy Director fe tnt of Natasa | Intemationa toin, Univers Kebagson Mays, Fang Masi She ‘hn beet vin eal hum inca. com. opinion swveys regarding nationalist and percelved threat sentiments ofthe public in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore in {ive dimensions ~ chawnisic, reactive, economic, consumer and ‘porcived threats. The study finds that the extent of nationalist sentiments is quite high and that itis neighbouring countries that were perceived to pase threats fo national sovereigns: Thus, the study argues that these sentiments need to Be examined and careflly managed because they may influence the success of ‘regional integration asi goes against international relations and Imtegration initiatives Keywords: Nationalism Sentiments, Regional Integration, ASEAN Community, Public Opinion Survey, Perceived Threat Sentiments Nationalist Sentiments and Perceived Threats 1 Introduction ASEAN was formed on 8" August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippine, Singapore and Thailand and was later enlarged to inelude Brunei Darussalam (1984), Vietnam (1995), Myanmar (1997), Laos (1997) and Cambodia (1999). I has been considered as succesful in keeping the region peaceful and stable, ‘stimulating regional economy, and providing & framework for rations to cooperate in dealing with such common threats as cavironmental degradation, communicable diseases, terrorism, and transnational crime Vision of an ASEAN Community was expressed in the 2003 Declaration of Bali Concord 11 In an attempt to emulate the success of European regionalism, ASEAN embarked upon an ambitious project of creating ASEAN Community, based on three core pillars, relating issues of security, economics and socio-ultare, This project was motivated by the need to further strengthen regional inepration amid global challenges and the ‘imminent rise of China and India as world economic powers. Some have argued thet this vison will change ASEAN fom "Rodolfo C. Sev, Soha Ast in Search ofa ASEAN Commi (Siaipre: nse of Satheaet Asan Stuy 306) 71-74. * Rodale Severino, Elspeth Thorne, sd ark Hone. Soha Ai in 2 New Bra: Ton Coane One Reon in ASEAN. (Supe ae oF ‘Stuheast Asm Suds, 2010) 245, ASEAN Seren” Declaration of Ball Concord I, shen, 2003, pwns orgeneto elnino aseoncr ral coma scene 30,2013 62 Tamkang Journal of Internat ‘being ‘an elite diplomatic tak shop’ to be a “sharing and caring regional community” that aspites to be established by the end of ros! In contrast to European regionalism, ASEAN is criticised for its elt and sate-centrie as well as the lack of public involvement or publo’s sentiments i its formation tthe same time, history as well a literature on regionalism has demonstrated Kamran Abdulsh, Guo Benny, and Motaed Anwar Om Dit “the Uniersandng oft ldeizaion snd Concetaizaton of ASEAN ‘Comunity, Conarsive Stay boween Malesia sna nde” Zaman Sura of Ines Airs U8 0,2 (201 91-129, Cao Benya iKimuasteam Abdul adostian Perepions and Aes evar te [ASEAN Community” Jour of Caren owes Aan fay 30,8, {Golty 29.6, Kaun Abul ad Gado Bey "Repl Pv pinion towards he Foraton 9 Pos Sscrty Community i Souter [Ri tan oaral of Sec Research no 4 (201) 80-68; Al (on Pape vets ASEAN: a Doce Aj Ch fr Civil Soi ‘tsinsnion™ Contrary Sather Ana 02208): 313-33 S'Emtay Ainge, “Derrataton and be Prospects fr Paiipaory Regent. Sousa Asay" Thon orld Quarry 24, wo. 2 {Gonsy378 20, Aran Actunn, "Amuing tbo ASEAN, Wha Do We faze Att” Comtide Review of norman Afar 2, 3209) 195409, oid Beay and Karim Abdul, “ndoesan Prepon’ {Anges toward he ASEAN Communi" Jol of Coren Sus “on fry 30.1 GON 9947 tna oy Caves, “Clb social potey ‘frum Cuil sca shllenging ASEAN,” lot Sot Poly 7, m3 (Govt zene Cle Subang, "Resoeling aon and rein: fermen ten bling and ASEAN regal,” Pla! She 7.00 20m) 31636, Ravichandran Mocehy and Guido Benny, “s “ASEAN ‘ommuniy clei! pe prep sali in Innes, Mali tnd Spor en the peed obuactes fr 8 inl community” Aon ‘Srey 62013) 108-1065; Ravitana Noor nd Gi Bey “Dos pi pi cure! Knowledge and sopor fr_an_ ASEAN ‘Conant none i and Sagapor”Ieranianal Relation of theta Pc 13 2013) 398-05 Nationalist Sentiments and Perceved'threaty 63 that opinions and participation of ever! public can play an important role in determining the suvess of such efforts. Amidst ‘complaints of being a democracy-detcit process, European imegration shows the importance of public involvement and Sentiments in integrating the region. The current status and success of the European Union (EU) in ezonomic, political and social integration have clearly been the outcome of consensus-bulding as well as an active public involvement with policies formulated based on Eurobarometer surveys that reflect grassroots" sentiments Nationalism is one ‘ype of public sentiments that may influence publi atitudes towards cooperation beween nations. In| this study, nationalism is defined asa belie that one's tte is of primary importance or that i is naturally superior other stats 11 is a manifestation of “national feeling” that underscores the sense of collective Identity — a ‘people! mast be autonomous, united, and express a single national cultue,* Altematively, rationalism may also be depicted as collective identities towards "Theodor W. Adorn, Ese Peke-Brnsik, Dail Levinson and Nev Sa Pe dri voy Now Yo Has i tom. 9503 anit Drcknans “Natal, Patt and Grup Loyal. Seta Pacino Pepin Intron Sues Quarter 3 on 811998 {526 Ere atin Ja rely, Nation and moat ach NY Comel! Uivery Prem 2009, Athey D.Snith Natoma oy (Re Driversty of Neads Pros, 1959 Tze Supa Natale and Globalization: Eat and Res (Sing Insti Sous Av Stace 200). nim Hahn and Anthony’ D. Seah, Navonlim (Oxi: Oxford Univers Pree, 88) “Tamang Journal of International Affairs ‘imagined. communities that are not naturally expressed. in language, race oF religion, bu rater that are socially constructed by the very individuals that belong to a given nation? Previous studies have demonstrated negative effects of rationalist sentiments on atitudes toward regional integration Differ with cognitive mobilisation theories or the tiitarian Ahcories, Social entity theovies refuse the argument that suppor for integration project is elated to pior knowledge or individual's calculation of benefit (r loss) fom that process.” Most studies nde social identity theories argue that national identity may go against regional integration and contend that individuals who have strong attachments fo national identity might perceive the ‘unification as a threat f0 national identity because it blurs the istnetons between national communities." National identities tre mone deeply rocted in people's minds than a distant and newly | emerged regional integration, soit seems plausible to expect tht the presence of national identity is the cause of low support for "European integration, anda growing amount of evidence supports Feat Anon, mag Comat elton th rit and soft (snd: Rt. TSN egies Guy Mat, Dose leit o none Ratality Dae Pte Opn on Eacpean ington” Puta See Poe Mme 10s) ais, 1 fe ee Tone Chris an Aled H. Titi, ig te EU Eaplnng ac Opn Sots Eup Union Ptr 30. $ (aay slat ae Hop sd Gay Ma Cain Comal {ol us: Pate Opnsn on Espn nce” Eup Onan Plies ein anoy a8; men Metres “apg ‘Mase once lees tec Din et Paar 2 anon Nationalist Sentiments and Perelved Thre co this claim ‘Various empirical public opinion sui conducted among the Europeans demonsrat a negative association between national attachment and support for regional initiatives. Carey finds that individual attachment to Europe is positively linked to support for ‘he EU.” Christin and Trecsel find that the stronger the national attachment and national pride of Swiss citizens, the less likely they support membership in the EU! Tuedike finds a stong negative association between national identity and support for EU immigration poliey'* Hooghe and Marks find that strength of national identity isa beter predictor of attitudes toward the EU ‘han utilitarian variables'* and demonstrate empirically that individuals who conceptualise their identities in exclusively national (ater than civic) terms are the most hostile to European ® ‘sb Hoopbe sol ary Mork. “Cacution Community and Coe: Publ Option on Europes legato,” Faropeon Unum Polis 6, 8 (aors. 419-4: igsem Keomen, “Deeminans of Support tor EU Membership in Tey ome Aachen, Usran Contras and Nat deity." Eurpean itn Pair 90.4208) 47-510. San Cue. “Undiidel Loyaior Nato! det an Obtacle 10 ope lngtion?™ Epes Uno Pola fo 4 O00) 297-13 “Thon Cin und Alea Tres, Jing tbe EU. Expaning abe Options Swern?” arpa Union Pals 3, 9.4 C2 am Lacie, “European Inept, Pale Opinio, snd nigaton ole: Teing th Input of Raton ety” European Una Pai 20 [005 85-112 ste Hoge snd Gary Maks, “Doss ty o Ecos Ratna Dre Pale Opinion on Europes negation?” Palit Scene Plc spo. 3 2004) 418-20. integration.” ‘An article by Fred Halliday inthe context of interational ‘cooperation may explain how nationalism works against repional integration. "* First of all, nationalism is associated with offensive political ideology ~ such as xenophobia, chauvinism, nilitrism, and imperialism — and as the consequence, itis ccountable as a source of prolonged conflict and often of war, clic masieres, genocide, and unending low-love crises across the world, Secondly, nationalism may serve as an impediment for voperation on intemational issues ~ be this trade, security, rmigation, environment, or uny other issue in. contemporary emational poles. Thedy, nationalism may destroy viable political and economic unit by promoting disintegration of states, secession, fragmentation or various forms. Fourthly, nationalism ‘may crate a climate of intolerance and dictatorship within states, Finally, on the altura level, nationalism provokes an inward-looking approach that is inimical te cultural exchange and hich denies the sch interaction that has always characterised caltue, religion, and language inthe modem world, ‘This paper aims o discus the extent of national 7 i Hog md Gay Mak. “Canon, Commi od Cone Pate Opin on Coen Inepnon Eps Una alr, cin a ‘Fred Halliday, “Nationalism,” in The globalisation of world politics: An inmate Ron at Bsa Kee St (Pr ens aso 7, 308300 [Nationalist Sentiment and Perceived Threts 7 and perceived threts ~ in three eounttes of ASEAN ~ asthe deadline forthe formation ofan ASEAN Community draws close It argues thatthe opinions wf the peaple especially nationalist sentiments and perceived threuts of neighbouring counties — need to be given enough atention und carefully managed inthe establishment of regional community, for the reason that ‘unattended excessive nationalism can be detrimental to the ‘success of regional integration. This argument is important given the differences of the relationship between nationalism and regionalism in Southeast Asia compared o in Europe. Acharya” ‘contends tha, unlike in Europe, regionalism in Southeast Asia has boon made to serve the interest of nationalism inorder to maintain regional stability in polieal and economic terms. Thus, as the success of regina integration framework roquirs some level of management upon certain nationalist sentiments issues, ASEAN leaders need to be more attentive to some certain economic rationalism issues that may jeopardize its regional economic integration initiatives, |A thorough review on the ASEAN regionalism literature found no specific reference to public nationalist sentiments, perceived threats and theit implication to the formation of an ASEAN Commanity. While there have been only a handful of studies involving public opinion survey tovard ASEAN Arty Aca “Soa Ae aging the region.” Him South ali Naina con/omooen conten rice 7-souhestasininagi ringsheepon til (Aces aly 26,2018) o urna of International Affairs Community,” none of the studies discuss about nationals seatimentsor perceived treat ofthe publi. Therefore, this sty is intended 1o contribute to the body of knowledge on regionalism studies, especially on the role of nationalist and perecived threat, sentiments in the Southeast Asian cae. Specifically, the study analyses and discusses nationalist sentiments of the public under the constructs of chawvinisic, reactive, economic and consumer nitionalism by using empirical findings of survey conducted in the tree countries (Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore). ‘Survey Development and Implementation ‘The study uses the findings of a survey in thee ASEAN countrict ~ Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. The survey is aimed to collet information on public attitudes, opinions and aspirations fr the ASEAN Community, The choice ofthese three > Kanurunzam Abdilsh ad Gio Benny, “Rion Pe Opsion| toyare he Fomaton of Plea! Sear Commun) I Soutes AS ‘in towma of Seo Rsk 6 0 4 GOI 60-565, Ci Beaty tnd Kamara Abu, Tnnsin Perception and Aas twa he ASEAN Comal” ara! of Curent Sota Aoon flrs 30 1 Goldy Soar, Revsiadan Morty and. Guido Benny ne °ASEAN Comonsiy” Acre Apu prapton sai Inne, Maia ted Smgaporsom te perceived oa fra repeal comma” Ate Simey San. 6 2012) 183-1066 Ravchanian Moot and Guido Ben. oer pe ‘pin cour” Keowee nd supa fr an ASEAN Communi Indonesia, Maud Singapore” IneraionlRelaros of the" dna Pac Th 13) 398428; Ee C. Thompson and Chainer ‘Tanda and ernest ASEAN: Summer of inde om en nation mr ata: The ASFAN Foundation, 2008 ved Tarte ‘countries are justified as follows: (1) these counties were among, ‘he founding members of ASEAN in 1967, apart from Thailand and the Philippines; (2) these three countries are considered important in ASEAN terms of ther respective size of teritry and population, and economy;®* and (3) the thee counties have conducted close cooperation with ech oter but some unresolved problems persist in relationships among them, To measure the responses, & set of questionaire with combination of Ske scale questions and an open ended question were employed. The quesionates were made susilable in thre national languages, namely Babasa Indonesia, Bahasa Malaysia and English, Pit tests 10 a number of 30 respondents for each type of quesonmaies were conducted 1 ensue the coherence of the instuments. The questions were developed to examine the five dimensions of the sentiments — chawinisic, reactive maton, economic nationalism, consumer satinalise and perceived teat sentient lm ether ‘The fist dimension — chauvinstic sentiment — was adapted from the concept of chauvinist nationalism from Raijman and Hochman” and Staub, In this study, this dimension was "Far hr dea, plen fer: ASEAN Sein ASEAN Commaniy Pare 2011 Ustrts 2012) {ry Chrisose, Re Burke Jobson, a Lie A. Tare, Recah Methods Dasgn auf alae (Bone: Ally & Basen 701) 39. ‘Rete Ramanand Ost Hickman, "Natonlatachmens,scnamic measured by the extent lo which respondents: (1) agree that patotism should be one of the main objectives of education, so thatthe children inthe three countries will come to believe that their country is one of the best in the world; (2) proud of the beauty of their counties; (3) proud of history and culturl heritage of their country as it forms the roots of history and cultace for Southeast Asia; and (4) think that cultural values and local wisdom oftheir country i one ofthe best in the world The second dimension ~ reactive nationalism sentiment — was ‘developed from the concept of reactive nationalism from Britinghan’, Chan and Bridges" and Erin.” The indiatos measure the extent that the respondents: (1) willbe angry if there isvare foreign counties) claim atertory of their country; (2) do ot ike any other county laying claim on the respondents ‘counties’ authentic cultural artefits as theirs: an (3) wll protest if leader of a foreign country undermines the pride of ther “ompetion, aod sock excion of somatic mignats sled {piel-matods approach” Quay ond Quai 4 D1 11511074 Eoin uth, “Bl vers conswcine. pots Moving from ‘keine te pp oe! oa and an” a Pam he lwo dren mations Dail Ba ala Erin Sa (Chisgs ‘eon tal Pubs, 1997), Sica Alsn Brigham. “Reactive eadonlisn and its prospects for entice Te Tan ue, Sa-US weaion and tefl rai {hes frien ptey” (PHD dan, Univer of Psburg, 200) S°Chan Che po and Bran Heder, “Chng, Japan, and te clash of tptonlis” tian Papen 301 2006) 127156. ‘pene atin Ar Emerges Par af Reactive Neonalon in Tukey ‘TuSol” PRD ds, Mid Es Tena Unive, 2010) _Natonalist Sendimentsand Poreived Threats 7 ‘The third dimeasion - economic nationalist ventana won developed from the concept of econ natin fom Haugh and Yaprak *. In his study, thn dimension comprived of public sentiments towards foreign products, investments and workers, Thus, the indieators measured the respondents’ agreement tht (1) they should only accept imported products from the countries Which accept their products; 2) ther respective government should try their best not to purchase goods and services from foreign companiestcounvis; (3) their respective government should protect domestic industries by erating trade bariee for foreign products; (8) they dislike foreigners owning/opeating busines in their country; (5) their respective government should tty to control the involvement of foreign business in every sector of economy; (6) they would support —politcian/public oficialspolitial partes which want to reduce foreign business setup in their country), and (7) foreign workers ean be harmful to ther society because they 10b the locals of employment opportunities ‘The fourth dimension ~ consumer nationalist sentiment ~ was Adapted ffom the concept of consumer ethnocentrism and nationalism from Balabanis, Diamantopoulos, Mueller and * Chroper Baugh and Ail Yaprak, “Econo Naina: Conceptual nd Empl Devaepnest" Pala Prychlogy17,a,(1986) 139.798 2 ational Afaes “Tamkang Journal ofa Melewar®, Akhter* and Shimp and Sharma.” The indieators| ‘measured the respondents’ agreement that (1) buying domestic products is always the best choice; (2) they always try their best rot to buy and use foreign products, unless it cannot be avoided; (3) they always recommend oters (family, fiends and relatives) rot to buy foreign products; (8) they are willing to stop buying Foreign products and switch to domestic ones instead; and (S) they would buy domestic products although te price is slightly higher i the quality was similar. nally, the study's fiNh dimension — perceived threat sentiments from ther countries ~ was developed from the ‘concep of perceived treats from the 2007 Pew Global Avis Survey: tn this study, this dimension is measured by posing the respondents in the three counties with a question “Which ‘countries do you perceive to bea threat to the sovereignty of your country?” The questions for the first four dimensions are measured by * George Balibos @ a “Tie mpc of Nata, Pass and Iceatcaisn "ow Comet cenicTencnet" ura of eScT A Aimer ldetean peti Mode of cnomic ‘etoain andCrnste Bein” ura of Comer Moning 24 poem 113. Piece A Shing ad Sob Stara, “Coneaner edmenn: Constonton and valiaion of te CETSCALE,” cura of Marg eee uo. 198 28028, {Sor Resch Cer Gl Opinion Tres 2002 2007: Ring Tide Life Mood nthe Devine Word (ono, DC Te ew Reseh Cer 20. Nationals Sentiments a Perceived Threats 79 closedended indicators by which cach respondent must choose ‘one option among the five possible iker scale answers. However, the th dimension of the study is measured by open-ended ‘questions in order to avoid leading answers to specific countries. In this sense, each respondent might answer more than one ‘country, resulting in total figure of perceived treats that surpass the number of respondents involved in the study, Inthe tree counties, the survey was held in eleven major cites (Indonesia: Jakarta, Makassar, Medan, Surabaya and Pontianak; Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Melaka, Johor Bahru, and Kota Kinabalu; and Singapore. The cities were purposively chosen in terms oftheir significance to the economy, polity, and soco-culture ofthe countries and their connectedness {0 other countries inthe region.* In each city one or two most leading universities were chosen to gather the data ~ so the study involved respondents fom Universitas Indonesia (Iskarta), Universitas Hassnuddin (Makassar), Universitas Sumatera Utara (Meda), Universias Aislangea and Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November (Surabaya), Universitas Tanjungpura (Pontiansk), Universit Kebangssan Malaysia and Universiti Malaya (Kuala ‘Lumpur, Universiti Sains Malaysia (Penang, Universiti Tekikal Malaysia and Universi Teknologi Mara (Melaka), Universit Teknologi Malaysia Johor Bahru), Universiti Malaysia Sabah Ravihandran Moorby apd Guido Deon, Ts “ASEAN Commit ‘Achivable? Ape preto nly it nde Malena Segoe ‘nthe perceive esac far eine don Srey $3 (Gory oe, 74 Tamkang Journal of laterntional Affairs (Kota Kinabalu), National University of Singapore, Nanyang. ‘Teehnological University, and Singapore Management Univesity (Singapore). “The survey was conducted between June and December 2012, involving a total of 1,256 respondents (S11 Indonesians, 451 Malaysians and 294 Singaporeans). They were selected by purposive - quota sampling,” balancing the proportion of students and staffs respondents in cach ofthe solected universities, tnd the faculties ~ business, engineering, sciences, and social sciences. Universities were chasen os respondents with a minimum of tertiary education were required due to the complicated questions structure and the requirement of ertcal thinking ofthe respondents. The choice of targeted respondents ‘may limit the representativeness of study, but it was the best methods considered given difculty of question constructs and the limit of resources allocated forthe study, Data from the survey were analyzed using statistical methods. Firstly, univariate desritive statisti, such as percentage, mode land mean were used 10 deseribe the statistical profiles of each variable, To ease the analysis of fiequeney distribution, the Sikert scale responses were regrouped into three response-ategores. In this sense, those who disagreed 10 the 5 per para ao Research Methade mPa, 2 in, Hound Pale Machin 2008) 10610; Thomas R Black, Undertanding a soln reach 3 el Landon: Sage, 202) 5455, [atfonaliat Sentiments and Perceived Treats 75 statement were combined with those who completely disagreed Similarly, those who agreed to the sistent were combined with those who completely agreed. Finally, to compare responses from three counties, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Post-Hoc Least Square Difference (Post-Hoc LSD) tess were used upon the set of original responses. ‘Table 1 shows the profile ofthe respondents involved in the survey. Those surveyed were balance in term of gender (50.8% male and 49.2% female). The majority of them are younger manure (75.4%), single (90.7%), with undergraduate education background (72.4%) and lower to midile level of household expenditure. Students (46.2%), lecturers (21.9%), and, private-sector employees (15.1%) were three major occupations ‘of respondents i the three counties * Temas Black, Cndemioaing social sien reach, 2 (Lond: Sage, 202) 106-200 Lamy B. Cristom, Bure akon, aed Lin ‘ne Reve Mea te ot ais it bate: le ‘Table Respondents Profile Se = soe eS ‘Sore: Cake fom suey conde ye aon Perceived Threats 77 Nationalist Sentiments Findings This study examines five types of sentiments, namely the sentiments of chauvinism, reactive nationalism, econom rationalism, consumer nationalism and perceived threat sentiments. The extent ofeach sentiment is discussed as follows, (Chauvinstc Sentiment CChauvinism is defined as the individual's unquestioning loyalty to © particular state and nation that leads to uncial acceptance of and support for its policies and practice, in the absence of moral consideration of thie consequences. I manifests in exclusionary attudes towards out-groups. in terms of superiority of their groups," thus it may lead t hostility and conflict against other groups.” In this study, chauvinistc Sentiment is defined as pride towards one's country tha is 7 Gein Sic “Bind vera conerctive. pasion: Moving. fom ‘embeds nthe opt telly a acto” It Para ne Ihe ofl natin Dal Bul apd En Stab. (Chee Nebo Hall Pubic, 897,23: Rees Raju std Ont Honan Natal atachmens, ceramic competion sed socal exchsion ‘owaine igri nc” A snnetmetieds oppo” ‘uliy and Quant 48211) 181-117 "Phndar W. Adon, Ele Frankl-neviy Dail Levinson ard Nev Sanford, The thorn Poronalty (Nem Yok: Hare ad Ra 1950), ‘Thom Blk and Por Schmid "Nato enya Unted oman atonal er Pao? An Expieal Tent wn Repesenie Dat Poles! Pscholgy 2,2 (257 299312 Ae Manned, Andress Kn and Rape Brom "Nation and ptr: Natio! nest {nd et group eet” Bish Journal of Soil Pryhalg 40201) 172: ick Koserman and Seymout Fst, “Tova a Meno ofPatietc Pcl Pel) 10.2989) 387-274 7% Tamkang Journal of International Afairs regarded as unique sod superior in comparison to other counties. ‘As shown in Table 2, chawvinistic sentiments of respondents ‘were high. In general, the sentiments ofthe Indonesians were the highest among the three counties While Malaysians’ semiments| ‘were significantly higher than that ofthe Singaporean, they were significantly lower than those ofthe Indonesians. Nationalist Sentinents and Perceived Threats ‘Table? Chauvinistie Sentiments in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore Note: Eset the mean ales, Face and significance lige aren peconage Source: aaa fom a navey cote bye urs » ‘Tamkang Journal of International Affales Firstly, the study found that majority of respondents thought ‘tha patriotism should be one ofthe main purposes of education, ‘0 thee children would believe that their country is one ofthe best in the world, ANOVA test demonstrated significant differences among the respons in the three countries, Further snalyis with PostHloc LSD Test showed that although the responses in “Malaysia (mean = 397) and Indonesia (mean = 4.01) were not iticandy different, they were significantly higher than that in Singapore (mean = 2.37). Secondly, a great majority of respondents described themselves as being proud ofthe beauty oftheir country. ANOVA, test showed significant differences in the sentiments. Further Post-Hoe LSD analysis showed thatthe sentiment in Indonesia (onean ~ 4.68) was sigificanly higher than those in Malas (mean = 4.28) and Singapore (mean = 386). Furthermore, the sentiments in Malaysia were also significantly higher than tht in Singapore. ‘Thirdly, most respondents stated that they were very proud of the history and culture of their county. ANOVA test showed significant differences inthe responses: Although the sentiment in Malaysia (mean ~ 425) and Indonesia (mean ~ 4.32) were not significantly diferent, they were signitieanly higher than that in Singapore (mean = 359), Finally, most respondents claimed that the cultural values and [Nationalist Sentiments and Perceived Threats 8! local wisdom of thei county were one ofthe best inthe word ANOVA test showed significant diferences inthe responses. The Indonesians" pride in their cultural values and local wisdom (mean = 4.29) was significantly higher than those in Malaysia {can = 4.11) and Singapore (mean ~ 3.08); while the Malaysians? responses were also significantly higher than that of | Singaporeans. Reactive Nationals Sentiment Reactive nationalism i defined as felngs or emotions of Jove and advocating for the individual's on county i esponse to some exe provocations. The phenomena were observed by yah, Chan and Bridges, and Beitingham in thee sts, Diag rahi observed reactive nationalism in the context ofthe emergence of TKS, a secularist nationalist organisation 2s a eaton towards Islami revival and Kurdish Sepuratis in Tukey" Chan Che-po and Brian Bridges std reactive ations in the context of Chincie's —antJapanese demonstrations and lpanese reactions towards i and afi that reactive nationals usually mani trough radia! wordings snd behaviours against the targeted stats; but its ati diferent frm assrive nationalism in hat it responds rater tha intites an ss.” Ie sully manifested in protest agains perceived injustie. ti abo usually a release of emetions that have Deen Entin,"An Eimeaent Form of Reactive Naan in Tukey “TunSot (Pn dis, Nile Ft Teil Unversity 200), Chan Chepo and ri Bridge “Chim. Jap, and the lah of tai” Aan Peri sp, (200) 127136 2 ‘Tamang Journal of International Affalrs fermented for a considerable time, in response to a collective experience oF sentiment, with the feeling of being discriminated against, mistreated, ‘shame imposed," or hurt. Michael Alan Britingham studied Chinese nationalism within the context of Chinese foreign policy, particulatly of Taiwan isue and Sino-US relations and concluded that Chinese nationalism was a product of | China's interaction with the West and representa transformation {in identity from cultura-state to a nation-state? ‘As shown in Table 3, the sty found thatthe respondents ia alll the three countries exhibited high levels of reactive nationalism. In general, the Indonesians’ sentiments were much higher than the Malaysians and Singaporeans. While the Malaysians’ sentiments were significantly higher than that of the Singaporeans, they were significantly lower when compared to the Indonesian. The extent of reactive nationalist sentiments is cplained in the following paragraphs. © Misael Alan Britngham. “Reasve naonaiom and its prope for ‘ont The Taian ste, Sio-US relator, an the lof ata t ‘Chinese toegn pley"(PRD ds, Univer of Pash, 2008) % ‘Table3 Reactive Nationalist Sentiments in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore ‘ote Excpt forthe an ves, F sso and inicances, ail igues we m pcenage ‘Shane Calealtd fom sure conde by th authors a ‘Tamkang Journal of Internationa Afaes Firstly, the study found that majority of the respondents agreed to statement that they would be very angry if any foreign county claimed thei tenitory. ANOVA test showed that there ‘were significant differences in the responses: the sentiments in Indonesia (mean = 4.62) were significantly higher than those in Malaysia (mean = 3.92) and Singapore (mean = 3.88) The mean ‘ofthe Malaysia's response was also significantly higher than the Singaporean (sce Table 3). Secondly, most respondents stated that they would not like another country disputing andor claiming ownership of their culture oF cultural artefacts. ANOVA test showed significant Aiferences inthe responses of those surveyed. The Indonesians’ sentiments (mean = 4.57) were significantly higher than those in Malaysia (mean ~ 3.82) and Singapore (mean = 3.27); while the Malaysians’ sentiments were also significantly higher than that in Singapore Finally, most of the respondents showed thir willingness to protest i leadr() from a foreign country undermines the pride of| their nation. ANOVA test showed significant differences in the responses. The sentiments in Indonesia (mean = 445) were Significantly higher than those in Malaysia (mean ~ 3.75) and Singapore (mean ~ 3.4); while the Malaysians” sentiments were also significantly higher than those of the Singaporeans [atonal Sentiments and Perceived Threats 85 Economic Nationalist Sentiment Economic nationalism is defined as respondents’ atitudes and. sctions of protecting domestic products, companies, employment portunities, industries and people from foreign businesses, produets and workers. This variable was adapted from the model ‘on economic nationalism by Beugh and Yaprak." © Chvioper Baugh and Ail Yagrk, “eonomie Nanas: Conceal snd Empl Development alia! Pcl 17.0 #1996) 799.778 [Nationalist Sentiments and Perceived Threats 87 86 ‘Tamang Journal of Taternational Affairs - . ‘Table4 Economic Nationalist Sentiments in Indonesia, Note: Except forthe mea vale, scot and iifances Al fers are in percentage ‘Sour alent om survey conde by the mtr. ‘Tamkang Journal of International Ars Survey results found that economic nationalism in dee countries to be at « modest level (see Table 4). In general, these sentiments were the highest among Indonesian respondent, While Malaysians’ sentiments were significantly higher than those in Singapore, they were slightly lower than those in Indonesia. In all inieatrs, the economic nationalist sentiments of the Singaporeans wer significantly lower than those in Malaysia and Indonesia, The Indonesia's those in Malaysia and Singapore in relation to foreign businesses ‘operation, Theit agreement was higher on statements “government should try its best not to purchase goods and services from forcign companies/countries” (Indonesian mean = 3.26 compared to 3.09 in Malaysia and 2.00 in Singapore), “I dislike foreign ownership of business operating in my country” (indonesian mean ~ 3.90 compared to 3.68 in Malaysia and 1.98 in Singapore), “government should try to contol involvement of | forsign business in our economy” (Indonesian mean = 4.16 compared 1 3.93 in Malaysia and 2.77 in Singapore), and “twill support poiticianypublic ofiilspolitical partes which want to reduce foreign business set-up inthe country” (Indonesian mean = 3.52 compared to 3.36 in Malaysia and 2.13 in Singapore). On the other hand, the Singeporeans’ attitudes were quite liberal sentiments were significantly higher than towards foreign economic interest Regarding protectionism for local products and the sentiments National Sentimentsand Perccved Treats 8 towards foreign workers, nationalist sentiments in Malaysia were significantly higher than those in Indonesia and Singapore. Their agreement was significantly higher on “we should only accept imported products from the countries which accep our products” (mean in Malaysia = 3.27 compared to 292 in Indonesia and 2.46 in Singapore), “government should protect domestic industries by creating trade barriers for foreign products” (Malays 3.51 compared to 3.31 in Indonesia and 2.35 in Singapore); and “foreign workers can be harmful to our society because they rob employment opportunities from the locals” (Malaysans’ mean = 43.57 compared to 3.35 in Indonesia and 2.38 in Singapore) The Indonesian respondents’ sentiments on these isues were actually still high, but in general they were significantly lower than those ‘of Malaysians. In genoral, the Singaporean positions were markedly lower than those in Malaysia and Indonesia. Consumer Nationalist Sentiment Consumer nationalism reflects the attitudes ofthe citizens on foreign products: whether to purchase or avoid the products. This variable was adapted fiom the construct of consumer cthnocentrism of Balabanis, Dismantopoulos, Dentste Mueller and Melewar, * Akhter® and Shimp and Sharma that © George Baatais @ ol, “The Impact of Natonlism, Patiotsm ani losers on Consumer Elinccniie Tendencies.” dowal of terainal Buns Suds 3, 01 (001) 187-175 ‘Syed H.AuMer, “Clobalzon, Expectations Model of Bcoamic [atonaliim and Consumer Behrict” Jal of Consmer Marketing 25 sh 3 D0 14210, Beene A Shimp and Subhash Sharma, “Consumer etinocentiss: 90 ____Tamkang Journal of measured the moral fclings ofthe consumer in relation to buying ‘reign products. A nationalistic consumer will choose not to buy imported products because it is perecived as damaging to the national economy, and itis thus deemed as an unpatriotic deed“ ‘Coniston aod vation of te CEISCALE,” Jownal of Mokeing esearch 2,3 (987 20 289 ‘Gcrge Baabais tal, “The Inpact of Nationalism, Paton and Intmonlisn on Consumer Ekmoenie Tend Imeratonl Busines Swe 82,00, (2001 157-75 2 “Tamkang Journal of International Affairs ‘Nowe Encpt oto mona a, Face dspace, a Agere pecetise ‘Sue! Calculated fom a survey conducted byte auton 3 Generally speaking, the consumer nationalist sentiments of the respondents were rather low indicted by mean values nearing 10 3.00 (see Table 5). However, the respondents in Indonesia and Malaysia did exhibit consumer nationalism in some indicators. For example, almost two-thirds of the respondents in ‘Malaysia and Indonesia (both at 62%) stated that buying domestic products was always the best choise, Ther consumer nationalism ‘was significantly higher than that of Singaporeans (only 17% agreed). However, not many respondents (37% Malaysians, 42% Indonesians and 6% Singaporeans) admitted that they always try their best not to buy or use foreign products and to recommend others not to buy them (31% Malaysians, 28% Indonesians and 2% Singaporeans), ‘The Indonesian respondents displayed greater consumer nationalism than those in Malaysia and Singapore in two other issues. Firstly, more than half of them stated that they were willing to stop buying foreign products and switch to domestic ‘ones instead, Secondly, more than two-thils of Indonesians, ‘compared fo $7% Malaysians and 25% Singaporeans stated that they were willing to buy domestic products at a slightly higher price ifthe quality were similar Sentiments on Perceived Threats Perceived threats sentiment reflect the attitudes of citizens against other countries. An interesting finding from the survey indicated thet significant numbers of respondents percsived * “Tamkang Journal of International Affairs neighbouring countries as tneatening to sovereignty of their country, To this question, most Indonesian respondents answered that Malaysia (60.5%) and Singapore (204%) as the top two countries threatening their country’s national soversignty (Figure 1), These two neighbouring countries were even perceived to be tore of a threat than ‘superpower’ a6 the United States (2.5%), and ‘major powers’ as China (2.2%), Japan (0.4%) and Australia 22%, Nationalist Sentiments and Perceved Threats 95 Figure 1 Countries perceived as the threats fo national sovereignty of the respondents" country Sone Cnes Bom sae ss ye mts Similar findings were obtained when this question was posed to the Malaysian and Singaporean respondents, Although majority of respondents in these two counties did not view neighbouring ‘countries as perceived threas, they sil placed them at the top ladder of their mind. Malaysian respondents listed Singapore (20.8%), Indonesia (11.5%), Thailand (5.1%) and the Pilippines (2.2%) among the top five countries threatening national sovereignty (see Figure 1), Likewise, Singaporeans named Malaysia (10.2%) and Indonesia (6.5%) as the top two countries petecived to threaten their national sovereignty. Ths, respondents inthe three countries still perceived their immediate neighbours 1s the main threats to ther respective countries’ security. 96 ‘Tamkang Journal of International Afaes Discussions ‘This study argues that sentiments regarding national identities and perceived threats of neighbouring counties need to be examined and carefully managed because they may influence the suocess of regional integration as it may go against international relations and regional initiatives. Since it is unlikely that the [ASEAN Community can be achieved by 2015, especially all the ‘goals of the ASEAN Economic Community as specified in the AEC Blueprint, itis important to examine the possible hindrances to rogional integration in ASEAN. Experience ffom regional integration in Europe suggests that threats of economic nationalism to the suecess of European Union integration are some posible hindrances to integration. Hence, specific measures were undertaken by the European Commission and other European institutions to monitor the level of economic nationalist sentiments in order to counter the influence of economic nationalism in Europe * Thus, the findings of this study may serve as a call for policy makers as well as academicians to pay ‘more atention ta the threats of economic nationalism for greater effectiveness in ASEAN integration. Fee more dco o he teas of eooae mina and European Commis ection nd ples counter the rae of ch sentient, Pete se Rayna) Ahm. "Earpe Rising Bonomi Nationa” {CRS Reet for Congres. aly, 2008, pra mien semegaeov22468 pel accesed July 24,2014 Zaks Cooper, Esme Naan (Landon The Sih Insts, 2007, ‘pri tat og Sa eononseNatoram pa oss July 2an2018), "Nationale Sentiments and Percelved Thrests 97 This study found chauvinistc and reactive nation seatiments were still high in the three countries ~ a situation hich is not ideal for regional integration. As elaborated by Fred Halliday.” a high level of nationalism would result in a higher susceptibility to disputes with neighbouring country; the phenomena that have Somewhat strained the relations between Indonesia ~ Malaysia, Indonesia ~ Singapore, and Malaysia ~ Singapore in the last decades.“ Closer cooperation among nations, whether of regional, muliateral and bilateral forums, ‘would prevent the disputes from escalating into confrontations However, extreme nationalism may impede cooperation on international issues, as well as aggravate more problems and ificulties in solving the difficult issues among neighbouring ‘counties. So far several problems between the tree counties — territorial and cultural disputes, terrorism, transnational crimes, trafficking of illicit drugs and weapons, human smuggling. and ‘walficking, cross-border crimes, environmental pollution (such as haze from forest fre), foreign maid isues, and so on ~ need to ‘be solved by cooperation among states. Distrust that occurs due to high nationalism stance in the region may complicate these problems. “Fred Halidny, “Nationalism.” in The glbalearon of world pots: An intron fontaine Relation eb Raye mad Sve Sth {Oxford Oxtora Universi Pres, 997), 368368. Forti of confit i the regions plese see Hedelbrg Init for Incaiionl Confit Reseach, Confict Barometer 2011 (Neiebere Unive of Heidelberg, 2012), and Hedley Inte fr Ineo Confit Rewach Coyfet Barometer 2010 Weisberg Usventy of eldeber. 201 %6 The survey's finding of high level of chauvinistic and reactive rationalist sentiments may affect the progress of the ASEAN Community. Extreme nationalism would hinder the formation of| ‘he outward-looking community aspired in ASEAN Vision 2020." The vision of establishing a ‘caring community’ may ‘only be shetoric difficult to realise because extreme nationalism tends to promote parochialism and reject interactions between ‘cultures, religions, and languages, Regarding economic nationalism, it i rather worrisome tht, public in Malaysia and Indonesia aspired for more protectionist measures for national products, labours, and businesses. Significant numbers of respondents in Indonesia and Malaysia ssked the government to control the involvement of foreign jvestors in national economy and trade, supported the reduction of foreign business expansion and explicitly exhibited negative attitudes to foreign enterprises, Such sentiments are not conducive {or the establishment of the ASEAN Economie Community (AEC) 8 community of a common markt, single production facility, and single investment area in Southeast Asia ~ that promotes loissez faire intrasegional wade and investment in ASEAN ‘member countries, The perception that foreign workers as harmful is actually incompatible withthe concept of AEC that promotes fee flow of | © ASEAN Sexe ASEAN Mon 2020, swvncaman onclen/sean-vison-2020 (sessed June 3,213) nd Peretved Threats skilled/professional workers In ation, the sentiments of the Indonesian and Malaywian public that they demanded the government to contol the involvement of foreign investors tothe national economy and trade, supported the reduction of foreign business expansion, and showed negative attiudes towards foreign enterprises ~ do not appear to support the concept of « free flow of investments in the AEC. It was also extemely

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