McGraw-Hill Series in Water Resources and Environmenta] Engineering ‘Ven Te Chow, Rolf Eliassen, Paul If. King, and Ray K. Linsley Consulting Editors Dailey and Olli: Blochemiea! Engineering Fundamentals Dockrath: Environmental Lav for Bnwineers, Sclentists, and Managers Bouwer: Groundwater Hydrolony ivivonmensal Impact Assessment tr Ensironmtenial Protection Gaualy and Gaudy: Microbiology jor Eavirenmental Seiemits and Enghicert Graf: Hyelauliss of Sedimant Transport Haines: Hierarchical Analysis of Water Resourses Systenis: Modelling and Optimisation of Large-Scate Systems Hall nd Dracup: Warer Resources Systems Engincering ‘James and Lee: Beonomies of Warer Resources Planting Linsley and Frauzini: Werer Resources Engineering Linley, Kabler, and Pauthus: Hydrology for Engineers Metealf & Eddy, tne.t Wastewater Engineering: Collection and Pumping of Wastewater Melealf & Eddy, Inc.: Wastenater Engineering: Teatment, Disposal. Rense Nemerow: Scientific Stream Pollution Anais Rich: Environmental Systems Engineering Rich: Low-Maintenance, Mechanically-Sinple Wostewater Treatment Systems Sawyer and MeCariy: Chemistry for Environmental Engineering Selmouder: Water ad Wastewater Featment Steel anil McGhee: Warer Supply atad Sewerage Tehobynoglous, Thalsen, and Eliassen: Solid Wastes, Ragineering Principles and Management Issies Wallen: Growndwater Res 25 Buatuation WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND PUMPING OF WASTEWATER METCALF & EDDY, INC. Written aad edited by GEORGE TCHOBANOGLOUS Professor of Civil Engineering University of Cabfornia, Davis MeGraw-Hill Beok Company New York St! Lowis San Paeciice Avera Dogets Hamburg Tokarassburg London Madeil Mealco. Montesl New Delhi Perera Pat Sto Paulo Singspire Syabey THA Tato“This took was att i tines Roman by Holmes Compssition Service, ‘The editors were Juliane V, Brown and J, W. Masel the production sapercior was Chatles Hess ‘The drawings were dace by }© X Services, Ire. RLR. Donselley & Seas Compary ¥5 pseter and binder. AWASTEAWATER ENGNFERIN COLLECTION ANDPUMPING OF WASTEWATER Copyeight $1981 by NeGrawAie, Inc.All rights reserved Printed nthe United States bf America, No past ts publication may be reproduced, sled iaretreval yee, br trensnited, in any formar bs aay mears, elector, meckaricl,pheteconying, econling, or otherwba, without the Price weiten remiss ofthe publ 234567890 DODO 4957654321 Liovary of Congress Cotaloging ia Pubication Data Motoaif& Bad Wortewaterensbeerin. “MeGraw-Hin secs in water resqucces ond envicon labengireesng! Inslufes bblingzphiesandindes, Lr Severege, i Punpingstations, 1. Tchoounoglos, Geoige HT TOEIMIT oie? £02007 SRN 041680. CONTENT: Chapter 1 Preface Acknowledgments Wastewater Collection and Pamping: An Overview Hisoried Devetopments London Sewers Americen Sewers Early Pumping Stations Current Stans Collection Systems Punping Stations Recent Trends and Developments Design Moterials Alternative Collection Systems ‘Management of Wastewater Collection Systems Storm-Warer Management 1-4 Wastewater Engineering and the Rote of the Engineer References Chapter 2 Review of Applied Hydraulics 24 Fundamentals of Pipe and Opea-Chamael Flow Definition of Terms Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow Pips and OpensCharnet Flow Head Loss Usdraudic Grade Line Energy Grade Line Specife Energy Steady Flow Uniform and Nonuniforn Flow Equation of Continsity Enersy Equation Momentum Equction Varied Fiow sill wMi costenss 22 Row Equations Flow in Closed Comuits Poisenils Egnation — Darey-Weishuck Equation Manning Exinition — Hacen-WVitismas Exiarion the Darcy-Weisback, Manving, and uns Equations — General Comnients ove the Use of Pipeflow Equations Flos’ in Open Chocnels 23. Pine Sizes 244 Design Chorts and Tables Sewers Flowing Pall Sewers Flowing Partly Pull Hydraulic Elements of Neneirculir Sewer Sections 25. Miner Losses Minar Losses in Closed-Condait Flaw Minor Losses in Open-Channel How Envance Losses Contractions and Esparstonts Bonds Carves Transitions Exit Losses 246 Noouniform Open-Chamnel Floss General Equation fur Norwsiferm Flow Convio! Sections — Critical Deg Draweown Backisater — Chure — Hycbattic amp Bankiog en Curves Discussion Topies and Problems References Chapter 3. Wastewater Flows and Measurement Components af Wastersater Wastewater Sources ans Flowrates Sourees and Rates of Domestic Wastewster Hows Residewsial Districts Commercial Disiriets Mnsileational Foctities Recreational Fueilites Reduction of Domestic Wastewater Flows Sources and Rates of Industrial Wastewater Flows Reduction of Industrial Wastewater Flows Inflation? fatto Infiiration ity Sere dnffews into Sewers fafitration — Desiun Allowances far Sewers Variations in Wastewster Hows Short-Fer Veriations Seasonal Variotions Indusiricl Variotions 3e_Analysis of Wastewater Flovirute Data Peaking Factors for Wastewater Hows Peak infiltstion Flows Peak Inflow Design Allowance Ys Row Seasrecient by Direct Discharge Methovs Roctanyuter Weiler — Triangadar Weiss Trapezoidal Wolrs — Subanerged Weirs 16 8 » io 30 3s 0 8 0 2 4 Ss 3t 9 @ o 6t 6 “ 6 u aM 2 2 a 7 34 euturi Meter Parsball Flame Palmer-Bowlus Flume Flow Measurement by Velucity-Area Methods Discussion Topies and Problems References Chapter 4 4a 4 Design of Sewers ‘Typas of Collection Systems and Sewers Design cf Gravity-Flow Susitary Sewers Preliminsry lnvestigstions Field Work Preperation of Maps and Profiles Basie Design Considerations Design Flows Hydiaulic Design Equation Sower pe Maverials aed Sizes Minimum and Maxiowm Veiacstes Minincura Slopes Alternanve Alignments and Desigas Use af Cured Severs Sevier Appurtenarces Sewer Verilstéon Design of Sanitary Sewers Preparation of Contrast Drawings and Specifications Contract Drawings Contract Specifications “Acceptance Tests for New Sewers Water Testing Low Pressure ae Testing Design of Gravity-Flow Storm-Water Sowers ‘Stomm-Water Design Flows Methods of Computation The Rasional Method ‘Stosm- Water Sewer Pipe Materials and Sizes Minimum Vetosities Pressure and Vacuum Sani Pressure Sowers Vacuum Sesers Applicaton of Pressure snd Vaevum Sewers tary Sewers Discussion Topics snd Problems. References Chapter 5 Sewer Appurtenances Manhoes, Building Connections, and Flushing Devices Muahoes Mariote Size Mankole Spacing Transitions and Turns in Sener Mankoles Manhole Constiuction — Maskeole Steps Manhole Frames and Covers Drop Atanivclet Building Connections Flushing Devices Street Inets ant Catch-Basins eet Tales Types of inlets Inlet Castings and Assembled Gratings Fyeraites of ules Catch-Dasins 100 190 103 105 108 ma a 1 Bz Ba BS Be 0 12 2 ne 145 9 133 133 133 61 162 163 16! 6Centrifugal Pumps Panig Characteristics Mized-Flow Pumps Screw Pups Other Pumps for Wastewater Paesteatie Ejsciors — Bladeless Prosps Ainlift and ter Puonps Paps for Scum, Grit, and Sludge Tonue-Flow Pumps Plager and Rotary Pumys Porp Construction Pump Operating Characteristics Pap Characteristic Curves Poop Opetating Range Characteristic Relationships for Centsifogsl Purnps Flow, Head, and Power Coefficients Affinity Laws Snecfie Speed Changes in Impeller Diarceiers Casitation Cavitatien Constant Cavitation at Operating Point 8-4 Funp Diive Unit Electric Motors Cotstant- and Meltiple-Speed Drives Variaile Speed Drives Itemal Combustion Engines Dual-Fuel Engines Direct and Gear Drives 85 Pump Selection Determination of Flowrates Losation of the Pumping Station Porce Mains Development of System Hen-Capacity Curve 86 Aralysis of Pump Systems Single-Pump Operseion ‘Multiple-Pump Operation Poralel Operation Series Operation Discussion Topics und Problems References Radial Flow Punps AxalFlow Pumps Chapter 9. Pumping Stations $1 Types of Pumping Stations Classification of Pumping Stations General Features of Pamping Stations 9-2. Desien of Conventional Purping Stations Pumping Station Corsteuction Wet Wels, WerWWell Design Consideravions Wer-Well Modifications Wet-Well Appurtenances Bar Racks Cormbrators Screening Devices WerWell Volume Selection of 2% 284 289 289 290 2% 2 298 209 3 3m 26 wT 08 m9 ae 3 sit 36 yr Ho 3a 38 38 3a at 30 340 36 | Sy 94 98 ONTENTS MF bry Wels arp Settings Suction and Discharge Piping Suction Pipiny — Dischorse Piping Pumping Suition Instrumentation Automatic Controls Manual Conrots Alarms Connval Pastel Desig — Flow Measurement Selection of Pump Control Points Constants of Stultiple-Speed Peps Electrical Equipreent Hestiog and Ventilation Booting Systems Ventitaring Sesteras Plomting Pumping Statlon Drainage Desiga ef Factery-Assembled Pomping Stations Najor Physical Featares Materials of Construction Fneumatic-Bjector Station Stailert Appurtenances Sysiem Controls ‘Wert Station Dry-Pit Station Design of Force Mains Hydraulic Design of Force Mains Deteraiination of Farce Moin Size Enorgy Losses ite Force Mains Force Main Velocities Other Design Considerations Fipe Materials Depth of Cover Reduction of Outlet Turbulence Force Main Appurtenances Blowoffi Air Vatves ‘Watethanener in Wastewater Force Mains ‘Theory of Waterkammer Pressure Wave Velocity Pressure Buildup Analysis of Watecharnmer ‘Waterhummer Control Swing Cheek Valves Pesiively Controlled Valves Swge-Relicf Valses Air and Vacuum Valves Other Control Measures VartablesSpeed Pans Air Comprossers Anchorage Magnitude of Warerhamnaer Discussion Topics and Problems References Appendixes A. Censenion Factors B Plysiel Properties of Water Miner Losses in Closed Conduits 357 33 88 Bot 366 ar aR 374 ans us 35 ys 376 378 38 380 380 382 wr 39 son co 401 an 416sil conn Indexes, Name Indes Subjoct Index ‘This text is a natural outgrowth of the first edition of the widely accepted Wastewater Engineering: Coltection, Treatment, Disposal. tn the second ei- tion, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse, chapters dealing with the collection and pumping of wastewater were deleted to meet the ex: panded objectives established for the revised edition, The material-—in a com- pletely revised ond expanded form—is contained in this text, Collection and Puriping of Wasteweter. ‘New material presented reflects changes brought stout by the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Contral Act Amendments of 1972 (Public Law 92-300) and subsequent legislation that has had a major impact on wastewater engineesing, In addition, separate chapters have been preparest on the subjects of (1) infitrationfinflow and associated planning requirements, and (2) the ef fects of biological transformations that occur in ccllection systems. As in the second edition of Wastewater Engineering, this text was pre- pared (1) to present the Intest technical developments in the field; (2) to make the material covered available in a usable form for students, teachers, practic~ ing engineers, and other users; and (3) to provide leadership in the wider adop- tion and use of the metric system in the design and analysis of collection and Puroping facilities, Because most of the world is now using some form of metric units, aud because the United States is gradually adopting them, the metric units, along conversion to U.5. customary units, are used in this text. Trasmuch as boti sets of units wii be in use for some time, conversion tables from metrics to U.S. customary and U.S. castomary to metrics are inchaded in Appendix A. To increase the usefulness of the text, conversions from metric units to U.S. customary units are included in figure legends and ia the footnotes to al table: To make this textbook useful as a teaching and reference (ext, detsiled example problems have been prepared with units carried through all the com- putational steps to aid the reader's unéerstanding of the principles involved.ate rnerace Where appropriate, comments are included atthe end of anexample problem to elucidate basic concepts ond highlight avditionsl applications. Approximately 120 discussion topics and problems have been prepared to test the veader’s understanding of the material presented. In addition, more than 70 tables con- taining design dain and information are included, To illustrate basic concepts and physical applications more clearly, there are approximately 155 drawings ‘nd photographs tis hoped that this book will serve the needs of students who are in- terested in applying their knowledge of Quid mechanics to the problems of collection and pumping of wastewater. This phase of applied hydramiics is the key to suecess in achieving economy and reliability of design, construction, and operation of entite systems for municipalities and industiies. [tis also hoped ‘that consulting engineers, puiblic works engineers, and industrial engineers will find the material in this book of assistance in achizving the goals noted above, both in this countcy and abroad. The problems of the colfection ard pumping of wastewater are isleed international in scope. Rolf Eliassen, Chainnan of the Boaid Metcalf & Eddy, Inc, George Tehobanoglous Professor of Civil Engineering University of California, Davis ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. George Tehobanogious, who hus served as a consultant on engineering projects to Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. for over 10 years, was assigned resporsibility for overall concept ard preparation of this book. He wrote many of the chap- ters, provided the many detailed examples as well as the problems at the end of each chapter, and coordinated the efforts of the Metcalf & Eddy staff members who prepared other chapters. The clarity and fuid style of his writing, always with the student in mind, is evident throughout the book. We at Metcalf & Eddy are grateful for the engineering skill and high standards of technical excellence that Dr, Tehobanoglous has brought to this manuscript. The book iss project of the Metcalf & Eddy office in Palo Alto, California, under the administrative direction of Franklin L. Burton, Vice President, who reviewed the entire manuscript and made valuable technical editorial com ments, Karen A. Bilefsen served as technical editor and overall coordicator; her editing skills and concera for logic are reflected throughout the text, 2spe- cially in Rs readability. Arthur L. Hollend coordinated the standardization snd preparation of the figures, most of which were originally drawn by Disodada C. Camimbuhao and Loyd R. Pound, Kandi B. Masters and Mary’G. Sport typed the manuscrit. Personnel from the Boston office of Metcalf & Eddy reviewed the manu seript and prepared drafts of several chapters. Francis C, Tyler served as general coordinator, reviewing all the chapters and providing current design data ard figures. His concern for detail contributed significantly to the potential usefulness ofthis text. James A. Ryaa, Jr., prepared the original draft of Chap- ter6, Frank M. Gurby, Jr, Allen J. Burdoin, Francis C, Tyler, and Aba M,Z. Alam were responsible for the preparation of the original drafts of Chapters & and 9. John G. Chales, Allen J. Burdoin, Lyle B. Branagan, Eugene S. Graf ton, and Jakobs P. Vittends reviewed various chapters.‘wi ackhowLrecneNis A number of ether individuals reviewed various sections and contributed to the preparation of the text. Jeffrey Rt. Hauser reviewed all the chapters and helped prepare Chapters 2 unl 7. Mark 8. Matsumoto and George D. Warren, Il, reviewed portions of the manuscript. Rosemary Tetcbanogloas typed the rough draft und previded moral support. We acknowledge the continued leadership of Peter J. Gianacakes, Presi« dient of Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. in making this text a reality by the commitment of the resources of the firm to the accomplishment ofthis important task. Rolf Eliassen Chetrown of the Board Metcalf & Edd, tac. ' i cusPTER ONE WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND PUMPING: AN OVERVIEW Every community produces both liquid and solid wastes. ‘The liquid portion—wastewater-—is essentially the water supply of the community afterit, inns been fouled by a variety of uses. From the standpoint of sources of genera tion, wastewater may be defined us a combination of the liquid or water wastes removed from residences, institutions, and commercial ane! industrial establishments, together with suck groundwater, susface water, and storm water as may be present Truntrcated wastewater is allowed (o accumulate, the decomposition of the erganic materials it contains can lead to the production of lenge quant malodorous gases, In addition, untreated wastewater usually contains mumer- fouls pathogenic or disease-causing microorganisms that dwell in the human intestinal wact of that may be presem in certain industrial wostes. Tt also contains nutrients which can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, aed may contain toxic compounds, Fer these reasons, che immediate and noisance free removed of wastewater from its sources of generation, followed by treatment end disposal, is aot only desirable but also necessary in an industrial society. In the United States. itis now mandated by numerous federal and state laws [3] "The development of sanitary water supplies and the collection, treatment, and ispostil of domestic wastewater are among the most important factors respon sible for the general level of goad health enjoyed by the population of the United States. “The planning and design of wastewater collection and pumping facilities is thoroughly discussed in this book. Typical, it involves the determination of wastewater flowrates (Chap. 3), the hydraulic design of sewers (Chap. 4), and2 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND FUMIEING OF WASTEWATER the selection of appropriate sewer appurtenances (Chap. 5). The rehabilitation of existing collection systems and the design of new systems alse involve analyzing the infiltration end inflow of extraneous ‘lows into sewers and the means to limit their occurrence (Chap. 6), as well as analyzing the ders and corrosion that develop in sewers, aud the implicstions of these factors in design (Chap. 7). The final step involves the selection of pumps and the design of pumping stations to transport wastewater to treatment facilities (Chaps, 8 and 9, respectively). Hecause 2 knowledge of hydraulics is fundamental in planning and designing wastewater collection and pumping facilities, the basic hydraulic prlaciples and important design equations are briefly discussed in Chap. 2. To provide an overview of the collection and pumping of wastewater, historical developments in these areas of wastewater engineering, current dota ‘on collection systems and pumping stations, and recent treads and develop- ments are briefly reviewed in this chapter. The relationship of the subjects covered in this book to the overall field of wastewater engineering and the rete of the engineer are also described. 1-1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS. OF the many carly sewers that have been described in the literature, most is, Known about the great underground drains of ancient Rome, On the basis of easly weitings, it is known thot direct connections from the houses to these channels and conduits were not used extensively because the requirements of public health wore litle recognized and because compulsory sanitation would have been considered an invasion of individual rights. Fatlowing Reman prac~ tice, carly sewers, both in Europe and the United States, were constructed originally to collect storm water. All human excreta were excluded from the sewers of London until 1815, from those of Boston until 1833, and from those of Poris until 1880 (1) It is astonishing thut, although many sewers were built following the days of the Reman empire, litle if any progress in the design and construction of ‘wastewater collection systems occurred uatil the 1849s. The rernissance began in Hamburg, Germany, in 1842 after a severe fire destroyed part of the city. For the first time, 2 complete new wastewater conveyance system was designed according (© the modern theories of the day, which took into account topo- rophic conditions and recognized community needs {1). This was a spectacular advance when it is considered that the fundamental principles on which the design was hased are in use today bat were aot genevally applied hefere the ‘oventieth century. London Sewers In London, as late as 1845, no survey of the metropolis was adequate as a basis for planning sewerage systems. The sewers in adjoining parishes were at differ- WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND FULIPING: AN OVERVIEW 3 ent elevations, moking junctions with them impracticable. Some of the smallit sewers were higher then the cesspools they were supposed to drain, while other large sewers had been constnucted in such a way that wastewater would fave fad to flow uphill, Some of the large sewers were also made to discharge into small sewers: Following the great epitemic of Asiatic cholera in 1832, cholera again erupted in Loncon in 1848 and claimed over 25,000 vietims dusiog the next six years. Akhough the connection between a contaminated water supply and the rapid spread of the disease was clearly showa, the filthy living conditions in most houses, which resulted from the lack of domestic sewers, were a great hindrance in combating the epidemic, It was not until 1855 thot Parliament provided for the Meirepolitan Board of Works, which soon after undertook the development of an adequate wastewater collection system, American Sewers Lite is known about the carly wastewater collection systems in the United States. Often they were constructed by individuals or by inhabitants of small districts at their own expense and with litthe or no public supervision, There ‘was a tendency in this country, us elsewhere, to make sewers larger than necessary, One of the oklest sewers in Brooklyn that drained fess than 20 acres had a grade of Lin 36, and was 1.25 m(4 £) deep and 1.5 m(5 ft) wide. In some cases, the sewers Were very large, not only at their cutlets but also all the way to their starting points, 1 wes impossible to obtain adequate velocity in such sewers unless they were laid on steep grades and, consequently, some of them became offensive as the accurmulated wastewater solids decomposed. There were even some instances in which the slopes were laid in the wrong direction. ‘Although, 1s neted previously, the fundamental principles goveming the flow of wastewater were known from the early 1840s, their application to the design of sewers has been evolutionary rather than marked by clear, progres- sive steps. Many of the same equations are used today, but dheir fundamental basis and limits of applicability are now better understood, Early Pumping Stotions In 1910, less than 200 wastewater pumping stations existed in the United States. Aldiowgh the types of pumps employed at that tine were essentially the same as those used today, the mative power of the pumps was varied. Before the widespread distribution of electricity. the moive power wos supplied by steam, town gas, gasoline, and hot-cie engines. The use of eleciricty as the motive power for pumps became common in the early 1900s, leven after the use of electricity became common, engineers were some- times reluctant to use pamping stations because power outages were rout Problems occurred in many communities where standby power vas either not vailable oF not included as part of the pumping station installation. The prac-4 ASTEWATII ENOINTEIING: COLLECTION AND PUMPING OF WASTEWATER lice of avoiding Uke use of pumping stations led to the construction of some very deep and cosily large sewers (interceptors), Today, as discussed in the Follavw- ing section, pumping stations are 8 common festure oF any wastewater cotlze. tion system, 1-2 CURRENT STATUS ‘The curren: status of collction systems and pumping stations is briey de- scribed in this section, Additional details may be found in Ref. 2 and in current U.S. Environmental Fretection Agency (EPA) publications Collection Systems In an analysis made by the Federal Water Quality Administration in 1968 (4), i ‘was determined that approximately 140 millon people were served by public sewers in the United States, The distribution of this population by community size is shown in Table I-1, Even though many communities have a population of Jess than 10,000, only a small fraction of the nation's population in these communities is served by sewers, Conversely, aver 40 percent of the nation's Popuiation in seivered areas live in che relatively few commnaities with a popu- Iation ef more than 100,00. Collection systems used for wastewater are of 1wo basic types—separate or combined, Separate systems ace designed for dhe exclusive transport of ‘Table 1-1 Distritution of Laited States population surved by sewors * ‘Evhated 1968 ‘population i feveied cess Parceat af Size oteommunity, Persons, Pateece with sombired persons nifions of tetal sewers Under $0 2 Os 5 00-1008 wl 0 1.404.000 B88 s Sn 10.000 aR » yo,so0~ 28,000, wat as 2 25.001 SNe 3890113 wo 0,000 mig as 6 10 40-250.000, Bu 99 jem ma 1.09, Tas lon ‘adopted trom Ret. 2 i I i i | WASTEWATER COLLECTION ABD MEMPISG 48 OVERVIEW 5 sanitary wastewater, (The terms separate and sanitary are often used int changeably in references io sewers and collection systems.) Combined systems are designed for the trunsport of both sanitary wastewater and storm water, ‘The existence of even a relatively small percentage of combined sewers within a municipal wasteweter collection system is usually enough 10 classy the system as combined, Mest state regulations now permit the construction of separate sewers only. ‘The types of sewer systems in Use in 1968 are also show in Table 1-1. Conitined sewer sysiems are located primarily in large cities. Over 45 pereent of all communities with populations of aver 10%00 have combined sewer systems or both combined and separate systems, However, ia terns of national totals, less than 15 percent of all communities have combined sewers, and approximately 25 percent of the total population in sewered areas is served by combined sevvers [2 Tae nuriter of peopte served by collection systems in 1992-1973, along \with information en the total length of sewers and the number of pumping stations in use, is listed in Table 1-2. As shown, there is aboat 4.53 m (14.86 ft) of sewer for each person served, Detailed information on the distribution of sizes of sewer pipes used is reported in Table 4-3 in Chap. 4, As shown in Table 43,aboat75 percent ofall sewers are 200 man (Bin) or less in diameter. Data on. the materials most commonly used to manufacture sewer pipe are given in Table 1-3. Pumping Stations As shown in Table 1-2, thece were 36,900 wastewater pumping stations in the United States in 1972-1973. (The number in 1910 was less than 200.) On the ble 1-2, Wastewater colleetion systems inthe United States" ftom teu Population srved by sows, millions WL STB BS Sevier led is 384500 TL Ae 127,300 682.980 Nuraber ef puopig stations ie samara 3.500 Adapted fro Ref, 2, dats for 19721972. Plt 1 fat) —tte requirement for asinimum seloeity of fa oF 05 avs isa dasign constetz. Chass 2 fmoderste)—a velocity ef 0.95 mis i an Cass 3 (step)—e vlesity of G9 au f actin. Note: kaw 3 04204 = ais 3 22808 = fs6 WASFENATEN ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND PEMPIKG OF WASTEWATEA ‘Table 1-3 Percentage distribution of sewer pipe materials by pine size Tyeeet Size ange pereeat Ds Mn Ps Woo wom 1» komm Vitrtes chy WO. 2 s ' Astestes ‘cement (AC) 2 » 5 Reinvocced ‘sonerete (RC) 8 8 Cost ire CD i. 4 i im i Aapted from Ref. 2; the per 5, Seor ae seers (D s 360 ml, mare palyvleylchloide (PVC) pipe instead of VC ard AC pips is root beieg chosen, For leer ste plostic materials nay tale over a signifeart yosion of te marke Adhpled from Ke Tha subjecn uf wasteyorseezanictvstics treatrent, diposil and reuse se caveredin Ret. te contpation tex fo this bad, These areas of wastewater engineering, like the others, have been and continue to be in a dynamic period of development. Old Hleas ate being reevaluated, and new concepts are being formulated. To play an active role in the development of this field, the engineer raust know the fundamentals on which iis based. The Uclincation of these fundamentals is the main purpose of this bool REFERENCES 1, Meteal Loy and B. B Bddys ceri 1 v0) 1,2 ed. NeGras-HHll, New York. 924 2, Mateall & Eddy, lee Repent to Nations ‘Techacanien and Crs fr Puls Orned Teen Law 98800, Mestoa, 1975 3, Mlsalf ce Eady, nc: Wasievaner Engheering: Treament, Dispos MoGirai- il. New York, 179. 4. Sdanicipat este Bociaies bre One Sioes; Starictcad Sunonery, 1968 frvestony, US. Depsrment of the Inseton, Federal Water Quality Adainiveaton, Pusliceion COTS, Wastingcen, DC, 10, rn Sevsevage Prac Commission on Water Qutiy om Aseersent af ry Works, Hy epared under Pobe Bease, 8 eb,CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF APPLIED HYDRAULICS ‘The principal fuctors thot affect the Now of wastewater in sewers are: The slope ‘The cross-sectional area and shape of the conduit ‘The roughness of the interior pipe surface |. The conditions of ow, such as whether the conduit is flowing full orparly full aad whether the flow is steady or varied 5. The presence or absence of obsiructions, bends, and other flow distur. vances 6. The choractes, speci ic eravity, and viscosity of the liquid ‘The purpose of this chapter is to review the applied hydraulics used in the analysis and design of collection, pumping, and wastewater- management facilites, Applications of the principles discussed here to the measurement of fovy are discussed in Chop. 3. Sewer design is discussed in Chap, 4. The design of overflow and diversion structures is discussed in Chap. 5. ‘The details of pump hydraulics ond pumping station design are discussed in Chaps, 8 and 9, respectively, It must be stressed that the material presented in this chapter is meant to serve only as a review. Stardard texts in fluid mechanics should be consulted for adiitional details on the topics discussed, 1-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF PIPE AND OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW ‘The unalysis of flow in both pipes (closed conduifs) and open chanaets is based on an adeptation of three basic equations of fluid mechanics: the equation of REVIEW OF APPLIED HYDRALLICS LI continuity, the energy equation, and the momentum equation. Hefore discuss: ing these us well as other concepts some of the terms commonly used in the field of bydraulics must be defined. jon of Terms Defi The following terms are basis to an understancing of both pipe and «pen channel flow. A more complete listing of hydraulic terms may be found in Venaard (14). Laminar flow. Laminar flow involves the mixing of Avid particles on a molecu far scale so that, when in motion, the fluid particles move in parallel paths under the action of viscosity. In practice, laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is less than 1500 to 2000, Turbulent flow. Turbulent fow involves the mixing of uid particles on a molar seule s0 that, when in motion, an exchange of momentum occurs between adjacent Muid particles which cesuits in the rapid and continuous mixing of the ‘uid. In practice, trbuleat flow ocears at Reynolis numbers greater than 6000 to 10.000. Pipe aad oper-channel low. The flow of liquld in a conduit may be classified as pipe (oF closed-condut) flow or opeit-chanmel flow depeniling ox whether U free-liquid surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. For example, when & sewer is flowing full or under pressure, the Now is referred to 48 pipe Now. If the Aow is in a partialy filled sewer or in an open channel, the flow is referred to os open-channel flow. Pipe Now and open-channel flow are compared schematically in Pig. 2-1. Hai loss. Head lossis the loss of enerey that occurs when liquids flow in pipes and opea channels, The energy required to overcome the effects of friction in rN BENE a iY Y Fesbs ‘Open Sd Foe igure 2-1 Comparison of pips flow and opensheanel flow.12 WeASTENUATER BNGIEEEMING! COLLECTION AND PEMILIO OF SASTEWATER induced by the appurtenances used with pipelines snd open chottnels is sso hhcad loss. Head loss usually is denoted by the symbol i. Hydraulic grade line. The hydraulic grade line, also shown in Fig. 2.1, is aline connecting the points to which the liquid would rise st various places along any pipe or open channel if piezometer subes were inserted in the liquid, It is a measite of the pressure head available at these various points. When water flows in an open channel, the hydraulic grade line coincides with the profile of the water surfice. Fnergy grade Hine, The total energy of flow in any section with reference to some datum is the sum of (ie elevation head z, the pressure head y, and the velocity head ¥#/2g. The energy from section (0 section is usually represented by a line called the energy grade lise or energy gradient (Fig. 2-1). In the absence of frictional losses, the energy grade line would renwaia herizoatal, although the selative distribution of enerey could yary oatweee the elevation, pressure, and yelacity heads. However, in all reel systems, losses of enargy ssill oxcur because of resistance to flow, and the resulting enexgy grade line will be stoped. Speettic energy, The specific energy E, sometimes called the specific hea, is the sum o the pressure head y and the velocity head V/2e. The specific-onsrgy concept is especially usefel in analyzing flow in open channels, ‘The relationship between specific energy and depth of flow for a constant rate of Now is illistinted in Tig. 2-22, which usually is colled a specific-eneray diagram, The relationship between the depth of Hows and discharge por u ‘width of channel for consiant specific energy is called a q eteve and is ilus- touted in Fig. 228. Steady lov. Steady flow occurs when the dischorge or rate of flow at any crass. sectivn is constant somes Fsostint Dashirs ‘ 4 22) Speeflewnetyy diag )e curve 8) REVIEW OF APILEED HYDRALLCS 13 | ystate Figure 3-3 Daiston shel of vaied fow, an and nonuniform flow, Uniform flow occurs when the depth, cross i i is consi ied if the depth of flow ‘Varied flow. ‘The flow in a channel is considered varied if : changes along the leagth of the channel, In general, the low may be gradually Varied (GVE) orrapidly vatied (RVF),as shown in Fig. 2-3. Rapidly varied flow ‘occurs when the depth of low changes abruptly. quation of Continuity i it e from section to "The equation of continuity expresses the conservation of mass fro section in a streamtube control volume, as shown in Fig. 2-4, Accosding to the igure 24 Blow through astreastub conse value4 WASTEWATER ENGIRECRENG: COLLECTION AND FEMPING OF WASTEWATER at Y ‘Migure 2 Defies sketch fer encay equsson. principle of the conservation of mass, mass can be neither created nor de- struyed between sections A, and Az, Thus, the equation of continuity becoraes PAN, = AN: = Qs = Qe a where p = fluid density, kg/m (slug/ft*) ‘A= cross-sectional area, m* (ft) ¥= yelocity, mis (ft/s) Q = flowrate, m*/s (i's) If the fluid is incompressible, then a = 2, and = AW, =O: (22) Energy Equation A flowing Guid may have four types of energy: pressure energy E,, velocity energy Ey, potential energy E,, and thermal er internal energy E,. If Bm tepe- sents the mecbarical energy transferred 10 (+) or from (~) the fluid (en. ia 2 ump, fan, or turbine), and E, represents the heat energy transferred t0 (=) oF from {—) the fluid (e.g., in a heat exchanger), then application of the taw of conservation of energy between points 1 and 2 in Fig. 2-5 yields the Following equation: ME, ~ ew E, + Edy © By = Ey = (Ep + Ee + By = Eh + losses (2-3) ‘The losses ia Eq. 2-3 represent energy that has beca (ruunsfurmed into non recoverable forms by irreversibilities caused by friction (e.g, energy dissipated as heat or noise) ‘The general expression for in incompressible liguid may be rewritten as 2-4) REVIEW GF SEPLIED HYDRAULICS 15 sshere prea = pressure, KN/mt (byfin®) 7 = specific weight of water, KN? (bil) a, ay = kinetic-energy correction factors = acceleration due to eravity, 9.81 mis G2.2 ft/s!) 2isz2 = height of streamtube above ony assumed datum plane, m (ft) fiz = head loss, m tf0) For laminar flow in pipes, the value of ais 2.0, For turbulent flow in pipes, the value of a ranges between 1.01 and 1.10. Turbulent flow is by far the most common and, in practice, ais usuully taken t0 be equal to unity. The head-loss term fi represents the losses ond the change in internal energy E,. the fluid in question is idea! (frictionless) and no meckarical or heat energy is transferred, Eg. 24 reduces to es ‘which is the fumitiar form of the Bernoulli equation for incompressible flow, Aprlication of the energy equation or Bernoulli's equation to flow in a pipeline supplied from a reservoir is shown in Fig. 2-6. The energy equation ‘writen betseen points L and 2 would be eB athe tin, 00 total head, m head loss at pipe entrance, m (A) head loss in pipe due to friction between points 4 and 2, m (ft) | ! i i Figare 246 Defiiion sketch for oppiction of onzepy equation toa pipeline.U6 waste weston Ervonwnca COLLECTION Ax TEMIICG @F WasrewaTEE. Pumps offer anotier exampfe of the appl shown in Fis and 2is ion of the energy equation, as 7. In this case, the energy equation written between points 1 yD ‘The head-loss term hy is embedded in all applications of the energy equs- tion to Muid flow. In Eq. 2-7, &, represents the net energy supplied by the pump, allowing for head losses within the pamp. Several can be used to determine ir, as a function of geometric considerations, Muid characteristics, and Mewrute (for both open-channel and closed-conduit flow). Some of those used srost frequently tre discussed in Sec. 2-2 ‘The head-loss fer fe, includes the frictional heal loss hy and other head losses that occur at discontinuities in flow geometcy (e.g., contractions, expan- sions, bends), These are called aréuor tosses (see See. 2-5) Momentim Equation Unlike the continuity and energy equations, which are scalar relationships, the momentum equation is a vector relationship, that is, both the magnitude and direction ofthe forces and velocities sre important, The law of the conservation of momentum may be stated as follows: The time rate of change in momentum (defined as the mass rate of flow pAV muliplied by the velocity V) along the path of flow will result in a force called the impulse force. ee Star ae RAVES he A Figure 27 Delintion sku for pplieation of energy equatioa te pump, = | EVIE OF AEPLIED HYORADLICS 17 “The application of che momentum equation to the anitlysis of flow in the section of pipe shown in Fig, 2-4 is as follows: The momentum cared across, fren Ay ducing the time di is equat to (Mass transfered aoross Au) = (ida: dV 8 andisinthe direction of Vj. In the same manner, the momentum exrtied across area Az during time df is equal 1o Ceadas dM, C9 ‘The net Sorce on the fivid caused by the change of momentum berween sections vad 2 is Gndai'e dV ~ de MM - VO aan where M Aas = phVs ‘The quantity ¥; ~ ¥; in Eq. 2-11 represents the vector change in the velocity. ‘The momentum equation is often used to analyze the forces that develop in pipe bend. As shown in Fig. 28, the forces F, and Fy ate applied to maintain eouilibriam with the forces caused by the change it, momentum as the water flows through the bend. Application of the momentum equation yickds In the x dicection, Pade ~ Pads 608 = Fy = pQWs c05 0 = Yi) en (edY dOVe 2.10) F irection, PrAz sin 9 —W — Fy = —pOV, sin @ @3) The forces F, and F, needed to mincain equilibriam sce applied through the pipe wall by supporting structures, hangets, te rods, tarast blocks, or the like. Figure 24 Defnon sheth fos applieation of seemeatu equation 1 4 pp‘The principles of momentum and continuity ave also used in the equ fora hydraulic jump in reciangaler open channels. ff unit width of channel is, considered, application of the momentum equation to the flow shown in Fig. 2-9 results in BE = ok SenVi- pvt Gy) From the equation of cominuity, Vayu(unit width) = Vaye(unit width) 15) Using Bg, 2-1Sto eliminate ¥_ in Eq. 2-14 leads to ea re + I To calculate; with known downstream conditions, interchange the subscripts, i and 2 in Eq, 7-16. ‘The depths before and after the jump (x and yx, respectively) are referred to us conjugate depths. 2-16) 2:2 FLOW EQUATIONS Todesign facilites forthe transinission of fluids—whether the flow isin closed conduits or open channels—one must know (1) the relationship between the head loss or the stope of the energy grade line and the flowrate, (2) the fluid eharacieristcs, and @) the coaduit or ckannel roughness and configuration. Several equations relating these factors are discussedin this section. Because it is assumed that the reader is familiar with the fundamentals of fhid flow, Jengihy derivations are not included, and the equations are presented witout 4iscussing all of the limitations involved in their use, Figure 2.9 Definition sketch for aplication of momenun equation a bytoaaie joe. eview or ariteD espRAULICS 19 Flow in Closed Conduits Equutions for the flow of fluids in closed conduits may be derived from thoore- tiga! considerations or emppiricaly. The Poiseuille equation for laminar ow and the Darey- Weisbach universal equation are examples of equations derived from theoretical considerations. The Manning equation ard the Hazen-WVilliams equation, which are used in the design of sewers and force mains, are examples of equations derived empirically. Poisenille equation, In tsminar flow, the forces of viscosity predominate in relation to other forces, such as ineitia, An example of laminar flow is the pumping of sludge ct low velocities at a wastewater treatment plnt, Under Inminar conditions, the Poiseville equation for head loss /ymay be expressed as ByLV BLY ty DE Tape 247) achere fy = head foss, m (£) = dynamic viscosity of usd, N- sim Uy: s/f?) L = length of pipeline, m if) Ve velocity, mis (it's) = loi density, kam? Glugift) cceleration due 10 gravity, 9.81 m/st (32.2 fst) smeter of pipeline, m (f) wematic viscosity Of fluid, me/s (4/5) ‘The corresponding expression for the flowrate @ is Daly Oe RE ew where @ = flowrate, mis (fs). Dacey-Weisbach equation, In about 1850, Darcy, Weisbach, and others de- daced a formula for pipe friction from the results of experiments conducied on various pipes. The formula now known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation for ior pri e = ew) In terms of the flowrate Q, the equation becomes, 2.2) head loss, m (fi) = coefficient of fiction Gin many pans of the world the symbol d is used to denote the coefficient of ition)20 WASTEWATER ENGIN EING: COLLECTTON ARD PUMPING OF WASTEWATER 4. = length of pipe, m ¢) Vo mean velocity, m’s (fs) D = diameter of pipe, m (ft) 1 © acceleration duc to gravity, 9.81 més! (32.2 fest) @ = flowrate, mV 405) “The value of fhas been found to vary with the Reynolds number Ng, pipe roughness, pipe size, and other factors. The relationships among these factors fare presented graphically in Figs. 2-10 and 2-11, commonly known as Moody diagrams. ‘The effect of size and roughness is expressed by the relative roagh- ness, which is the ratio of absolute roughness of the pipe ¢ to the pipe diameter D, both expressed in the same unit of length. The Reynolds number is YDo _ VB Nas TP = 21) Reynolds number, unitless velocity, mis {tv's} D = diameter of pine, m (A) = fivid density, kg/m? (shagit?) k= dynamic viscosity of id, N-sim? (by: sit’) x= kinematic viscosity of Avid, m¥/s (is) If the value of € is known or can be estimated, the eppropriate friction factor for wholly turbutent flow may be obiained from Fig. 2-10 or Fig, 2-1, or computed from the following equation 1 D A zie 2 . F Jog a + Ld (2-22) When flow conditions fall within the transition zone, values of f are obtained froin Pip 210, based on a compuied Reynolisavtaboraed te 1etve 1g ness, If the flow is laminar, the roughness is not a consideration, and it can be Showa from theoretical considerations tt at T° x, (2.23) Equation 2-22 i often considered the genera! equation for determining the friction factor for rough pipes and is sometimes referred to as the rough-pipe teow or the quadratic tas’ (15) Several equations have also been developed for use in the transition zone, A more complete discussion of this topic may be found in Ref. 15. Figure 2.19 Moody dlagcsm Foe fston stor in pipes Ss, Reynolis number ard retative rooghness [1] rennet arene nen nee Retatversuatnes,22 WASTEWATER ENGINEEILNG: COLLECTION AND PUMPING OF WASTEWATER no Bot oy ones tt sprain oor cee os {oo 0201 oomnas 0no04 Sons} — Boat stony 0.02» oevoat ooancss 9.960.016 Sones 04 O58 pedis, igre 241 Moody diagram for efstive roughness os «function ef elaneter fer pipes cunsteted sf vations materahs Note: m % 2.2808 = f Example 2! Cie of the Darey-Weibarh equation aad the Mons Wagram Deteraine the Alowrate ia $01: (60D section ofa nm (3.22.0) -linmuter cooymatha steel igs in there is 2m 6.64 doop inthe exergy grade line over Sonera 1h Selecta value fr the fein factor. Fora rat approsimatcn, choose anf salue fem Fig 211 assuming the Ps toe whully tbl Fevans REVIEW OF APPLIED HYPRAGLICS 23 2, Caleulste the osrate by using Ea. 2-2, apg fp p= (uae) or) og ={ Zalisve.nt ment pry (Roars ms Om DAS mts Atthis point, itis necessary tw check te fin factor that was choren by axtoming ‘vhullyturtufent few. Acie deterine feo Fig. 2-10 tha the f value i inccrvest, the ceteuhtions ust be repeated witha reised valve off. Calculate the full veto, vad a 2S wis enn nr Vos 27ms 4 Cateulte the Reynolds eumber. Assim thar he temperature andthe Kiaemats viscesty ave about 17°C end 1.14 € 10" mvs, cespectively, 2.4 m9 1 10 as Na = 24x 10° 5. Obtuina revise value fromFig, 210 based onthe Reynols number computedin sep Fw agus 6 Repeat steps 2 c2 4 with the new f value, Tae resuting valet forthe flowrate aad Reyaoids mumbes are @ = 205 mts C24 BIN) Ny = 23% 108 2. Check Fiz. 240 19 determine ifthe value ust be revised ftom the value used inthe revioas iteration, Since shereis esserially mo change inthe F value, the flowrate cifca- Ize in step 6 is cores ‘Manning equation. On the basis of work conducted during the fatter past of the nineteenth century, Robert Manning published his new well-known equa- tion for flow in open channels. Although this equation was originally intended fer the design of open channels, it is now used for both open channels and closed conduits. The Manning equacion is2A WAYTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTIDY AND BCAIISG OF WASTEWATE gue: (SI unis) vs Sh Rese (GS. customary units) 22a) whore = velocity, ms (tis) n= coefficient of roughness R = nydralic radius, m (0) Sim slope of enzrey grade fine, mm (4) The kydranlis radius & is defined as cross-sectional area of flow, m? (ft) > SBss-tectionsl area of flow, me ie) 25) R wetted perimeter, m (ft) a2 For a pipe flowing fall, the hydraulic radius is R oO) 2 (2:26) 7 Substituting for R, the Manning equation for pipes flowing full becomes v= 2 poe ani 0.50 ¥ DESH CUS, customary units) (2274) or, in terms of flowrate, = 232 pun sue (SI units) (2-28) @ = ME pega (Gs, customary unis) 28) where Q = flowrate, ms (0s). ‘Typical values for vatious types of pipes and open channels are presented in Table 2-1 Hozen-Williams equation. Of the numerous exponential types of equations that describe the flow of water in pipes, the Hazen-Williams equation, which was developed in, 1902, has been the one most commonly used for water pipes and wastewater force mains (sce Sec. 9-4), The Hazen-Williems equation is V = 0.819 CRS (ST urits) 2.29) V = LBB CRS“ (U.S. customary units) (2.298) where "= velocity, mis (it’s) C = cocfficient of roughness (€ decreases with roughness) | i | i i | Table 2-1 Values of to be uscd with the Mauninig equation {2] ss ber Goh ow Unset cassion aya ach oom vos Coord scion not ap aoe Cnmert wes pp, Mh tne ee nM oars Commarea fanz bhs Shas schon ret snbdas ye feo he ea Ba Sto cued al “OB pe Oho ate an itl and pt spe O08 ale ar vied wove DOO fos gow we Vind seer POPP no mie war Common ey ds te fon scion any Ghust wicern oon ¢oa ame nas Bein cent mot sk shes soo he Bors Ba Nesccncn anes foe 8th See as Cenet arr sss Don tae ane es Contre Soe ons fair hone ond ste poe ooo 4a tants Fes his end con con nat Sane oon foe 8 Site on oats conti chamals fon the aan eats Comers bo tne Sao Drone sui oon fos he Drescairsufice on tm tan rieocosr ne nt, soa ‘aut fim ha clue So ns cans 0 con tone et ni on oan Hoo ue aga oss ts ‘iota sn ca tes axa Dresher sah oa ts Caps tony es, ee on Sreans nas aio umole sis os tise nites Sol 7a tae nh ess 6 Sere oms nant aay non Saves hbo sre see andsenes ate Ssh S.Whtingscinepachanishiatednw WE BUS BAS 4. Sane Oh one ss, move lure 5, Sut as (0, some vtees and snes 6. Siuns ae (0, sens sections FT. Slngatshrver reaches, cer vill vey deep poss 8. Very vcety revshes val oa oss gas 00 00s! agen an 10 oso nasi sy used in desiring,26 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AKD PUMVING OF WASTEWATER R sy yydraulic radius, m (€) lope of enerey grade line, man (fit) ‘This equation was developed originally in U.S. customary units and was writ- ten ¥ = CRMSIOO0Iye% Hazen and Wiliams stated that “the last term . . . (was) inteodueed to equalize the value of C with the value in . . . other exponential formulas . . . at slope 0f 0,001 instead of ata slope of 1” {16}. The term (0.001), which appears as the term 1.218 in Eq, 2-290, is combined with uait conversion factors to yield the constant 0.849 in Eq. 2-29. IC-D/4 is substituted for the hydraulic radius A, the Hazen-Williams equa on written in terms of the fownite @ is @ = 0.278 CD*#S° (SL units) a0) @ = 2 EDages where Q = flowrate, m*is (€°/3). ‘Typical C values are shown in Table 2-2, Exarople 2-2 Cee the aren-Willaew equation Oeeamine che head Tessin a 1000 (5280- £9 pipeline wih adiameter of 00 mim Qin) that is discharging 0.25 mY (8.9 (9/9), Assume ‘hat the Hazen.\Vlams coelcient forthe pipe equals 130. (US, customery units) 2-30) Sonutios 1. Compute tazhesd toss withthe Hazen Willems equati ‘aleubtion ethead loss, Reemange Eq. 220 10 allow o eamscoe( tj - laste)” 70" ‘caper se 2 Hazen-Witiams eoeftictents (14) € ‘pes extenely stmleh and socth 10 Pipes very amsoth 0 Smooth wood, smooth maseney bo Rew eveted sel, ied clay no (Old cast eon, ordinary brick a0 lid riveted steet Ds (Old rca da bad eandion on REVIEW OF APrLIED HYDRALCACS 27 “Subitate known values an corypute the ea easy. fe at a Fae by © 296m 9.71 vison of the Derey-SYeishuck, Manning, and Hazen-Wiliams equations. Because the Darcy-Weisbaci, Manning, and Hazen-Wiliams equations are al used frequently in practice, itis important to know their simifarities and differ- ences. They can be compared more easily if each is solved for the slope of the energy grade line: Darey-Welsbach: y 810! : - ea Manning: stat & tunis) e) be (U.S. customary units) (2-3a) Hazen-Williams: o.1ge9 , 4 5+ oe {SI units) 2.83) ange ; : 5 = RBCS, (US, customary units) 231i ‘jt can be seen that all three expressions are approximately of the form Kor ! 5-8 34) where K = constant dependent on pipe roughness. these expressions are equated and simplified, the following relationship berween f, n, and C is ebtained: 130 10.703 0.0827F — (ST units) 235 Din 7 Capes o0257f = (U.S. customary units) (2-350) Whea one of the coefficients is known, the othertwo can be caleulated with Eq, 2-35. The resulting values will lead to identical slopes of the energy grade24 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: GOLLECIEGN APD PEMESG OF WASTEWATER line as ealelated with the three equations. (If the Hazea-Williams © value is sought, the Gowrate must be known or estimated.) With Eq, 2-35, it cum also be shows that the choice of the Hazer-Williams C aad the Maaning « that és appropriate for one diameter of pipe may not be appropriate for other diame- ters, even though the pipe material cemains the same, Furthermore, for the ‘Hazen-Williams equation to be consistent with the other two equations, the C value will vary slightly with flowrate, This variation is quite small, however, and usually can be neglected. The Darey-Weisbach f will vary with pipe size and, unless the few is wholly turbulent, with the ilownate, Most of the flows encountered in designing wastewater facilitics full within the ransition zone between turtwlent and ke nar flow. General commentson pipe-lox equations. Before discussing the equations used for open-channel flow, a few comments about the preceding pipe-flow equa- tions are warranted. The results obtained from these equations in practice are generally nol precise, They are affected by the values of the friction factor, the choice of which is not precise in the first place. In addition, when the equations are applied 10 wasiewater lows, there are complications becouse the fluid characteristrs differ; wastewater, for example, conlains sold material and clean water does not. Joints wad vatious other discontinuities in pipelines disrupt the (ow rattems. As the pipelines age, their characteristics are changed by corosion and the deposition af sols. Ifthe analyst recognizes these and other complications, the results obtained with these equations are quite satisfactory. Flow in Open Channels In the hate nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, « number of empirical equations were developed for determining flows in open channels, including thove proposed by Chezy, Garguillet and Kutter, Manning, and Scobey. OF these, only the Manning equation is now in general use, Because of its simplicity and because considerable expecimental data are available for estimating values of the friction factor, the Manning equation (as presented previously aad repeated here for convenience) is now the one most commonly used in the design of sewers. The Manning equation is, vee Lanse (Sl unit) 24) 1.486 v = Resse (U.S. cusiomary units) Qua) ‘The S in the Manning equation is the slope of the enesgy grade line, no! the slope of the channel bottom, However, in uniform flow, these slopes are equi alent and the slope of the channel bottom can be used. MpVIEW oF APPLIED HyDRALLICS 29 ‘Typical u values for various types of open channels were listed in Table ‘och, Fa general, » values varying from 0.013 10 0.015 are used in sewer design Furthermore, these # valves usually are assumed to be valid for all depths of flow. However, in expariments conducted to determine the effect of variation in depth of flow on the friction factor, it has been shown conclusively that 2 values are greater in partially filled sewers than in sewers flowing full (10). The variation inn with depth of flow in a citcular sewer is shown in Fig. 2-16 (see See, 2-4). Ths, when designing sewers that will usually flow partly full, the n value selected should be adjusted accordingly. The application of the Manning, equation in developing sever-design charts js Mustrated in Sec. 2-4, Exanph 23 Gee of Ge Menring equstlan Determine the foweae in a rectangular concrete channel witha idthef 3 #193 fo and 8 slope of AML meu fe whan the dopth oF ass [Sm G8, Assume cht» = 00H, souimos 1, Datermise the hydrate radius B a ao _ amuse Fm 20,5) B= 078m 24619 2. Cavulste favrate Q with Eq. 224 by mulipying by de ares. = ans = Le (sane 1.5m) 0.35 a LOY Taig OO 1S m) 0.15 a omy 0 = 80 wits 056 9 2-3 PIPE SIZES Jn finding the correspondence between pipe sizes expressed in metric units and those expressed in U.S. customary units, a problemhas developed with respect to pipe sizes, As shown in Table 2-3, existing pipe sizes in the United States are Teported in botk inches and inches converted to millimeters, Because the United States pipe industry hos 4 high financial investment in existing mmanufac- turing equipment, the switchover to metric sizes will probably eccur gradually over a period of time, as the existing mannfzcmting equipment is replaced. Therefore, to ease the coaversion process, it has been proposed that the desig- nation of pipe sizes be changed but not the actuat sizes of the pipes.‘Table 2.3 Sewer pipe sizes i metric and U.S. customary unit Existing US. pipe sizes Meri ses 10 wos. ne i a0 i 2 1032 2 2540 300 maa a0 3856 a8 B10 a 6.4 40) 2 503.0 m4 oe 555.8 ToL aes 1,a6e ‘ore: mm x 0.3987 + in For example, an Sin pipe, which is actually 203.2 mm in diameter, will be called a 200-mm pipe. In effect, if this system of designation is adopted, then the capacities and velocities compated will be about 4 and 2 percent smaller, respectively, than the actual values. In computations for pipes mamufactared in metric sizes, however, capacities and velocities computed will be the actual valves. In this book, metric pipe sizes are used for all computations. 2.4 DESIGN CHARTS AND TABLES To aid in the solution of the flow equations discussed previously inthis chapter, various design charts and tables have been developed, Several that are applica: ble to sewers when they are lowing full are presented in this section. They are followed by a discussion of Manning's equation, which is applicable to sewers flowing partly ful, Finally, charts for the hydraulic elements of noneircular sewers are presented. Sewers Flowing Pull As meationed previously, the Manning equation is the one most common in sewer design, The most ditect method of using this equation to solve flow problems in sewers and pipes in general is by preparing nomogriphs, such as those shown in Figs. 2-12 through 2-15, which can be prepared for any design conditions. Values of 0.013 and 0.015 for Nanring’s 2 were selected for these diagrams because they are the most frequently used values in sewer design. 11053) 01Ga) oa 3s) i E i i i i i i ; é t = 4 : i z 5 f i aAGVIEW OF APPLIED HYDRAULICS 35 Sewers owing Partly Full In general, sewers are designed to Oow full only under maximum conditions, Therefore, in many of the problems arising in sewer design, it is necessary to estimate the velocity and discharge whon a seweris party filed. The relations between hydraulic clements for flow at full depth and at otber depths in circular sewers, compied acconting (0 the Manning equation, are shown in Fig. 2-16. ‘The hydraulic elements for a circular sewer, as shown in Fig. 2-16, are the hydraulic radius &, the cross-sectional area of the flowing stream A, the aver- age velovity V, and the rote of discharge Q. If the variation of x with depth is to be neglected, calculations involving flow in parily filed sewers can easily be handled by using the data in Tables 2-4 ‘and 2-5 adapted from Brater and King’s Handbook of Hydraulfes (2). The following two examples illustrate the use of Fig. 2-16 and Tables 2-4 and 2-5. 015 [or Haws between. and 10.0 7s au slopes between DA 240.01 mm, Note: nls Vsti egy cog 12 a sane win dame ‘ Tan counae ’, — fnsegentect ofa \ 5 4 £ / 3 a g 32 i fe 4 3 a ze £ eg = gt 3 i a a S 5 25 _ 5 g FBS ‘ ee a a2 s 3 Hydeaute elements 2 AR anno ra . Fn Gas ea Fea ure 1.16 Hydrsule elects fer secutor yever £10,hevinw oe aveLIED nyDualAncs IP 36 WASTEWATER ENGINESIING: COLLECHTON ARO. PCMEING OF WASTEWATER srrinatins of del avd velocity ina ewer Hoiag party fll Deterting die sw and veloc in xt ith nro of 3 aa Zin Lad ona sage of 645 any vlse of 0075 when disclosging QOL ns 35 1s, Table 2-4 Values ef K for chreukir chomnels iw fetus of depth of flow in the equation? Q = (Kinja? vn foam on on ot a soxens pe ‘ 8 1. Comps te sate ot ine qston a oO 0 = em pen 8 toe ate oe AQ RMS HDL es 08 em 8 KS BSE TST Gaiman a ose ht 2, Yo Aeoraie dep ol tele in Table 2 the computed le oF Ane $d he 3 eos SrespandngydueclatD: Toe vale fa Tale 2 appoints) 0.2! fe Depth of low ¢ = 300 mm x 6.28 © 84 mm O.3L is) Compute the veeciy, From Fp, 2-16, (or a value af JD of 0.25 (280, the sea of flow fi equal to 0.21 tines the ara ofthe pipe, whichis equal 220707 we) = 0.9836 nt (@.188 9). The vocity i equa to: sAmbrtes tron Ret 2 where = fowtate mis no» Matsa) eve debates, 5 = usps ofecerey oases, ee SD eites een ch Noms a3is 354187 fs ns aNs ot of fon 6H mis 2.119 Example 25 Baermnation of the dlamete of w sever Ooving parly fal Deternine 2 Lispeter ef «sence teqsired to haa # flow of AS mis 3488) wen Moning A percent ful The sewers to be lad a slope oF 6.491 mim fet] andthe value is assured to b= 3, ‘Toble 2.5 Vahies of K for circular channels in terms of diameter in the equa Socuns @ = EK eyDessus 1, Determine "inthe egaston * 2 = aim pee a Doce omen eoaset 1ouk ist023, Entering Fete 25 with a iD vslus of €.65, the cetresponding 2 Compute diawsterD, © sg S60 BSED AD oo 23 060.5% Ost Tas Hens 8 cS O10 OI tae bine OS cus oN Me Lea Be 03 ONS one CRs Ont 7 oz ome 8a aD oe ums one aos nae 09 032 OI aaa OHS nas te ose owe oes. O3eS oun Ons! 196 ois om aie oz ota oz 0wF 090) Os 099381 oan 0s aah = OS 0158 1) Use a co-eum (242n) pipe. sof Noncireular Sewer Sections Hydvaulie Elemer Almost all the sewers now constructed in the United Stotes are ciraular cross sections. In the past, however, 2 wide variety of noncirealar sewer sections. were used, including egg-shaped, semiefliptical, horseshoe, basket Inudle, oval, catenary, gothic, parabolic, and elliptical. The first four of these were the more popular shapes. Typical examples of these sections, along with data om their shapes and hydraulic elements, are shown in Figs. 2-17 and 2-18 and in ‘tele D forats le f= Ning coekien of Gichos De direte of eondut = Hope ef cetgy pr re, ie 1 dep Coe Nines in = AST = Re peer38. WASTEWATER 2NOINEERING: COLLECTION AND PUMHING OF WASTEWATER | Figure 2-17 Noncivedes sewer sections {12} (a) Eeesbaped section, (0) semieligtca section; (e) horsestor section (i) tasket handle section, Roop e101 D © wo Table 2 and 1, . Detuiled data on these and other sections may be found in Refs. 1 25 MINOR LOSSES Head losses in sewerage systems other than the normal frictional losses that typically occur where the magnitude or direction of the uid vetocity changes are called miuor bosses, ‘These minor losses can usualy be expressed as func- tions of the squares of representative fluid velocities. Minor losses in closed conduits are somewhat different from these in open channels. AEVIEW oP ApeLIED avORAULICS 3 od nal z eee Ratio deh ot tothe vl daeter Eee EEEEEH = on 8486 08 10 G2 0 OP Ut oe 8 TOS avo ofthe aces dete Pigefte islet es ‘thesaftheenireseaion ie tetan 2 g Bio w. F Eas ws) Bos Kisin abel as 5 ata get ei Boz ob ar 3 PEE ee z Et Zo tf oF a@ of Los: 9 02 0 G6 8 19 12 F pane ofthe yeu derets of 2 ee Hatig 2 puts tna afte fl rothine othe sate ratira Savana ta ols ene seta 2 13) igure 218 Aydraulis clecvents of roniccter sewers 12). (9) Eg shaped seticns (b) sem ‘al section; () horseshoe sections fd bosket handle section. ‘Table 2.6 Hydraulic elements of various sewer sec- tions {1, 11] (see Figs. 2-17 and 2-18) ‘Hydraulic elements of fll sectione= Typeot sever Area Wetted perimeter Hydraulic radios Besshaped 0.510 26 0.930 Semeliptical 0783358 Osi Honesioe 08130! 4860 Basketanile 0.18Dt 3.188 “b= slsmeter ef canst, Nower mx 32608 = ftSO WASTEWATER ENGINEERING COLLECTION AND HEMPISG OF WASTEWATEL Minor Losses in Cloyed-Conduit Flow Most minor Josses in « closed-conduit system can be expressed as x multigle of the velocity head immediwely upstream, within, or immediately downstream of the fitting or pipe configuration causing the loss. The general equation is ye 2 Is 2-46) Where Ii = rigor loss, m G0 K = minor loss coeflicient V2y = velocity head, m (f0 When the velocity heed changes as the flow proceeds through the fitting in question, it is important for the analyst to know on which velocity head the minor-loss coefficient is based. In most tables of minorless coefficients, this information is given. For some fittings, such as expansions and contractions, (he equation for the minor loss will differ slightly from Eq, 2-36, ‘An extensive listing of the types of fifings and appurtenances frequently encountered in closed-conduit systems and the associated minortoss coeffi- cicnts (acd minor-loss equations, i different from Eq. 2-36) is given in Appen- dix ¢. 6 Cakculatbn of loseate wh pines fsus faglved Datong the Mowat trom FeservorrA tocesersoied forthe system shese ip Fig. 2-9. Aswuze thatthe fection factors fre constant te values den. 1 Develop an expression this caa be used to compte the fistond losses in the stale seston of pipe at afmocion of te veboity i the 200s pige. GThevesocty inthe 580snm pips cea be fox from te continuity equation as floes en = Yop B88 4 racasce | Bo ftw ‘site Pied am aa we 240 Definition shee for Example 216, Note: mo 3.2808 ss hemes 04937 = i, EVENS OF ATHLUFO HYDHACLICS AL fe The cota ftiocl foes in the 160) seaiL sections ef pipe is fn 100m BOR Soe EB 10895 SR ps forthe minor losses xs fonction of Fes nat Ms is Develop wlan estrace lass at rseevaie A 98 4 ag = 0S cs hee = O51 ms Ves loss in tha bers a furetin ef Yen lS i ay = 340.20) 2 fy = Ot Stig The fost at the sudden expansion a9 a fanetin of Ves is Wee = Fa % (Wiag = 0.16 » eat me hg = (0025 SIMIVEy A The exit hss os eserveiedl as ufanstion of Yea b yg © (0001 SiR 3. Deteqnine ee velosty in the 200 pipe: The velosity Hs fount by equating te sam of lhe hee Losses expressed infer of the Seloccy in the ZaDme pipe) 0 the bes Svailbls for divzg de kw wtih, nis ease, i he diflerence in vntersurfae eves fiom becasen the G0 JeSeC0I5, a solsing fr Wea How hy hg ty he es 281m = VfnlO895 40.851 + 0031 ©0036 4 0000 sm . 200 Me” Tosi Vay = 8h as ST BS ‘Detoemin the tomate troy reservelr A 10 reserscir @ = Vets IZ amt! 0 = astmisl Same 0.119 ais OT ES42 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND PUMPIRG OF WASTEWATER Miuor Losses in Open-Chanuel Flow Minor losses in open-channel flow frequently include those at churnet en- Uuamces, contractions and expansions, bends, curves, transitions, and chanel exits, Albough there are no universally accepted equations for determining the anagritude of tiese minor losses, some of the moze common. methods and equations ate preseoted in this section, Por additional information, Refs. 2,5, 7,8, and 10 are recommended, : Entrance losses, The conditions that govern head losses at the entrance to an open channel or conduit leading from a zeservoir are similar to those fora pipe Alowing under pressure, However, experimeatal daa are lacking. Itis probably safe 10 estimate the toss on the same basis as in a closed conduit. Contractions and expansions, When all depts of flow are greater then the cricical depth, the [oss of head at contractions and expansions can be related ircely to the difference in velocity heads before and! after the change in cross section, (Critica depth is the depth of flow thal occurs at minimum specific energy und is discussed in more detail in Sec. 2-6.) The following equations ean be used (2): For contractions vi 41) few KL 5 - ot { iy ean For expansions vi hen xi 4 h % 1238) Where he = head loss et contraction, m (6) ike = head loss at expansion, m (ft) Ke = constant for contraction Kz = constant for expansion = fluis velocity approaching the change in cross seetion, mvs (ft!) fluid velocity after the change in cross section, m/s (ft/s) icceleration due to gravity, 9.81 mist G2.2 fis!) ‘typent values for K, and Ke ave given in Table 2-7 % ends. Information on the head loss ia beads for open-channel low in sewers 4s almost nonexistent, However it seems reasonable to use the same analysis that was used for bends in closed conduits. When channels or conduits join ata 90° angle without a curved section, as in some treatment-plant chunnels, for example, it usually is appropriate (ia conservative design) to assume & loss of the entire enteciag velocity head. nEVISW OF AEPLIED HYDRAULICS ‘Table 2-7 Typical Ke and K, values for determining head loss at contrac- tions and expansions in open channel flow? 2] Fort of tmasition ke Sudden change in ace, 00s Design value 019 “sn dapis greater than exten depth sal surfies comected by tangert curves ind flaw ines angle Teste 13" ‘oth the aes of ekarnel Curves, Even a slight change in direction can disturb flow, which increases the frictional resistance. The length in which such disturbance occurs is of greater significance than the sharpness of the deflection. The total head loss through a bend is equal to the sum of the frictional loss that would occur in om equal length of straight pipe and the eddy losses caused by the change indirection. A curve of short radius ard correspondingly short length may cause a smaller loss of head than a curve of long radius with the same change of direction. There are ceases, however, in which the opposite effect is probable, From the fragmentary data available, it appears that the effect of curvature hhas generally been equivatent to an increase in the value of n by an amount varying from 0,003 to 0.005 in the sections containing significant curvature, ‘Transitions. ‘Transitions in sewerage systems are required between sewers of different sizes, between sewers laid on different slopes, and at sewer junctions. fn general, the function of the transition is te change either the shape or the cross section of the flow. The hydraulic head losses associated with transitions are friction losses and eoaversion lesses, As a first approximation in the design of (ransition siructures, frictional losses can usually be neglected. Conversion tosses, such as momentum tosses that depend on the geometry of the simictare, must be determined or estimated individually for each structure, For this rea- son, there is no fixed approach to the design of transition structures. When designinga transition structure, itis recommended that the wader refer to Refs. 3t0 7 und 9. Exit losses. When a opex channel discharges into a tank or reservoir, it is iffcult wo recover any of the yelosity head associated with the flow in the channel. As the Rowing water enters the body of sll water, the velosity hex pated tarough turbulent mixing. Thus, the exitlossis taken tobe L.OV7i2g,AU WASTEWATER ESEREERING: COLLECTION AND RUMING OF WASHEW ATER 2.6 NONUNIFORS OPE CHANNEL FLOW Conditions of steady nonuniform flow exist when « constant quantity of wster flows through variable cross Sections, slopes, and velocities. The surfuce of the ‘water, therefore, is not parallel to the invert of the conduit. This cengition Alway's exists at points of changing equilibrium, such as at ard near changes of grale and in cross sections, and above obstructions of free outlets. Typical examples of nomnioren flow are shovwn in Figs. 2.20 through 2-22, General Equation Cor Nonuniform Flow To analyze nonuniform flow, it is necessary 19 consider a reach of channel shor’ enough se that flow conditions de not change greaily over its length, Th total drop in the energy yrade line over this reach of channel can be approxi mated from the slopes of the energy grade lino at upstream and downstream iete2-20 Daawnlows cane sith fieedisetams Figure 221 Typical backwater Nene fh Miguee 222 Dievufowes curve, chute Cow. and byrne jump in ek ct EVIEW OF 4PeLSED AYDEALLICS ends of the reach. The slope st each end is determined by rearranging the Manning equation (Bq, 2-24} as follows: se (z y (1 units} o Yn = coma 7 so [qitgm) U.S. cosomary ie) G39 cr, terms of fowrate nF it s ( el (SI unis) 2-40) er 1.486 ARE? 7 Af subscript fis used fo denote upstream coniltions and subscript 2 is used to denote downstream conditions, the effective slope of the energy grade line over ‘he reach of channel is 5,= BES eat) 2 where S) and S; are calculated with Eq, 2-39 or Eq. 2-40. ‘The rotal full in the water surface F is equal to the sum of the frictional loss and the difference in the velocity heads ea Any equation for frictional Joss may be used to evaluate the term x5. Ify, and ys represent the depths of water at tie two ends of the reach, and Sq represents the inclination of the bottom, then F = 3S) ~ Oi 79) 249) Equating the values of F in Eqs, 2-43 and 2-t4 yields vi ‘ (v4) - (>. -#) (3 ! so assy \With tte use ofthis expression, the distance between any two seetons of the steamy, in which the ehnge it depth 1 ~ Ya, cap De complied apron mnotely, The sign of isalvays postive (inthe dzetion of computation. The foregoing expressions ae geatral and my be opplied to any cave of Newdy nonuniform hos, within the Kits of the accuracy of te ussomptions. Cantrol se AML water-surface caleulations must begin at a section in which the depth of flow is known. Gften this section is a controt section in4G WASTEWATEE EKGINGERING: COLLECTION AND PUMDING OF WASTEWATER which the depthis uniquely determined by the rate of discharge and the geeme- try of the section. Examples of controls include weirs; sudden expansions into. large bodies of water such as reservoirs or oceans; fells; and abrupt changes in channel bottom slope from mild to steep; and in tong reaches of channel in which steaily uniform flow can take place. Critical depth. Control sections occur where there is a free discharge over a fall, illustrated fy Fig, 2-20, or where there is a decided increase in inclination of the channel, iltstrated in Fig. 2-22. In such sections the depth of flow at the outlet orat the break in grade will be definitely fixed by the rate of discharge for any given conduit, This dent is called the critical depth, designated as ye, and is the cepth forwkich the specific energy (that is,» — V*/2g) is minimum (see Figs. 2-2a and 2b). ‘The expression for the specific energy in a rectangular channel may be written in tems of the discharge ¢ per unit width as Eeyt (245) Differentiating 8g, 2-45 with respect to depth, and setting the result to zer0, yields (2-46) or aan It can alsobe shown that, for any channel shape, the following relation- ships apply vihen the flow is at eritical depth: tas & “7 (2-48) vo a yD 4) ‘where g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/st (2,2 As!) A= areaat critical depth, m* (f") T= top width of water surfsce, m (f}) V = velesity at cxitical depth, mis (€V) Equations 2-48 and 2-49 are solved by successive trials assuming new value of efor each taal, The derivation and the application of these equations 0 the development of a rating curve for a Falmer-Bowlus flume are discussed in Chap. 3, See. 34. REVIEW OF APPLIED HYDRAULICS 4 Within the specified limits, the following equation may be used for comput ing critical depeh in a circular section flowing partly full: 3 G4 onmo (st vai 230) D yee v2 gy" 0.08) — (U.S, customary units) 2-50) where ys etitienl depth, m (ft) = discharse, m’/s (2/5) B= pipe diameter, m (f) and 0.3 Vion inthe vertical Arecnnn itn the pipe is the sare ae ful orene stl and that he welosity ver the pipe eros sedi is rlform. Meglect al losses, 22 Deterine the farce exerted by the nozzle oe tke pipe shown in Fig. 226 Dik mF, elect al Fsses 1.3 Determine themmagntufe and direction ofthe force needed to eourcrcet the Force eesuing froma the chazge in momeriuta {tf huranrtel A" Len ia 200.m foree main, The eave cf BOW ‘hyugh the fore main is DA os the Mawrate is ‘Table 2-11 Computation of hydraulic jump for Example 29 3 i i i i ze ge aE . i : 2 i56 \ASTRUATEN ENGIMEERIEG! COLLECTION ANE PUISENG OF WASTERATER a ah a wl Figure 224 Definition sketch fer Prob. 22 Note: ex, 0.03037 ~ in cen inslalled 180m apart atthe vane elevation ona 25mm ameter foyce main used forthe pumping of eflaent foo a srcetewate teaiment lanl, Tae posure ‘ep ae consisted to difleental mezcury msioneterby smal tubing. Ihe flosate i 0.2 mF and tiedellection ofthe merury sanameter is 1m, determine tke feebon facto & the farce ain. (Neves The specie gravity of szcury Is equal 10 13.57 pice.) 25 11 has been determined that Hazen Willits sodcient of reuginess C value af 130 is appicatte toa }-m-diamererpipe thats carrying 2 owof 3,6 ms, Determine the corresponding valies of the Muczing » end the Dacey-Wesbochf that woul alss be applic 2 Actlton force main, 200 mminDlsater and 8 mon, is used co tanepOTt weve fora ‘spumping sation up abit i ancatbyteunk sewer, The Hexen. Wiliams eotfcien of rughes€ feequil to 130.The slevaton af the Toece maint the pimping station is 38 m below the eletion ct the nk seser, Determine the pressure the fosce inet the pumping seo whan the awcsto is 0d mpis. Assome ther te pressuce af the tumk eeser is sevasphe 27 A 1.3m elcular sewer Is ona slope of 2028 nem. Ie is 4003 at {ay Q and ¥ when the sewer is Doing fl (0.Q and ¥ whan vastevater is Hawing ata desc of D1, fe}0 6nd V nhsa the severis esrying 06 of ts capacity. (cy ¥ ond depth of flow when Q ie 3.3 ms 28 Suive Prob, 27byasiwning here is variable, Mevtue ofa is L013 wheathe sewers ovis si 2.9 42.0-m sicalar sewer bas = sop (a) O end ¥ when the sewer is flow depts of ay fa £6 0.0268 sa/m. He i 6.8085 ot all depths af Boe, fi ul (10 and ¥ when sastenstes Is Bowing eta depsh of 0.8 fe) ans V then the seers eorying OF af 2S capacity. (Vand the depeh of Row whew is 2.0 0" 2AU Solve Prob. 29 by assuming then value is varias seis equal Ao GUIS when te sewer i owing fu EAL As pan ote Kasfiity audy fora wastevtertiearment plat tobe lecatedon the coast tis eveeiaey 19 etic if eat pumping feclities are needed, ‘The plant effisat io te de ‘hrged thrash vo Gees tall a yoink 30k Feom the Usauexe plant sta dgpth a 32364 ‘Carp bighside condidons, Dae oral 8 hare s dianssee ef 20m with 6 eqn Wo O44 ak trast carey peak flowrate of 3.8 m2Fs, Tee hydric pra line et te pact efficent eta be Ca hinder these cosinor ca cullen flownve he obtained Hy ener Powe? H mame Is needed under thes ecautins, 9 What Camater mus: he afte nsaensl for ema Has take Saliscut? Neglect ll minar losses isd asses he difhtsr, esione that ths tits of the ffir ans soeutes ate the cams 2:12 The fellowing equations wete wed te olay Ge * Fen Yon ete A» emsssectonl re ofl “gs esmesetna nen e :fpec gous Sap ef how, 1 discus esr 2g = meted pets ffl e,33 Si Rada ag = hfs a Ter pps Fn enolye mis for ful pipes mis tad the angle cos" 6 isi radar, Dasa thooquatens for diane ind PP ys safe eafapine FRondag ese than lf ful ce for tne ease a ‘eater har half full, Show Dat hor AesvationsJesd tthe equationslsted previously. Then deve the relstionsips for Bien. Vic, and OQ Refer to che shetehes showa is Fig. 228 for veel peameit retationshnsSH WASTEWATER EXGINFERING! COLLECTION AND PEMPING OF WASTEWATER Ges wh ats Go igure 2.26 Denton skecek fer Prob, 13, Notes mat 003987 = in 2143 Express the toa nas of head due to the minor losses nthe system showa in ig, 226 08a ‘incon of fowrate 2. 2414 Deteine the drop in presence across 2 wide-open gate valve ina 200-um pipe when the ovate i .15 mis 24 In the system stow in Fig. 2-27, a pipe extends into the terior of a tank. Determine the fowrate atthe iaitat when the level inthe tank is as shown, Doth pipes ave cast jon with a neater of 191mm Include al losses. Assume that the minor loss in the elbow is equal to O30. 246 A she sate ieused to contest he Nowra ina rectangular concrete chanel (se Fig. 2:2), ‘Toe channel is ¢ mide and has abetiom slope of 0.0035 mv; then value is OO18. For acectain “upsteam condtien, the depth of water jist dowsnstreim from the ahice gate is 1 m and the Abwrte through th gate i $0 Ms. Assuming the downsteeam conditions are such hat water will Abwat arma depthat someditance down th channel, prove ta! abydraulijamp wil forma find thedistance E devasteam frem the sluic ete (othe pat where the jump begs to form (see Fig. 2-28), Aso, compare thecrsieal depth va he depts just upszeamtard dowitreana fom the jump. : 2.47 Ina rectangulac channel, theee isa tansion in which the width ofthe chanel decreases tendsaly from 4t0 im, The lowrate inthe channel is 29 "/s andthe dap in the wide sections $m, Draw aq curve for the system ed datermive the depth inthe micro: eestion. Neglect sll leates, (Tbe Mow i suberies in both sections of the channel.) +t fe _ | kept Figwe 1-27 Deft sketch for Pro. Note: mx 3.2808 = ft REVIEW OF AFPUIED HYDRALLICS §9 Figure 2-28 Dafsiton sketch for Prob, 216, Note: m ¥ 5.2806 = ft 238 A 1LS.adlanatertrank sewer ith = O01 and S = 0.001 aves flaws ito a wet wall ata jarring eatin. He flowrate in the sever is 0:3 m¥s end the Water stfece ia the wat ellis 12 mabove the invert ofthe incoming sever, detemine the yolum> of waxewater stored fn the sonar above the noma depth of se, REFERENCES 1. Babhitt, H, Ey and E.R. daurana: Severage and Sewage Treatment, Sth et, Wiley, Neve York, 1958, Blater, E.R, and M. W. King Handbook of Hydhatics, 60h ed, MeGraw-Hil, New York, 1916, 5, Corse, T. Ru Hydaulles of Severs, Public Works, 91. 83, 00,6, 1983 4, Camp, 7. Ris Hydreules of Swer Transitions, Boston Soe. Cs. Eng. vl 19,00. 22. 5. Chow, ¥. Ti OpenChannel Hyraties, Meal, New York, 339. 6 Davin, C.¥., and KE, Sorensen: Hantboot of Applied Hydronics, 4 thy MeGraseHl, New York, 168, Henderon, ¥. Mus Ozes-Chonnel Fey, Macmilae, New York, 196, 8. Hinds, 1, W.P. Creager, and. D. lustn: Engineeringfer Dams, vls. 1-3, Wiley, New You, 13s, 9, Jasper, Cu: Engineering Flié Mectanis, Blckie, Landon, 1956. 10, Joint Ceramiter of the Ametices Society of Civil Easinears and the Wete:Palstion Control Federation: Design and Constraction of Sancary ed Sin Severs, ASCE Manual and Re- on 37, New York, 10. u Metcalf Ly and H. P. Eddy: Amecan Sesare Practice, vo ty id ad, MeGre- Hl, ‘York, 1238, 12, Meteaf & Bay, ines Waservater Ensincering: Collection, Treament, Disposal, Mena Hilt, New York, 197. 1, Moody, LF eition Fartrs foe Pipe Mw, Yass. ASME, val. 66, p. 671, 1584 14, Venoaed, J. Ku, and R. L, Stet: Elmeniary Fld Mechanics, thet, Wey, New Vouk. 15s Webjet, N..: Fidd Meckaniesfor Ci Fnghveers, Sled, Choa and Hall, Loados, (97h Wiens, G.S., ead A, Hazen: Hydroute Tables, 38 ess, Weey, New York, 120,cnaprer THREE WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT Determining the rates of wastewater flow is a fondamental step in the design of ‘wastewater collection and pumping facilities, Relisble data on prejected flows must be available if these fuetities are to be designed properly, and if the associated costs are to be minimized. The purpose ofthis chapter is to develop 1 basis for properly estimating wastewater flowzates from a community. The subjects discussed inchade: (1) the various components of wastewater from a community, (2) wastewater sourees and flowrates, (3) Nowrate dat anelysis, and (9 flow measurement by dircet-dischage methods and velocity-aren methods, Much of the material in this chapter has been taken from Chap. 2 of the companion text of this book [11], and, where appropriate, design data and information have been updated to reflect current practice. 31 COMPONENTS OF WASTEWATER ‘The components that make up the wastewater from 4 community depend on the type of collection system used and may include: Domestic falvercatled sunitar 9) wastewater Wastewater discharged from resi- ences aad from commercial, institutional, and similar facilities, Industrial wastewater, Wastewater in which indasivial wastes predominate. Inflirationiinflow (ZiT), Exiraneous water that enters the sewer system from the ground through various means, and storm water that is discharged from. sources such as s00f leaders, foundation drains, and storm sewers Stora water. Runoff resulting from rainfall and suowmel. WASTEWATER FLOWS xD MEASUREMENT 6 ‘The types of collection systems for whick euch of these components be- comes important are discussed in Chap. 32 WASTEWATER SOURCES AND FLOWRATES Date for estimmatiag average wastewater flows from various domestic and indus- aia) sources and the infiltrationinflow contribution are presented in this sec- tion. Variations in the flows (at must be established Eefore sewers are de- etl are also discussed, Sources and Rates of Domestic Wastewater Kloss ‘The principal sources of domestic wastewater in a community are the residen- Gal and commercial ciscricts, Other important sourees include institutional and recreational facilities. Methods for projecting domestic wastewater flows for fareas that are being developed are considered in the fellowing discussion. Residentin! distrfets, For small residential districts, wastewater flows are com- morly determined on the basis of population density and the average per capita contribution of wastewater. Data on ranges and typical flows are given in Table 5-1. For large residential districts, i is often advisable to develop flowrates on the basis of land use areas and anticipated population densities. Where possi- ble, these rates showld be based on actual flow data from selected typical residential areas located near the atea being considered. If Uiese data are un available, on estimate of 70 percent of the domestic water-withdruval rate may. bbs used, In many cases, design flows are fixed by federal, siate, and local regulacory agencies. Table 3.1 Average was sential sources Scurse Uric Aparanent Person Hece, resident Resides = Tadisidual Qvetings Average tome Bewon BOB 260 Better tome Pesson 250020310 wiry heme Person 300.810 380 Semimofem nome Person 102-250 299 Summer cetage Person (0-240 0 Teller pak Peon 0-20) 180 Note: L x 02602 = gal62 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AMD PLMUEING OF WASTEWATER In ths past, the preparation of population projections fer estimating waste- wwoter flowrates was often the responsibility of the sanitary engineer, but today such data are usually available from local, regional, and state planning agen- cies. Ifthey are not available and must be prepared, Refs. 9, 10, and 1? may be consulted. Population-prjection methods that have keen used are described in ‘Table 3-2. Saturation (maximum) population density values that are required for estimating flows ftom land sreas with various-use classifications can be obtained from local planning commissions. Even though such values are given or prescribed, they should be checked and assessed in the light of possitle fawure changes in land use patterns. ‘Commercial distrias. Commercial wastewater flows are generally expressed in eubic metres per hectare per day (gallons per acre per day) and are based on existing or anticipated furte development or comparable data from other areas. Unit flows may vary from [4 to more than 1500 m'/ha’ d (1500 te more than 160,000 gal/zcre- d), Estimates for certaia commercial sources may also ‘be made from the data in Table 3-3, Institutional facilites, ‘The actisal records of institutions are the best sources of flow data for design purposes. When records are unavailable, the flows from instinutional facilites can be estimated with the data shown in Table 3-4, Recreational facilites. Flows from many recreational facilities are highly sea- sonal. Some typical data are presented in Table 3-5. Table 3-2 Popuation projections methods* Metter Description of method Gciptical ‘Graphical projections of pas population-gromth etaves are wedto estat fate population growh, Devteasingrate-ofgeomth Population is estimated os the bass of the xsumgtioa totes the riuy becomes lirger, the mate of growth from sear year be: comes emer, Mathemutisalortoginic _Populaion growth isassuned 1 follow sometogiat mathematival ‘eetinrship in stich popsltion growth isa fusstion of tine Ratio and carton “The popuiation-growth rae ora given community is essumed to be eared tort ofa laser region, such a the county orate Component Populason is forecast on the base of a detailed anshsit ompogerts that make up papulaion groath, namely, natural incraase end migrtion. Naat inctene eqpesents the ieresse sstulling fom the excets of tins over deatin foceeast Populaion govth is estieatad on he basis ef various employment Tovessst Ta octal practice, the relationship between popu slum ued the austber of obs is derived by using the techrignes of the ratio ond earzlaion matted, “Auidonaléetsils on these nnd ote ponutiosprajction methoes ory be found Refs. 9, ard ‘Methods ace arsaged in arde of inceeasing comple WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT 63 ‘Table 3.3 Average waslewaler flows from commerctat sources Pros, Liunit 8 Seurce unit Renge Typical Apart Pasenger as 0 ‘Autumabile veevice station Vehicle sere 30-800 Employee 30 me Curtomer 5-29 5 Eamployee oa | 9 Hotel Gone 130-20 Employes 2 India buitding (ecluing idustey and cafeteria) Employee 3s os Leundromst Machine 1600-2400 2200 Wash 0-29 19) Mota Person 90-8010 ‘Mote with Kitchen Person 90-20 209 Omise Employee 3068S Restaura Mell ss » Reoming Rouse Resident somo 1M Store, depirment TToletrosm 100-2460 2000 Employes 3080 ‘Shopoiog center Parting space 2-8 4 Empleyes ce) _ ee *Adapied in put from Ref. § Noses % 02682 = eal ‘Table 3-4 Average wastewater flows from institutional sources? Flow, Lunt d Scurce at Range Typkal Hospital, medicel Bed 500-950 680 implyee 2-4 Hospital, meatal Bed son-s50 0 Employee 6a Prisoa mate 3-4o 450 Employes 2-0 Rest home: Resident 200-480 380 Employes 24 Sshool, day Web cafeteria; sys aidalawers guides wus With cafeteca, but ae gym and 29 shows Stadest 0 w Wiheut esfeted, ay, nd showers Suutene 0 Schools, boarding Smatest 280, “Adapyed in pare from Ref: § Note: L 02662 = galTable 3. Average wastewaler flows from recreational sources Plow, Lisat-d sre Unit 5e “Agavtnon, resort, Peron rw 220 ¥siny rest Perso 0 exter Customer 6 Employee “a Campground (evelon2 Peson 20 Gochtnl lounge Stat 3S Cees hep Casio 2» Emposee 40 Coury eta Merber resent 00 Empioses 50 oy sap (na ests) Perten 0 Ding Bal Meal carved Ff Dormers, buniouse Person 450 Hotel resect Person 200 Launieont Mochine 209 Slove, resort, Customer 0 Emposee 0 Swimming poe! Casamer 0 Emposee ny Theater ser w 2 Vitor comer Veit: ate: Lex 2882 » ga Table 3.6 Per capita wastewater flows From convertionat domestic devices (13 Wartewster Now vice Leotard Parcene Bab faucet 3 @ Clottes weshingsehing 34.6 u KGickem sii fovcet des a Lswauoay fever is 5 Shower heas B4 B Talk 988 Tos 32a toy Neves L* 02642 = gal Reduction of Damestic Wastewater Flows Because of the impoztance of conserving both resources and energy, various ineaas for reducing wastewater flows fom domestic sources are gaining it- creasing aitention. ‘The principal methed of reducing wastewater flow is by reducing water use. SeSSTEAVATRI FLOSS AND HESSUIRERIERT € Per capita wastewater Nows froma conyentianal dons iven in Table 3-6, The principal devives and systems for reducing wastewater how reductions sre described in Table 3-7, The actual yaastewater flow seductions and the percentage reductions possible with these devices and systems are teposted in Table 48, ‘The social acceptability ancl the esse with which these 4 systems Toble 3:7 Flose-reduetion devices sizeisysten Balelfiash vase ints andor opps rovers A trick sil reahison in bastewasee Mow Insen comets cozvessianal ce! 18 dustcycle operation. Tn sew inszstions, u dushejok whet fs ete cost eller ‘ve tea n conventions ore wi a duel-=yl sak ashi Brisk telet oak cnly taht shop cank nse Doaksysle tole! uses. 35 fey ferliquid wastes end 9.8 Lye fr so Fescet Inereesce che rinsing poneae ef water by sadly slr and sox ‘ectating ow, thas redusizg the count of wash water ses. Conperadvely sinple and inexpensive 10 fetal Love! comaler er Moteties the amount of water uid fo tearrount of hah Slothes masher bb washed “Lining: Rw shower hed Restrict sd woncentrates water pessaze bs mears a ocifices hot Wine ans divert suower Low Bos optiren use oy the bates Restets Water flow toa fixed re dh eepens oa Wwe hald water system pressure using valve Maintains home sone pressure ata loser eve than ot of distribution system. Reluzes tousehalt does yotleaks‘aedéxpping foc. Uses uninstall asa natertanapestaganiam er seysir2s awater, Opesstes is a closed op in fre solletod sepa ate Sore or Tr plckup ay saci ang, wastes ate sopsated fiom the ersnsponing sriviy, The micenil ol sts af by pur. cle fol fiteret Hefore being toc}cled eo the ike nh Tiles tn sssee that eithee prevenis 4 penon ct fares fran zing dumped ding the flush eyes oF 02+ Cues a paron ef the tack volume so eae evs wares avails per eyele Listing tow valve ves Recliculaing nizeral ol tole sjstem Reduced device Uinat \Walltype unm fir home use that eequirs §.? Liege Vacuums foils ste ses air ons sastranspoing ccm se Tequirs sbout Le Lieveke, s far wse Washhwateesasyete ayer for ee boll ned Ky fasting ‘ats, Adsgtel om Reb 1 Note A 0.2682 = gal65 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING! COLLECTION AND PUMPIKG OF WASTEWATER Table 38 Reductions achieved by flow-reductton devices and systems? ane rest Deveoaent Uerpiad Tenet Level ca fv ees waster ror Resnreeane te es 8 cing meat a ese E Shower ” aa ° ninetow she nro etn oad ‘Sink fucet us e Fee ator 7 wot ning oe eke Toilet e ‘ Tk in ote ae sa Dastbtch she sow Buster ante m3 Duster elk “2b Redscdan dece mt Shgchochutseve ee oR Tae awa i aes ees Book Cath Saou eet Watrame tae ook erat totter? 8 ee ) = daa oom Re *Sce Table 37 hr deceptions and sppistons of Jevices and systems “Perceni of tet fr eanvetenal device sopared in Taste $6. ih single ane multiple boos. Notes 202 = ga devices can be installed are discussed in Ref. 13. Anoth ie vir be stalled are discussed in Ref. 13. Another metho of achiev flow reductions is to restrict the installation ani use of appliances that tend 19 increase water ceasanplion, sich as automatic dishwashers a grinders, Masters and garbage Iinmany onmuritiey, de wse of one or more othe Newereduction dev is now specified for all new residential dwellings; in others, the use of garbage grinders ‘as been limited in new housing developments. Furthermore, many iedividuals conerne spout conservation have insted doviees suchas thors listed in Tate 481 refuse water consumption. I wl probably be some tng before the actual impact of these devices ond methods is known, Sources and Rates of Industrial Wastewater Flows Industrial wasterater owrates vary with he type aad sie of te cs vary with the type and ize of te indus, he degree of waterseuse, andthe onsite waievaterestment methods Used WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT 67 any, Peak flows may be reduced by the use of detention tanks and equalization fpasins. A sypical design value for estimating the Rows from industrial districts Huthave no wet:process industries is about 30 n/a: (~ 300 galVacre-d). If the water requirements for the industries are known, wastewater flow pre- jestions con be based on water-flow projections. For industries without intemal euse programs, about 85 to 95 percent of the Water used in the various opera tions and processes will probably become wastewater. For large industries with jnterni-water-reuse programs, separate estimates must be made, Average domestic (Sanitary) wastewater contribuied from industrial activities may vary from 30 to 95 Licopita: d (8 to 25 gal‘capita: &). Reduction of Industrial Wastewater Flows On October 18, 1972, Congress passed the Federal Water Pollution Control Act ‘Amenitraents of 1972 (Public Law 92-500). Among the many far-reaching impli- ations of this law is the requirement for secondary treatment forall discharges regardless of recelving-water quality. As more ard more communities move to comply with the requirement for secendary treatment, the cost to industry in terms of user charges (based on flow and the quantity oforganic and suspended material discharged into sewers) has become, in many cuses, prohibitive. “To lessen the charges for wastewater treatment ia community facilities, most industries have established extensive programs o reduce the quaetity and sirength of the wastewater disckarged. In many instances, discharges to sewers have been eliminated olay. Por example, a aumber of canneries have with- dave all discharges from community systems in favor of alternative methods ‘of treatment and cisposal, usually ia some form of land treatment. ‘The significance of the reduction in industrial discharges is that great care should be taken in estimating these fows when sizing new sewers. In many ceases, the staged decrease in industrial discharges may be offset by increased discharges of domestic wastewater. In other eases, it may be necessary 10 perform a separate analysis to determine if probiems will develop in the future ‘when the flow in the sewer decreases. Inflltestion/ Inflow Extraneous flows in sewers have been defined as follows [3]: Infiltraiéon, The water entering a sewer system, including sewer service con- nections, from the ground (rough such meansas, bur not limited to, defec- tive pipes, pipe joints, connections, or mankole walls. Infiltration does not inchide, and is distinguished from, inflow. Inflow. ‘The water disckarged into a sewer system, inclading service connec- tioas, from such sources as, but not limited to, roof leaders, cellar, yard, and area drains, foundation drains, cocling-swater discharges, drains from springs and swampy areas, manhole covers, cross connections from stormGi) WesSTEWATER CROIMEESIRG: COLLESSHON AND PUMPING OF WASTEWATER sewers and combined sewers (see See. 4-1), catch basins, storm water, surface runoff, sireet wash water or drainage, Inflow dees not include, and is distinguished from, infiltsatien. Infiltration Injlow. The total quantity of water from: koth infilteation and in low without distinguishing the source, Many extensive prograses of sewer system evaluation have been and are being underiaken, because the Federal Water Poltution Central Ace Amend= ments of 1972 require thst applicants for teatment-vorks grants must demon- fe that each sewer system discharging inte the proposed treaiment works ‘will not be subject to excess radioncinitow, The subject of infiltration and inflovy is discussed in detail in Chap. 6. Infiltration into sewers. A portion of the precipitation in a given azen aus auickly into the stocm sewers or other draimuge channels; anocher portion evaporates or is absorbed by vegetation; and the remainder percolates into the ground, becoming groundwater. The proportion that percolates into the ground depends oa the character of the surface and soil formation and on the rate and distibutioa of the precipitation according to seasons. Any reduction in per- meability, such as that caused by buildings, pavements, or frost, decreases the opportunity for precipitation «© become groundwater and increases the surface runoff correspondingly, The amount of groundwater flowing from a given area may vary from a negligible amount for a highly impervious district or a district with a dense subsoil, to 25 of 39 percent of the rainfall for a semipervious distric: with a sandy subsoil permitting rapid passage of waterinto it, The percolation of water through the ground from rivers or other bodies of water sometimes has a esderale effet onthe groundnater table, whisk ries and falls contin The presence of high groundyater results in leakage into the sewers andl in jerease in the quantity of wastewater and the expense of disposing of s leakage from groundwater, or inflretion, may range From 0.01 to more Gian 1.60. d+ mm-km (OO 1 (0.000 gud io-mip. The number of millimoter-kilometers (inches-mles) ina sewer system is the sum of the prod- ucts of sewer diameters, in miimeters Gnches), times che lengths, in kilometers nites}, of sewers of corresponding diameters, Expressed another way, infira- tion may range from 0.2 10 30 m?'/hs d (20 to 3000 golfacre* ¢). Dating heavy rains, when inflow may occur through manhole covers and other connections 10 sewers, the infiltration/infiow rote may exceed SG) misha- d [50,000 gal! acre: a). Infitrationfinflow is a vaciable part of the total wastewater flow, dlepending on the quality of the materia! and workmensbip in the sewers and building connections, the character of the maintenance, and the elevatton of the raumasviter compared with that of the sewers. The sewers first built in a district usually fotlow the watercourses in the bottoms of valleys, ctose to (and occasionally below) the beds of streams. Asa WASTEAVATER PHOS AMD HEASUIEMENT 69 result, these old sewers may reesive comparatively Jacge quaniities of grownd: eater, whereas sewers built kster at higher elevations wil receive relatively Srcaller quantities of groundwater. With an increase in the percentage of ares. it a district that is paved or built over, comes (1) an increase in the percentage of storm water that js conducted rapidly to the storm sewers and wutercourses, and (2) adectease in the percentage of the storm water tt can pereolate inte the carth and moy infilrate into the sanitury sewers (see Sev. 4-1). A sharp. Aistinction is to be made between maximum and average rites Of inflation ino the sewer systems. The maximum rates are necessary to determine re. quired sewer capacities; the average rates are necessary (© estimate such fac- sas anual costs of pumping and treatment of wastewater. The rate and quantity of iniiltration depend on the length of sewers, the area served, the soil and topographic conditions, and, to a certain extent, the population density (which aifects the number and tetal length of house connec tions), Although the elevation of the water table varies with the quoatity of rain ‘and snowmelt percolating into the ground, the leakage through defective joints, porous concrete, and cracks has been large enough, in many cuses, to lewer the groundwater table to the leve! of the top of the sewer or Lower. Most of the sewers built during the first half of this century were laid with cement mortar joints or hot-poused bituminous compound joints. Marholes were almost alvays constructed of brick masonry. The deterioration of pipe joints and sewer-to-manhole joints and the Tock of weterproofing of brickwork used in the construction of these okd sewers have resulted in a high potential for infiltration. In modern sewer design, high-quality pipe with dense walls, precast manhole sections, aml joints sesled with rubber or synthetic gaskets are stax- ard. The use of these improved materials has greatly reduced infiltration into newiy constructed sewers, and the increase of infiltration rates with time will probably be snuch slower than has been the cuse with the older sewers. Inflow into sewers, For the purpose of anulyzing sewerflow measurements (wigings) and because of the measuring rechniques available, inflow is usually subdivided into two categories. ‘The first category includes cellar sind founda~ tion drainage, cooling-witier discharges, and drainage from springs and sstarapy_ areas. This type of inflow causes a steady flow that ennnot be ilentified sepa~ rately and s0 is included in the measured iniiliration. The second category consists of inflow that is celated directly to storm-water runoff and, as a result of rainfall, causes an almost immediate increcse in flows in sewers. Possible sources are roo! Ieaders, yard and sreaway drains, maniiole covers, cos connections from storm drains aad cuteh basins, and combined sewess (see See. 41). Infiltration design allowances for sewers, When designing for unsewered areas of for the relief of overtaxed existing sewers, allowance must be made for unavoidable infilration/inflow as well as for the expected wastewater. For existing sewers, infiltration allowances should be determined on the basis of7) WASTEMATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND CUAQING OF WASTEWATEH flowrate measurements, with appropriate modifications te account for ex pected future leakage. For new sewers, o: existing sewers for which no data are available, average rates may be determined Grom dita derived from similar existing Sewers, with appropriate modifications 1@ account for differences in materials and construction and in expected future conditions, If relevant fow data are unavailable, average infiltration allowances pre- sented in Fig, 3+1 ay be used for new sewers or recently constructed sewer systems having precast marholes and pipe joints made with gaskets of rubber or rubberlixe material. In all cases, the infiliration allowances for design skould reflect the expected condition of the sever system at the end of the period for which itis being designed. ‘The average flowrates for designing wastewater-treaiment plants and pumping stations may be estimated by adding average domestic and industria! Alows and average infiltration allowances. Inflow rates, because of their episodic nature, do not uppreciably affect the average desiga flows. ‘The infikration design allowance discussed here has litle or no relationship to the allowances used for the acceptance of newly constructed sewers. The acceptance allowances are designed to messure howt well the construction jot was done, whereas the design allowance is used to account for what may ultimately happen to the sewer, including the construction of building sewers on private property. eO.539, ATS. Senha ata Figure $1 Avera infittion rite ellosence for new sevens, Notes ba = 24711 = atte ified » 105 = paseed WASTEWATER PLOWS AND MEATUREMENT PL Figure 34 Typed) toudy var tion ia dusestis wnstewatee ows. Note: mis « 1282S cht a a CE Tineeday howe Variations in Wastewater Flows Short-term, seasonal, and industrial variations in wastewater flows are briefly discussed hers. The analysis of flowrate data with respect to peak flows 10 be expected is discussed in Sec. 3-3. Short-term variations. ‘The variations in wastewater Qows tend to follow somewhat diurnal pattern, as shown in Fig. 3.2. Minimum flows occur during the early morning hours when water coasuraption is lowest and when the base flow consisis of leakages, infiltration, and small quantities of wastewater. The first peak flow generally occurs just after the peak late-merning water use. A second peak flow generally occurs in the early evening. When extrancous flows are minimal, the wastewaterdischargs curves closely parallel water-consumption curves, but the time lag depeads on the stance of the sewer from the initial source of wastewater. I home laundering not done on a typical duy, the variation in weekday flows is negligible. ‘Typical weekly flows for both wet und dry periods are plotted in Fig. 3-3, Seasonal variations. Seuscnal vatiations in wastewater flows oseur in resort areas, in small communities with college campuses, and in communities with seasonal commerciel and industrial activities. The expected magnitude of the variations depends on both the size of the community and the seasonal activity An extrema example is the witiation ia the city of Modesto, Calif., which ‘occurs because of the substantial amount of industrial wastes from canneries and other activities related to agriculture. Infiltrionsinflow quantities also vary seasonally. Storm water and groundwater can emer the system through cracks, malformed or broken jeints, unauthorized drainage connections, and poorly constructed house connections7 WASTRWSTER ERAMEERING: COLLECTION AND LENUING OP WASTENAT EE 2 Tigare 3-3 Typical daly sod weekly woke = Meda, sin domeste wastewiverHlons, Note wis x 2.845 The magnitude of this effect depends on the type of collection system and on location. For example, in the westerm United Siaies, the rainfall pattem tends to be cyclical; there iS litle or no rainfall during the summer, In the exstora United States, the raintell patiem tends t0 be more uniform, Industria varintions. These is no foclproof procedure for predicting industcisl rastewater discharges. AlUough internal process changes may reduce dis. charges, plant expansion may increase discharges. Where joint treatment facilities are to be constructed, special attention should be given to industriel discharge projections, whether they sre prepared by the industry or joinily veil the city’s staff or engineering consultant, Industrial discharges are most troublesome in smaller wastewater-treatment plants where there is limited cs pacity to absord shock loadings. 3:3 ANALYSIS OF We rEWATER FLOWRATE DATA Because the hydraulic design of sewer fucilities is affected by variations in wastewater flows, design values for the expected peak flows must be de- veloped. The best current design practice calls for estimating peaking factors for domestic and industrial wastewater flow and for infiltration and inflow separately Peal ing Factors for Wastewater Flows Jdeally, peaking factors (the ratio of peak flow 10 average Mow) would be derived or estimaied for exch major establishment or for each eaiegory of flow in he system, The individual average flows are multiplied by these factors to abiain the pzak flows. The resuitiag peak flows frem several areas would be. Wwastewattn FLOWS AND MERSCREMENT TS combined te obtiin the total expected peak flows, Unfortunately, this degree of refinemect ix seldom possible; therefire, peaking factors usally must be esti- ied by more generitized methods 1 Now-mensuremenr records are intlequate to establish peaking factors, the carve given in Fig, 344 may be used, This curse was developed from analyses of the records of nomerons comnnnities throughout the United States. Tt is based on average domestic wastewater ows, exclusive of infitration‘inflow, and may’ be used for estimating peak Novis from residential areas, Tclso applies to wastewater that contatins small ameurts of commercial fows and industrial wastes xs well as residential wastewater. When commercial. institutional, or industrial wastewaters make up a signif- -ant portion of the average flows (sty 25 percent ox more ofall Lows, exclusive f infiltration), peaking factors for the various flow categories should! be esti- aied separuely. If possitle, peeking factors for insustrial wastewater should tre estimated on the bisis of average water use, number of shifts worked, and rrertinent details of plant operations. “Many state agencies have also set peak design flowrates to be used when ‘no actual measurements are svsihble. Typically, these flawrates are about Licapita- d (400 gel/capita a) for laterals and 980 Lécapita- (240 gall capita d) for unk sewers (assuming no extraceous flows other than normal infiltration) [7], Peak Infiltration Flows Peak infilcration allowances for sewer design are often related 10 the sizes of the areas served, as shown in the curves presented in Fig. 3-5. In the absence ‘of contradictory measurements, these curves may bz considered conservative for most sewer designs, Curve A relates to atess with ld sewers; curve B relates to areas with either old er new sewers. The choice between curves A and B for old sewers depends on the present snd expected future conditions of the sewers, the elevation af the groundwater table, and the method of joint onstruction. For example, sf sewer joints are koown or believed te bave been: formed with cement mortar, and the presence of « high-groundwater table is known or expected, curve A or higher rates shoud be used. In addition to gd peti 385 gab A war oor be ot 5 sils1987 =u dense nate fos eseiaisginiistionloson) syastewater fs, Note: atte 22.885 Mest7A WASTEWSTER ENGINEERING: COLLECEION AED FUMPISG 09 WASTEWATER: 1 _ 3 2 a 2 sd ramet S000, Uma ones te sree al exiting eee 164 pe ts Vib conpissaus shes et eavarers nat S008 SA nea Pure 3 Pexkieffironallowances, Note: Ae 2.471 regia 8x 1059)» esiacrend, newly designed sewers, the category of "new sewers" includes those recently constructed sewer systems in which precast concrete manholes were used and in which the pipe joints were sealed with compression gaskets or rubber oF subberlike materials, ‘When curves of average infiltration rates, justified by relevant measare- meats, are available, the peak infiltration rates for sewer design may be ob- tained by muttiflying an approprinte peaking factor by the average values ob- tained from these curves. Peaking factors fer infiltration ate properly derived. from flow measurements; common values range from 1.5 to 2.0, Peak Inflow Design Allowance Separate design allowances for peak inflow rates should be made when design- ing relief for, or extensions of, existing sewer systems. ‘These allowances should be based on anslyses of sewer low measurements (gagings) where rossible, with approprinte ceduetions attributable (0 cerrestive measures PFD: posed for the existing system, Although properly designed and constricted sew sewers should be free fom rainfal-relted inflow entry points for such inflows will develop eventually because of loove-fitting manhole covers, inadvertent coatection of sump ‘pumps, roo! leaiers, cutch basins, and other draias, or ether causes, However, conservative infiltration rates would normally be sufficient to allow for such WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT 7S possible occurrences. Ifit is customary, in the area to be sewered, to connect areaway draias of other drains to the sewers, and there is Tittle prospect of liminating this practice in the future, appropriate inflow allowances mast be made in the design of new sewers. Also, the use of perforated manhole covers would indicate the need for added inflow allowance. Leabage through a man- hole cover Submerged under 25 mm (| in) of water can vary from 75 t0 265 Limin (20 to 70 gal/min), depending on the size and number of openings in the cover [16]. Example 3.4 Estimation vf lowrates Estimate the expected average en pesk dames snl indusiil wastewater flows from the Covel Hark Development showt in Fig. 26 ‘Dasa an he expected syurition popwation denies end wastewater Nos forthe vars tus types of housing in the Cosel! Pask Development were derived from actus rece of ‘ilar reseby developments ana given in Tatle 89. The comercial inluding the shop ping area) and ladustéal wastewater Auwate allowances were estinated to be 30 ané 30 heiha- i (210) an 3200 sac). respectively. These estimates sere derived from t ‘ralysigof th isdialtypes of allies tbe iaclade lia the so zones.On the basis of fetal flowrecouds of imileaeties, the average peaking factors re 1.8 forthe comteercin) flows acd 2.1 fe the industrial flows The planned cehocl witkin the Covel Park Development isco serve 2000 students at slhimste espacty. The average Now 5 78 Listudentou (20 galtutent-a), nd the pealira Factor forthe school's 4.0. Souumoy 1, Setupa somnstaion table forestieting domestic and industil wastewater flows. The required compstationt ate summucized in Table 3-(0. Altaugh Table 2-10 is sel exnlanatcry, the footing comments claify soma of the specific ete fe Incls, Sand 6, 9 simple unweighted average of de dasa ip Tyble 34 is used 10 Gatemise the popation aun slow ghee fo the area of Covell Pk with mixed cesideniat dling, 1 "The pesking foster forthe residentiat aren was obtained trom Wg. Sy wsing the toiel residential average Cow because the flow from the ence ace is being deter fined, Whexe sewers are to serve she individual wecs, the sverige ow of each inlividustacea contributing to «tection of seser would beinsluded i estimating the appropiate peaking factor 2. Sunmire the domestic and indastial wastewater flow. Flow, mid Avenge Pek Dosesic 2M) Industet 3300 8.989 Teal TSM AIS CConnert Todeteemine th required cayasty ofthe cower tosecve the ares, an allawance fer infitetion shots beaded tothe domestic and iedustal yastewate lows detersinedin tis example.ve Set = 8 224M = ser is foe Pxample 3-1. Note igure M6 Classes uf ASTEQETIE FOOWS ab MPASCHEM ENT TT Satursiton population densiics and wastewater Nos for spon for Kamapte 31 Satrsein epalition wastewater rt ‘density Ass evel matters} _Lieupta-d_agelcapite Sinaloa sellin 38 as se cn Dupleres « oy ba 13, Lowrise rgammenis ma (0) Es wo (Nove: fs 24710 1% 0260 = el 34 FLOW MEASUREMENT BY DIRECT-DISCHARGE METHODS ‘The ability to measure wastewater flows is of fundamental importance in de- signing all wastewaler-management facilities. The two principal methods for measuring flowing fluids are (1) disect-diseburge methads and (2) vlocity-area methods, Direct-discharge methods are discussed in this section: velocity area methods are discussed in Seo. 3-5, For direct-discharge methedls, the sate of discharge relates to one or two easily measured Variables. Frequently, if numerous owrates are to be deter- mined, rating curves ure developed co simplify the work involved, The principal methods and applications are described in Table 3-11, Sketches of some of the apparatuses are shown in Fig. 3-7. Weirs, Venturi meters, Pacstiall fumes, and Palmec-Bowlas flames are discussed in the following seetien. Details on the other methods may be found in the references given in Tuble 3-11 Weirs Ove of the most aecuraie devices for mexsuring water is « weir, provided the conditions under which the discharge coefticiems of given types of weirs were determined are approximately duplicated in the actual gugings. The three most common types of weirs—reciangular, uiangulir, and trapezoidal—and sub- murged weirs are discussed here. To determine the discharge aver broad: ‘rested Weirs and dams having different types ol erests, Me reauler may’ consult Refs. 2, 4, -.4 and 8. Rectangular weirs. A rectangular weir is a notched overflow structure placed across the charnel perpetidicular to the direction of flow (see Fig. 3-84), if the stream issuing from the weir is comtracted as shown in Fig. 3-Sa, the Weir js a comracted weir, If the length of the cre is extended so thet the notch isWASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASURENERT 79 ‘Table 3-11. Direct-discharge methods for flow measurement Methoepparas esstipton’ application References whl ” alien pine In tis metiod the Downs is elated tothe dep of 8,17 lo: from aa opes ead ofa pail fled horizontal pe thatisdsthurengfieel othe stowphere, The Sister pipe shoud be ariznnal cd should ave 24q S tengih of at east is pbe diemsters. the ripe is ‘expztiedosiow almost fa an ale vet should eine Slledupstresm of the pipe eatrance 16 ensute free ‘Gretation often the tabled parion of te discorge ne. Compueaton This need sequins field measurements of tbe eth ‘tllow sadslepeafths sewer, A valuefor the coal cent of roughness mustalso be ‘elected. The tethod, atbest {san arproximation dependent on Fe ssaciness ofthe flow a the time ef cbserstion an the pression withvstich she coeMcient of ugh atta ig assumad forthe existing condslons, This method is also based on te assemotionthut ov i Deenming st rns] depth, Despite these Itations, this method is used freqvently for madi ‘saxtenter flow meagbremerts Dieect weighing nibis method, which ir uted to measure small ows, the eras of fld discharged over a specified tine Deol is weighed ent converted to aflewrate usirg the specifi seh of the fui, This is essentially a Iatorstary method: itis mot readily adspua Feld use iow somes [Nozzle flaw misters jn pipes make use ofthe Venturi 12 priein, but use a nove Inserted inthe pipe Ineteal ofthe Ventul tube to produze the pressure Aiferenia. Theformofthe nyzle, the meted of seding kin apize, and he method of rearing te ‘ference in preeture vary withthe etaaufacutee. ‘Open Mow nezalesstached to the ends of pipe are tusualy ofthe Keasizon type shown in Fig. 3, Bromse nozsTes placed at the ends of pipes are ‘ssenilly propotional weir, cnly a single presse ‘Caneeioa iv needed to measure he Bead, Magnet: Mow meters Ween an electric conductor passes theoughan electro: 12 ‘megactic eld, an elesteonoiive forse or roliage is ‘ Induced inthe conductor that is proportional to the 2 ‘elosity ofthe condustar This satemens of 2 Faraday fa serves as the basis of design for hetramaznetie flow ster, ae show ie Fie S70 I actual spseaion, che qui a the pipe cus water er westesaren serves asthe corducter, The sleciromagnet: Bald is generate by piscing cols found the pine, The Seduced voVage is ther ‘meatuced by electrodes placed on ezher side ofthe pike, The clretrodes mast peretrte the wal ofthe Peaking Bene tow, toe @ mid (HO 6 51 + 496). Avemge Mow, i é é é é g é 5 zg residential average Daw uf e ‘Total density. Total ‘snen, ths pereouslia population May Value o an o © Bs a (= Meala = aie 1x 0.2682 = a clings aaned on unweigived avers of ata repoted fu Table 39 “From Fig, 3 sed on ato Note ible 340 Determir Development fur Example 31 andes ek ‘Mined eeidendal uveilings ‘Lowetive upartnenta Schuct ‘Shopping center Commersat Siugle- fa 388 WASTEWATER EXGISRERNS: COLLECTION AND MUMMING OF WASTENGATES! easurennent (Continued “Tatts 3-11 Direet-discharge methods far flow Sertowtapnursane teens fata direct eostsot ith ie Bowing liquid, Ween neceseary an alemate eectos eaning stem my 9 incorporated m which ue tei wives ore continsourly inrodused ine the liquid In he imececace vein of fe eectode ‘he resiling wave mncien preventsasuiddup of flim or foroign patizis fram faring 0a the electrode Meanetie Bos tees exe sual avalss Tor ip sizes raging from SDto 900 eum (2 co 34 inh in dix Bele, lager sizes vequve spssi! order sp eaiie i eylndcal or pistssie opening tov “shich Mud flo, The standanl aide, ss senzaly etna, (sone in vit the edge of the unos tke, Getermezes te jets sus tha te set, Upon leaving 4k does cot aga We He wal fhe oie. Pee ‘cally. tls eau i cbtaired by having the wats ff the afi beveled, The flowrte fs termined ‘sing Terriceli's hacrem. A pte wid a eplindssal opening in ths center fs tswaly inserted int closed pipelines, The Oonrase ‘3 determined fom difieental presure readings Sonic meters are wed te mesaute wastes flows i nines. Two baste pes of meters ars avalale the fist pe uses bv canséucersracunted anaulacly to ‘he foe lir2 an opsosite Ses af the pipe, 20 the securnl type use b single (Caesportes mounted ex ‘he pipe Wall, Each type uses a ilfetent sane pine ‘inls fortlow eeasurement,butbotbtypes re wally {uli size and thes do nota eny hea Tossta the ping system A numberof rons level motors have Jssenalepted for use wth Ventosi fumes amd crs forlevel (and fw) messucerert. chemical oc radiostive gogings,a known concentra- ‘joa ef a charuial or cadiowetve scbstance is led ‘ortimecusly.ata constant rate, De steam in sich ihedsctargels tbe determiced, Acaistance don urea suffer te ensure cumple ising fe recer an sean, the steam © stmpled and te ee centration of ecPenrica er rhnstive smpstancesis Aelermited, Freflow in the steam ean then’ dete rane by esing 1 iss haan: \erturi fumes une che stead derth pringiple to Tearite Ons in gpen channels, Woe two best arethe Fartall nite FebmeeBostus 5. The Faishall une (s22 Fs. Sf) is asualy Fxsdand safer uied omessute fos a kestment plant. The Rncer wus fais small and Imevabte ais comuroniy wied to mene waste seer flows ia sever nite Orifice, eine Senie Geter Troeet, chemical sna radivsctve Venturi fees 6,8, 10, 68,10, 12. 18, 48 1218) 18,20 WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MUASUILENERT. BT ‘Table 3.11 Diretalisehs nenserement (Continue ge metheds for flaw Sedhattoppanicus p ptenapp eaten Venus ets The Veotur mater (see Fig, $F) wht wc measure Rows in coved corse, consis of tes pits: (1) the nlt cara ansehich tho diemeter afte Dip i eeduslly reduseds (2) the that ec con sectcn; snd (3) thooudat cous, in shickche 1238 es inserted. Ths th iter es fs fromanesiih Un ree foals he di rate ef the pipe ts Hes apyrovitelyexush lols ciametet. A sizgh pressute tp is provided Dod in de teost and inthe stata partion ef tie fnle. The determination of re qussay of water fon ingis based onthe difference between pressures “observed er inscateat the ale a at TecoakaF the mete “The volume of id discharged over specified tine ‘pind fs easseed. Gosznlts, this e:a be dene ony sth vey iow flows Aster weir isa beer ustally a neil or plastic ple) over whic the uid 0 be measoved sae (© No». Rectanatat eangulst, en rspezcial welts see ike thee (ypeh mas. carhmsaly Wsed, The Ne rete $ ceterined by messing the observed tea fen the ere of the weir (rectangubr or trenezasth ssciny of over the vertex of the ele st24 ep ley Wein). The head the difeceae in elevation be ‘meer fhe cest sal the sufzze of tho water i the hase, sa pein ypsream alee just beyond the besinsingof Besufacocurve, Thefiosicate i nef «toting ete i sich tke Hoste is led verse Velametic measurement 4.6.8.0, 23 Wet, sharp Notes mim « 4ONST © in coincident swith the sides of the channel (see Fig. 3-8), the end contractions vwill be suppressed and the weir is a suppressed Weir. ‘The general equation used 10 compute the discharge from a rectangular weiris @ = CoS VIELi* Gp where Q = discharge, m/s (10/5) Cq= discharge coefficient y= acceleration dae to gravity, 9.81 més? 32.2 fis! = waie crest length, m (fh) i = head on weir crest (difference in elevation between the crest of the ‘weir and the wuter-surfiee elevation at point upstream of the local druweown curve), m CH)BD WASTEWATER ENGINEERIN {COLLECTION AKD FEMPING OF WASTEWATER | Rats ns [—roatsee = O98 | oxacne he oS) lowniy suite Sree sagas fase ” Figure 27 Typicaldiee-dscharge flow meters. (o] Vertu meter. (b) Kenvson open flow nozzle jestallaion Grom BE), (¢) Parsi] Gume-netesisg instllaies. @) Mame lowneter (ron Fischer & Poe. All of the equations now in use may be reduced to this form, Because severe! methods of correcting for the velocity of approach have been proposed, itis recommended that the form of the equation as proposed by various re- searchers be used. ‘The Francis equation, developed in 1823, is the most common equation for estimating the flow over rectangular weirs, For contracted weirs (see Fig. 3-82), neglecting the approzch velocity, the Francis equation is Q = 1.8L = O.niye (SH units) 62 Q-33XE -O.0lshye* — (U.S, customary units) (3-24) WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT 83 Beton ysien ia Oy bead a Tersicw Fiquee 34 Desinzion skesch for foreacted and suppressed rec~ angular weir. (8) Rectangular wei with end centmctions: 6) Rectangular oir with 0p ” pressed en contestions Front ie where Q = discharge, m'/s (ft!s) discharge coefficient = 0.622 acceleration duc to gravity, 9.81 m/s? (32.2 fils!) tengih of crest of weir, m (E) ‘= number of end contractions hhead on weir crest, m (ft) When the flow approaching the weir has appreciuble velocity, the dis- charge will be grester than that calculated by Eq. 3-2. Under these conditions, the head term/ should be corrected to account for the approxch velocity. For contracted weirs, Eg. 3-2 corrected for the approach velocity is = 18HL = O.hILG +o — HEA] SLurits) G3) Q=333(L~O.lnh IE +P" Het] (U.S. customary units) G-3a) In Eq, 3-3, fi is equal to the head due to the mean approach ¥#/2e. When a \weir has one er more end contractions, she approach velocity skould be calcu lated by using the entire cross-sectional area of the approach channel; dis- charge should be determined by Bg, 3-3. Usually an estimate of the approach velocity based on an approximate value of discharge from Eq. 3-2 will be sufficiently accurate for use in Eq, 3:3 For suppressed weirs (see Fig. 3-84), neglecting the approach velecity, the Francis equation is, = L84Li* (SL units) on Q=3.332A" (U.S. customary units) GayA WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND PURPING OF WASTE ATER "To avoid the evaluation and use of the team hg in Eq. 3-3, which mitkes the caloulation more tedions, Eq. 3-1 may be used with the value of the discharge coefficient desermined by the following relationship first proposed by Rehbock in 1911 (10). pet y Ma i0s0% = 605 (SE units) GS) Ca = 0.605 = (U.S. customary units) (-Se) t+ oe 3 shore Cy = cocftcient of discharge f= head on weir crest, m (it) {= distance from bottom OF channel (0 rest of weir, m ‘The weir equations (Eqs. 3-2, 3-3, and J-4) apply only to vertical sharp- crested rectangular weirs with free overall when: ‘The head A is not greater than one-third the length L The head is no less than 0.15 m (0,5 fi) and no more th The approach velocity is 0.3 m/s (i ft/s) or less. The height of the weir is af least three times the head. ‘The space under the water flowing over the weir is fully acrated so that the. pressure on the underside of the Water is atmospheric. 0.6m 0. From a practical standpoint, tese equations are probably usable with heads higher than 0.6 m (2 ft) but no! much lower than 0.15 m (0.5 f1), and with, approach velocities up to 1 ms (3.3 ft/s). ‘Trlangular welrs. A typical triongular weir is showa in Fig. 3-9. The basic expression used to compute the discharge through a triangular weir is OCR VE tan fo 6) where Q = discharge, m’!s (fis) Cq = discharge coefficient (experimentally determined) 2 = acceleration cue to gravity, 9.8L m/s? 82.2 fs!) = angle of notch (se2 Fig. 34 f= heidl over vertex of weir notch, m (ft) Figure 44 Definition etch for tanga wei, ASTEWATEN FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT 85 Fora notched weir in which ¢ is equal to 90° [shat is, tan (02) = 1], it has een found experimentally thit the discharge may be computed by the follow- ing equation: = 055? — (ST units) 87) Q= 25452 (U.S. customary units) G14) For heals lower than abeut 0.3 m (1 1), the value of Cy begins to increase, depending on the netch angle. Such depths are not uncommon. If securacy greater than that of Eq. 3-7 is desired, Eq. 3-6 may be used. A plot of Cy versus his showa in Ref. 2 ‘Teopezoidal welts. The trapezoidal weir differs from the rectangular weir in that the sides are inclined rather shan vertical. Usually the sides are given an. inclination of | (horizontal) o 4 (vestica’), because at this angle the slope is just about sufficient to offset the effect of the end contractions. When this is done: the weir is known as the Cipolletti weir (see Fig. 340), The equation for the Cipolletti weir is Q = L8SEH® — I units} 8) Q = 3.367Ene where L = the length of the crest (see Fi (U.S. customary utits) G82) - 3-10), m tit). Submerged weirs, When the water surface in the channel below the weir is higher than the crest, the weir is said to be submerged or drowned (see Fig. 411). Measurements by submerged weirs are much less certain than measure: ments by weirs with free discharge, but their use is sometimes unayoidable. 4 1 4 i vt Ay 4 uy ryt ‘igure $.10 Defitiion sketch for uspecoitat Cipallattweiee fron Ch ilboler —Figore M1 Bethitio shot for sucerged Weir,86 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND PUMPING OF WASTESVATER On the basis of a series of experiments conducsed on rectangular, triang- lar, parabolic, and proportional weiss, Villemonte (19) found that for all types, of submerged weirs the discharge could be computed using the fellowing: el (yy @ jf, _(t a 7M! on where Q = submerged discharge, mis (Ps) 0. = free discharge, m*s (is) Aa, = upstteom head, m (ft) Jig = doweasteeam head, mt) n= expenent in fee-dischamge equation Q, = CH? for weir Venturi Meter A typical Venturi meter for meesuring flow is shown in Fig, 3-7a. The equation for computing the discharge through 4 Veaturi meter is derived from Bemnoul- I's equation (see Eq. 2-6, Chap. 2), Fora horizontal meter, without allowance tosses, the appropriate equation is =the =) Vat ~ aT Aras VIG Vat = 47 where Ay = area at upstseam end, mt Ge) Ay ~ area at threat of meter, m? (ft?) 4g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 mis! 2.2 fst fiysftg = pressure herds, m (f) He hy its Under actual operating conditions and for standard meter tubes, including al- lowances for losses, Eq. 3-10 reduces to 0 = CA. VE Gay ‘The coefficient written C is made up of two parts, oF C=C 2-10) where C= AyVal— aE C; = coefficient of enerey loss For standard meter tubes in which the diameter of the throat is between ‘one-third anel one-half that of the pipe, the values of C; range bewween 1.0062 and 1.0328, and the enerey-loss coefficient C, varies from 0.97 t0 0.99. Thus, the range of values af C is from 9.98 to 1.02. WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENE 87 When Venturi meters are used to mensure wastewater, there should be a manual means of pericdically clearing each pressumre-sensing iap. Cleanout tods are used which are designed so thal, on closing with a twisting action, a rials forced through the opening to clean out any matter that may have clogged it, In addition, a continuovs flushing system is usually necessary if Ventudt meters for wastewater are to be mcintained in good operating condition. Such a continuous flushing system is shown in Fig. 3.12, A photograph of a Venturi meter is shown in Fig. 313, eth Nasente {cto ere) a \ C1 Sa eps ae Sheet Deysstea egeoauss Sen flow wane ireiatce (enon) Flow faerie Stato 12m snicemaereae Lise eee miapnst [J ten tbanad aif? etess ethane psnes Figure 3412 Schematic for Ventuslmteter inetlntion with eatiouoss-tushieg system. Note: am % .OB9K7 = in; kNEee 0185 = Ty88 AWTENEATER ESTANEEMING: COLLECTION SND CUMMING OF WASTER ATER Figuce 313 Venti meter insnfiation, Parshall Flume “The Venturi type of meter is applicable only to closed pipes under pressure. ‘The Venturi principle is used, however, to measure water flow in open chan- nek by means of the Parsball fume [15], as shown in Fig. 3-7e, When operating tinder fee slow conditions, dee flow passes through critical depth in the threat, followed by & hydraulic jump. Under some conditions of flow in the downstream channel, the jump may be submerged. Because the duvat width is constant, the disehurge under free-lovs condi- tions ean be calzolared by a single upstresm meesurement of depth. Ifthe flume {is operating uniter subrerged corditions, the downstream bend must also be measured to determine the discharge ‘The Palmer-Bowlus Flume The Palmer-Bowlus fume was developed for measuring flow in various open channels [14]. The pritciple of its operation is similar to that of the Parshall flume. The meter is vswally placed in the sewer at u manhole, as shown in Pig. 3-14. To function properly, the ume must act as a hycrautic control in which critical flow is developed. This is usually assured when wastewater is backed tp ja the sewer above the dlume, as a result of its installation, and when discharge from the flume is supercritical With critical flow en the flume assured, and with little energy loss, the rate of discharge may be relsted to the upstream depth, Thus, by measoring the upstream depth, te discharge can be read fFom a calibration eurve hat is usually supplied with each unit, SND MEASUSPMERET 89 STEN AN ef hint 6 Ns Flanoigeis esa pk mate +] peeermaestins en) Fignre 415 Iesallidon ofa Palmer-owtis fuse ina mantle _ The advantages of the Palmer-Bowlus flume are Unit it ean be installed in existing systems, head loss is minor, and iis self-cleansing, Cure mast be taken to avoid Itakage under the flume and conditions im which the fume will be ‘drowned out.” To keep the method accurate, the depth of flow in the up- sticam shoul not excesd 0.9 of the pipe diameter. and the point of upstream measurement should be nbout 0.5 of the pipe diameter from the entrance to the fume. A method of developing 2 rating curve for Palmer-Bowlus fumes is presented in the following discussion, ae eetent vows ofa nical Monte ate show in Fi. 3 riction losses s ofa Neglecting the and equating the eneryies at points 1 and 2 by using Bertoulli’s equation, the following equation is obiained: a where y, = depth of low in upstream se ¥, = flow velocity i upstream section, ms (5) = acceleration dus (© gravity, 9.81 mist G2.2 TS = depth of flow in fume, m Jow velocity in flame, mis (t's) wight of Hume bottom above channel bottom, m (fe) iy90 WASTEWAYER ENGINEERICSG: COLLECTION AND #UMPIKG OF WASTEWATER Disreter o o Figure S15 Secon! views of « PulmerBoslus Cume. (2) Side vw through centeite. b) Bed view. Solving for yy Under fiee-sischarge conditions, the flow will pass through the cri condition in the taroat of the lume, in which case ys will equal ye, ‘The specific energy at any section in the throat is given by the following equation: @ n+ OM) Bout Ane Xs where Q = discharge, mis (ft/s) . . (A = area of eross section through which flow is occurring, m* Gt’) Differentiating Eq. 14 with respect to depth y2 yields ae, Ot dds way. ou! dy Ale Yd » Because da is equal toB x dyz, Eq, 3-15 may be written as follows: dE OB 46 oy 1 Aly G49), “At eritical flow, the energy is at @ minimum, and défdyy is equal to zero. ‘This yields a g G1) from which he velocity head is ve ah fay ok) WASTEAATER FLOWS AND MEQKEAEMENT 9H Substituting y< for yp and Eq. 318 into Eq, 3-13, the follo obtuined: ng equation is wavery tft) - wf4)-2 ao. Wve rye af ae), yon ( alo um om In Eq. 219,94 depends only on the lowrate because.A, depends ony, ad ys yeas ond B, ate fed fora given flume and flosrace_A tating curve forthe Tiame can be developed by solving Eq. 3-19 for yy for various Nowrates. The procedure may be outined as follows: (2) select a depth of flow inthe fume: {G) determine the corresponding values of A and B ia te fume for the depth Selected in step 1;() datermine the corresponding rate of flew through the fame sing Eq, 3-17; and (4) by using the rate of flow decennined in sep 3. solve iq. 310 far9, by til and error, This fourstep procedures repeated for ‘everal depths of flow through the Dume. The required rating curve is obiained by plowing the computed values of ys versus the correspording lowrates. "To simplify the computations involved in developing the rating curve, either numerical or grapiteal methods are used. A graphical method for de- ‘eloping a rating curve based on the use of an Anse diagram {14}isustated in Paample 32. An Arredi diagram is graphical device for solsing Eq. 3-19 out the need for 8 tral-and-eror solution ample 1-2 Deveogmnent of rating cue for Vakerslowius fume Develop a alin cuss fora Palmer-Howis me, such se the ere shown in Fig, JS, nih abe use ofthe Acre diagram reetiod for m estimated range of los oF LOIS 190.18 is (57 13-4 Mali), The flume ite be placed ina manhole that connects to Snr COhin)pizes. Referting 0 Fi 3-18, the ents} dimensions of shefhame are: = 160 som (63 inh ye™= 40m (1.46 in), 2. Determine the lostate whea the depth inthe upsieam section 290 im (10). SoLunion 1. Develop the Arr disgraa forthe flow installation. The competed Arred Jagan ‘his problem is shove Fis, 3-16; ts developmen! is desibed inthe fllowirg discs 1 Compute yates o€ QUANG (=P%29 for selected values of and 4, ud ot esinst Ainthe upper podion of « piece ef mma graph paper (ee Fi. 316, The viluss ‘lected for Suld cover te amespaed range of Mossracestobe massed ea te faa voloca should span erenge egal to about tice the area of the sever b. Determine the comespending cros-rectionsl seat for eleted values cf depth i the ‘throat tection of the flume andia the upstcens section above the ure, The vequied ‘sompuations sre summarized in TaMes 3-12and 313. la dheupstreaca ection bsfore the throat, the sides re vena above a depth of 260mm, andthe ze ate in the ‘hyeat of the flame occurs ex dep, wih reference 10 dhe boxtom af he pips: Foe depins tess than 2:0:mn, the cross-ectiuaal exeas in the upstteam pipe section tefore the throat are deterlned usbgatita, size fm Fig, 216 forthe approRH se fi0 vahes fe. ioe separate curves of depth versus sre i she lower pon of the groph for the ‘dt and upsteam sectors (ose Fig. 246 . Conpate values o€ APU (= Vie) for he salaes of depth he thio: ofthe fume ‘el in seg 2 see Tabla 3.12), sad plot he computed values 2esine the area ine ‘oprer pation ofthe graph, The nereection ofthis cxeve andthe cles heca carves7. WASTEWATER FROMEEHING: COLLECTION AND PUMPING OF Wast lion che sare distance eu 8 eon ofthese cares 0 the cantar tiseatarsa remus dep in frelaves portion af gph seprevens the lst feeray in the thot st (% + 94°F VERY 2, Poepane ating cueve for ths Dre ; aesrgrseng with te lowest rate cof low to be meseured scale fram he grak We value it nillgpeters forthe total energy head (i ~ y. + VE2a) fr the twat seston, Besause he iota enenay dn the upstveats arson (nade cing fvonal and over mies Tose) That be cated fordhe same donate, the Valco y, #V¥2u is equalro the messed WASTEWATER FLOSS AND NEASUREMENT 93 ‘Table 3412 Computation table for development of the Arredi diagram for tite threat scetan of the Palruer-Losslus flame for Example 32 ist seat or ig Aa vena sbosn im Fig. 6, Ths procure ie Ga ee 2 sep i of oo te mor A Seen ee xe ten a $ presented iTable ‘ . a base ne 2 waging eights season mu Ouse, x 2 oer : vceinugnat Sas at o 4. Fahad ra opie 50 mn, Fon Fig 3-17steGossie x (05 ns 2 4 nm sets _ x0 Fiat Ea row dunth Nees 099817 = o. to Ia wt ‘Table 3-13 Compotation of area ‘Table 3:14 Data forthe Palce- a aes? in upstream section for Example Bowlus fume rating curve de rived (com Fig. 316 Desth, Flava, ote 0028 02 0s: 0377 00% ost a) 09 ours oa 0.30 Rectangular sestion shove this Nove mils 228248 © Maal eth ‘in «6.0095 ‘Notes ea 003987 = in ‘mF > 10.1689 = $8 Figre 3.17 Rating curve for TalnarBowdus fone oe Le ate 32. Boies ts a unis Stay GUE TENN) DAD SNE BABS w Mga = 2.28084 WASTEWATER FEGINTERING: COLLECTION AD FOMPING OF WASTEWATER 3:5 FLOW MEASUREMENT BY VELOCITY-AREA METHODS Using the velocity-area methods, the flowrate is determined by mukiplying the velocity of flow, avs (ft/s), by the cross-sectional area, m* (ft), dhrough which flow is oceurring The principal metheds ond apparatuses used to determine velocities are surmarized in Table 3-15. Details may be found in the corre sponding references given in Table 3-15. ‘Table 3-18 Metheds for velocity neasurement Methodlappacstus Desctigton’eppication References Coreet propeler) Curren meter messuramenis nay be used ce detenmine 8,10, 12, raeters fecurately the velocity of Dorin targe ewer or open 18,20 hance, presided there isnot too much paper or other Suspended matter present cl the meter, Gagings of flow mey be male by serena methods: the ore, 0-008 oneepaire methods: the mesid of integrating in see- tions; and the metiod ef Integration ino the ane peint edo, the meteris held nO.6 04 hedept, rmecsured from the sete suave and Inthe center of the Steam. The results acaumed to repeseat the rsean velo- iy af the steam, Theis » ough appeaxiaatin, sulable ‘oly for hasty cbservations with as pretense of aceurney Inthe twerpoint method, the velocity i observed ot 2 and .8 ofthe depth, and the averzge ofthese two Hees is talen to eepresen the average velsedy inthe verical scctin, The stteem san be divided toa eunber ef vert: cal section, etd the average veloity in exch section is approximately determinedby ths method. ne mut point metho, sufistent readings ae okzn so that veloty ‘contours ae developed Electrical methods Hlectcal watbinds to metsuce the quartiyefvateefoxving 1, 12, 18 fo stream dnvalve the ust of egulpmemt s0ch as conduc tivity cells, botavire anzmoaitets, ud wasn fim er2mo- mneters, Although some of these rethods have heen used Inthe Wes, they ace not sealy sted for measuring ‘aster Boss becaase the floting and wuspented Irate) commonly fovad in wastewstr latertxes with their pasion. utemen's lout measurements of the flow in sewers are not made 102 routinely, except in ectesgata ehaunes o¢ for appeoxis tretions of the velocty of los berween two manholes. in Sines of tifa euvents oe ot wastewater current i bovies ef water ino sbich vastewater may be dssharges, fects are used versely. Tce types of floars may be tved: surface, substrfece, and ed cr spa, Only surface selecitiss cen be ohicined oy te ose of sueace fats, Gwingtathe modifying effects nf he wind, te esas can be considered anly a8 appeexinations. suiseface Moats consist of relatively forge bodies ihtly Theater than water, coptcted by fine Wes to surfsee Float WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT 95 ‘eas of sfficient size co furnish the necessary tation, ard caaying markers by which their courses may be UWozed, The resistance of the upper Boat ed conzecing vrs is geaeclly so slight thet combinetion may te susuned to move with the volsity ef the ater atthe position ofthe submerged fet, Rod lect have been used to measure flow in open umes ‘with a high degree of areuracy. They generally consist of natal cinders so leaded as to oat Vertcaly, The Fel sity of the rod hasbeen found to correspond very closely ‘wih the eso velocity ofthe water in the course (owed by the Dou, Phot ewes ‘The Phot te, which has proved so useful in wizee pipe 8,10, ‘gies, (s impracilel fn extended sewer exgings teenie 12 1B the sispersed matterinvrestewater tend 0 elg the whe, Trees, chemical Where veincity meannemrents ave tobe mde, thectenieal = 12 ‘nd tadioactive —arratiosctive tencery are ussay injected ina the steam ‘upstream of two contol pots, The tie of passage of the pilaf vater cortaiing the tracer is roted ot hese.can- trol points, end the veloetyis then computed by dividing the distance betweer the contra points by the travel time. ‘When soll (NaCI ie used as the taser, the ime of paseoge ‘between contre! points is measured by use electrodes onnected to ea amncter oF resosler. When redioactive ‘racers are used, the cme of passage is noted by sailo- active counters cached 49 the autsls ofthe fips. The time of passage is the cflerence between the mes whe. the gesk counts ere reconded at each courting aon. ‘neers, dye "Theuse of dyesfer measusing he veosityofflow:n wevers, 8,10, pirtulary in small-ppe sewers, iconeofthe sinlest and 12, 1b ‘most successful methods thst have been used, A section of sewer it selected in whieh the fow is prctisly steady sand uriform. The dye is throwa in atthe upper ead, and the time ef ils arsval a the lower eadis Jetermited. I 8 ‘ght-otored dye, such a eosin, is used and abrishpate is suspended tarcoatally in the sewer the Lowe end, the time ofapresrance and dlsappezrance of the dye at he fer end can he acted sith comiderable precision, and the mean betneer thete twa otserved times may te taken af representative of the average time cf fo. Otter dyes that hove beea successfully ased in traces studies inlide Aourescei, coago red, potasives prrareanai, thiamine Band Postacyle Briliat Fink B. Poctay3 Brilliant Fink B is especially wsefil in the sond'se of cen outa dispersion tues DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PRODLEMS 341 Severs ae to beinsaled ina cecreationsl camping area that husa eveleped earopgrovad fer 300 persons lodges andeabirs for 150 persons, and resort apastmeats foe £0 penons. Assume at perseas saying in lodges use the dining hal for} reste pec day a that a SO-sestcateteria wd06 WASTEWATER ENGISTERING! COLLTCTION ARB PUMDING OF WASTENATER sn consreasted Drily stndance at fy, Other fetes neta 2 lounge, and 3 gs taaas 1.5 A» stasen), Datennine rs po day by wsing the disin anit fw eepories fa Villorcerters is expected co be 19 pen Terishine usdevial- 2 20seat cocks the sverege nastesater how ix aise me Tabi 35, 132 Exim the» jevestin te domestic tlostste nthe Covel Fark Deselepn Evelupar is required “0 comply sth & 06% vwsterconservation dance thesis eut onsidertion. Th propered cy ontinance Teil raucie the ase of (1 singl-batch lush valve telets, 2) fovelimfing desices fer shower frente and Gh eel cartels for wasting eashiasy in al inglefeenly dvalings, éupleses, ard logane apottmens 233 Lone ues in an area served By & Sage eunk sewer i given bel os Type of developmen In rustic 8 “The sebvel as 150) students, The averege loserote is 79 Listulza dy andthe peaking facto 419, Avereg: loveite allowances and peaking factors forthe ether devetopateets re shown inthe table bel. Average owes Type of development mba Resitemtal 40 Commercial m0 Industral Ey Determine th peak Waslevaree flesrate ithe ick sens. UA resgoria| wea having the following housing types ond popolsion densities is served By a net Deleimin the posk vastenater lewrteiecludogiatiacion, Assacae tha the peteaplia dostte is40) Ltd hrenghout, Use Fig. 3-4 to obtcia the peaking factor uns Pg. 35, Ene, «0 estinate peck inflition Papulaion Housing tea, desi, type ta persensthn a 1» 0 BOOM ss < 8 o 2.5 Estimate the warewster flows feoma ate iegusiatDevelupasnt coveringamatesof200 Ba, From waterterceustings hs basn determined tt the sal use af wazet win the wea is S24 + (O'e Twenty percent of the e098 afca oF the development has beea Fandscaped, The {Weeige water detoaed or ingation nf tandscape areas is estineted io he 1.0 /ASTIOWATER FLOWS SRD MEASLREVENT 9F Assunieg he 85 percent of she noninesion ster consumption ulsimtely riches the fete the anna wastewater phddeon. thin te aren, Asceming shat all fcsies ‘as concurgenty for Bhd. $ eek, thseughent the yearend chat Ue Waste Terpindscios ducing the huurs nf operation is essere evstict, esthnavethemsaimicn Save surte in tke Ceunh sever thet serves the eis mea. Alsh, compute the sveias annua wsueteisler paizcon in ebie meses ps1 Wey, and determine tke yarwe ot he peaksrs Bete fetes yssk flow 9 averuge annus] Daw, Neslect ineation an itn {4 Estimate the casio oF the fly fiouroe wo he erage daly oscars for Mecurvs elven infin 32 5-7 Olan ths design ewes use hy the enginsedng department in yous som-sunky to exile [ihe everage an peab inflation ra elinstance ar now sewers, an (2) the peaking fac Cor Gonestis wastewater fines, Mom do these curves compaze with those ei Figs. 64, 24 al ven [46 A asp crete pectangutas wee is uscd to measure flo: In rectangular chs tet ism ‘site, The wer exter completely cross te charmel salts erestis Em chose the ekauinel nes, Determine the flowtse inthe ehanpal when che depah af saver upatcem tora the vet is 18 {Use the Frarcis equation wid so nitteat cacestin foe spproach velsity (Eqs. $2 and 33, respectively) and Hg. 3-1 with the Retback conection (Bq. Jt for the Uschaige coeteent Cormpare result 39 A sopovessed weir, Ba lengh isto dssturge 12 a's of wastewater, To whith the water rise Behiod he Nele Z the height a the wei is (28 mn? 3-10 To wkat Haight may the Weir Fro, 3.9 be bute hrgit of westematerbehing te siiris ret to exesed 2197 ish i 3:11 Derive ite basic equstion (Bg, 46 goseeing the dischenge over tieagula vin. 3:12 Five triangelor Seles with 9 = 9 aroused tometer the oven fom arestsapitar tink $38 wile and 10 long, The bots ef ie ei porches mre? m ehove the fear fh tank, Deters the Nowrate aver the weirs chen the Lonh contin 540 m? uF weter "e144 i end conteatns la he dsshas3e S13 Denwonscicethet th sis slopes ofa Cipelst weirs Esgaate the loss of divcarse seed yt tUvoagh a tiangular ein) S414 Detersine te flowrate Q ina Vesturl miter shen the wressoes upstream inthe throat fre 196 kNeme and [7D SMVeat, wespecdvels, The epsteam Garter is $0 cm atl te tant Sater ie 8 mn, BS Derive Eg, $10 for s Vertu sete $16 Determine the Nowrate @ in the Venturt me bat Eq. 30qwith the tem UB is nt horizontal er shown i Fig. 418. Neect alo defined eantat he applied eecllyboceuserhe meter shown it Fi gore 3-18 Defiiunststo} Fee Pre. 1193 = i98 WASTEWATER ENGINEGRING: COLLECTION AND CEMPIKG OF WASTEWATER 347 Select the throat dismeter for a Venturi meter that i so be used in a 240mm effeert- \Gscbangeforcs main from a vasewate-reatet plant. The sverage flow thu the plat is 5000 ad asd 4 in desired tohavea raisimumhead dlerctil of 200 un 2 low lo. Assume hat {he low weration of tecttentplantisas showa ia Fig-3-19, and tha the iriction coatiient Cy i 0.981, Whats te head differential at masizum fw forthe selected Vertu meter? t ft ° Baw eee ini oes veil! gure 3.19 Hout satiation of vasiewater Pineal dyy fy fer Prob, 8.17, 3.18 Dyes injected nto the upstream end of aesch ef sewer with constent slope and adiametie of 0.5m The dye is fst observed 95 later a a post 70m dovastesm, The depth of Row is Attemized w be 4.4m thioushwout the ceach, Determine he osimate andthe siops ef the semen, “Assume that = 0.018 fer flow atthe exiseg depth, 349 A lose-measursg desice for arectanyular channel, which operatesan he sae pccile usa Palmer Bovis flues for seers, corsists ofa shor section of ean ia whch he flor his been ‘ised suficienly to produce ential tow, Devetop a ratng cure in wich the upntear depsh Is plotted vers the fwrate fora 3+m vide eestenzular chennel in which the fer bes ben mised 0.78. for a shor distance, The esinrated range of ows I'm¥s to $85. Use the Ant dlagram method and nesest ll fosses. 3:20 Roting curves for Palier-Bovusfures anf rinlarflowemeasuringdevices con be developed vothaut an Arredi disgrams however, such deviations can be dif. To undertan move filly the benafis of the Are diegram, dese, but Uo at atteapt to selves x slatonstip whic could De used direct for developing ating curve forthe measuring device described in Prob. 3-9. The ‘only variables i the relationship ae to be the upstceam depth 3 and te flowrate 2, REFERENCES: a ata Considine, D.M. (ed. P 197 Davahecy,R.L., and B. Prenzinis Fi Mechanics: Wak Bazinceing Applications, Mh eds MeGrwwHlll, New York, 1977, Federal Resists, yol 39, n, 9, see. 38.905, Feb. 1978 4, Morten, KE Nei Bxperiwvens, Coeficiente and Farlar 8. Ge Suyply aad Irvaition Paper 20, 1907, Hunbel, JW: Commercial end insutienal Wastewater Loatings, J. Water Poltie. Cnr Fed, $0) 84, 29.9, 1961 aeger, Cs Bupreering Foid Mechanics, Ulaskle, London, 1986, Joist Comalte of the American Secety af Cl Exginees and the Weter olltion Centol Feceration: Drtign ond Conttoctin af Sattary gd Storey Sener, ASCE Maciel etd Repor 31, New York, 1869. ‘etd Controls Handbook, 2 el, MeGraw-Hil, togical Survey Wetee WASTEWATER FLOWS AND MEASUREMENT 9) King 1. Wont EF Rete Hardtoc of ysrtics, MeGrew BRB, New York, 42 Delkin Es Bapcleton Fonersting by Sanitary Engineers, J Sons Boy. Di, ASCE, Wo 3, 90.848, 18 ° Hecalf,Le and il PEA: Avvo Sererage Pactice, vk 434 ey Mean New York 25 Fecal & Ey ne Maser ater Ensen: Frcamnt, apo Rese, 28 eb Meco, 17. Meet & ly Te Wastenoter Ensiaein: Cotten, Teement, Diva MeGra i, Now Yor, 2 Motes Ey, tue Report to National Corson om Woter Quay on dasa of Featologis and Coos fv PuSiole OvaedTreatinens Work, sol 2. pepe net PUBIC Lay 950, Boston, 198 Pane ei ond 2D. Bowtar:Adapon of Vert Flames to Flow Measceeeat in Sony Pata ASCE, vl 10 pS. 1956 15, Parshall, Roe The Imroved Vertu Flume, Trans, ASCE, vel. 89, p. Sit, 1926, 6 Raw A, Wor What Cost Leaking Manhole? Waterworks and Senge Nori, vol 84,0, 1, ws, Van Less, B.Ru The Calfornia-ipe Method ef Water Measurement, Eng. Net Rec. Aug. 3, 1922, Aug. 21, D2 Venn}. K, and BL, Suse: Eemeatory Flat Aechauies, Sib ed, Wiley, New Verh. wis, Vitemonte, 1X. Submeeged: Welt Discharge Stucies, Eng, News.ec.. Dee 25, 199 3. Wate Measurement Magoal U.S. Department ofthe Interior, Bureauof Recamstion, Cited States Fristng Office, Washington, D.C, 1953,DEstGr oP sewens VE CHAPTER FOUR DESIGN OF SEWERS ‘The collection and conveyance of wastewater from the various sources Where it is generated is the first slep in the effective management of a community's wastewater, The pipes that collect and transpor the wastewater away fram its sources of generation are called sewers, and the network of sewer pipes in a community is known as a celfection system. Because stich systems must fonetion properly and without creating a nui- sance, itis imperative that the fundamental principles involved in their design «nd implementation be understood clearly. The purpose of this chapter is (1) 10 describe the types of collection systems and sewers now used (2) to illustrate the design of both gravity-flow sanitary sewers and gravity-flow storm-water sewers) and @) to discuss pressure und vacuum stnitary sewers. ‘The principal appurtenances for eravity-low sewers and their functions and some of the special structures and appurtenances olten used in the design of large Sewers are described in Chap. 5. The aralysis of infiltration and inflow into sewers and the mecns to limit their occurrence ace discussed in Chap. 6, and the analysis of the bfotogical transformations that ean occur in sewers are discussed in Chap, 7. The structural design of sewer pipelines and appurte- inces is not presented in (his book, For this aspect of design refer to Ref. 3 and to standard structaral-design texes 4-1 TYPES OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS AND SEWERS Over the yeats, three types of collection systems have been developed: sani: tary, storm-water, and combined, These three terms, which refer to the con tents of the sewers, also refer to the sewers themselves. The hydraulic charac teristics and spplications of each of these systems are identified in Table 4-1 able 4-1 Classification of wastewater eelleetion systans ere ef Hydouls system chctstedstos urpose _ Suriag* —— Griity Sanitary gravy) sewees ape used 19 sulest vstenater ot Tesiental commer, iedtea,airaticatensl sources, ‘Atosanzes must he mate for geumsocte infiratien and tnaveidabe ino Pressure Samay pees} seers ae ved pnsipally 1 ollser sate ‘water fom residential sources in rations uasUable fe he constnistionaedinese wf gv ityseersthey sre elo used fo oslect wastewater fron carsmenial snyses. tly scine wastes fiom industriel sourees bosses of 2 Tage solumss chat ag be involved. ‘Thove spncns ate well snl and are designed to exetee roundwster flea gad store-water inti acum Sure o8thave for pressure ysters. Stounster savers ae uso 19 sells stosn water foam sites, roofs, and her sates, Sais? Waslewatee fs eveladod ttl. Som vate? Grasiy ‘Combined sessers are used wo coder aster am reside til, eemumerin,inaittioal at cust! so-tees ane ster, Aitionel foes come fc ground ini Hl cexersane ely sts combined Grviy nt bat i the ‘Santary eewers ute alo Yrs as separate seers Pressure end vasa sewers are slum used qesatiiesinvelved sormewater Doss hesause ef Sanitary sewers, which are often called separae sewers, originally were intended solely for the collection of wastewater from residential districts as a means of improving the generil sanitation of ihe cominunity. As shown in ‘Table 4-1, sunitary sewers may be conventional gravity systems, in which the wastewater is transported by gravity, ar they may be pressure or vacuum systems in which wastewater is transported under pressure or in a vecuom. Although pressure and vacuem sewers are not common in the United States at the present time (1980). more of these systems will probably be constructed in the future. Storm-water sewers, as the name iraplies, ate intended solely to eollect storm water. With a few exceptions, the design of storm-water sewers is similar to that of sanitary sewers. althougl storm-water sewers are generally larger. Originally, separce systems of sanitary sewers and stormmacater sewers were constructed to avoid Ue pollution problems asseciated with discharging un: treated wastewater from combined sewers fato watercourses. As the effects of stormwater polation have become better understood, the treatment of storm water discharges thas received more attention [5, 6, 14].102 wasTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AMD LEMMING OF WASTEWATER Combined sewers, as noted in Table 4-1, are used for the collection of both wastewater and storm water. To reduce of eliminate pollution problems as- sociated with the overflows from combined sewers, the trend is to construct separate sewers i! new or replacement sewers ere needed, The types, sizes, and lengths of sewers in « wastewater collection system, vary, depending on the layout of the community and the Incation of the treat- ment facilities. The various types of sewers found in most wastewaier collection systems are described by function in Table 4-2 and shown graphically in Fig, 41. ‘The sizes of sewers are determined by the quantity of fow and the local building regulations goveraing the minivim sizes allowed. A typical distribu- tion of sewer sizes in a community, derived from an analysis of 97 communities in 21 states, is given in'Table 43, Pipe sizes in Table 43 arc in metric units (sec See. 23), The total length of sewer, regardless of size, depends on the layout of the community and tke location of the treatment facilities. For example, fer com munities with populations between 25,000 ard 50,006, it hes been estimated that the total average length of sewer per capita varies from 4.3 (0 4.9 m (14 to 16 ft) 0). Yer, for the city of Flagstaff, Aciz., which has a population of about 35,000, the length of sewer per capita is about 11.5 m (38 ft) (13]. Hence, average data can be misleading, The principal aprurtenance associated with most wastewater collection systems is the manhote, which interconnects sewer pipes and allows entry for eteng seh a nuit mania \ basting ata estes Neate cha Figure 441 Defiition sheteh for varius types of sewers in & typi! colecinn system (See Tate 42 for descrntians of eects Desigy oF SEWERS 103 Table 4.2 Types of sewers in a typical collection system as shawn tn Fig, 4-1" Type of sevet Papo Uulling ‘Biking severs, sometimes called bailing eonevsions, connect to the busing plorbing aid are used co convey wastewater Bom the bulkines © l:teo! ot branch sewers, orany'olber sever exeopt another filing sesier Building sewersmanally bepn eutsde the bulding feuration, The distance ror the feurdaidoa wall te where the sewer begins depends on ths lee! bules reguatons. Lutendor Lateral sestrs form the fist element of 2 wastewater colection system end are ‘rans Usually in suees ar special enemies. They ave used fo collet waster from oxe or mre balling seners and convey it 10 3 hala sever. sain Nain sesers reused t sonvey wasteweser Frumora or ere eters sero tink severt or te intercepting ers, Pom “Trunk sever are argecemers tht are used to convey woesnter fom eh sewers toreetment ar other dispoeal foiltiee otto frye interceping seers Inierceyting —tateccepting sewers are lege sewers that ae used to intercepts name of rai for tunk s2sers and convey the wastewater fo treataen ar other disposal facilis (The term intereepiig sever originely Was apeiedt9 © sewer that, "receives dry eater Mow froma number of wansvere severs oF outlets «frequently additonal predetemmined quantities ¢fstormeater” (3]h * Adped in part from Refs. 3 and sewer cleaning, A photograph ofa mantole being installed is shown in Fig. 42. Manholes are used at all major pipe junctions, but aot at building connections (ce Fig. 4-D. When the flows in very large Sewers are to be joined, special junction chambers are used (see Fig. 4-1). Further detaits on these and otter Appurtenances are presented in Chap. 5. 42. DESIGN OF GRAVITY-FLOW SANITARY SEWERS In designing a gravity-flow sanitary system, the designer must (1) conduct pe liminary investigations; (2) review design considerations and select basic de- sign data and eriteria; (3) dasign the sewers, which inchules preparation of a preliminary sewer system design and design of the individual sewers; and (4 prepare contract drawings and specifications. A considerable amount of knowledge and experience is requised to perform these tusks. Sometimes a project is done in two steps: the preparation of un engineering report oF facilities pian followed by the final design. The report or plan wil include mach of the activities covered by items (1) and (2) above plus the preparation of a preliminary sewer system design. Final design mainly entails the completion of the field work and preparation of the final contract documents, ‘The purpose of this section is to provide some of the necessary backgroued knosclesge and to illustrate its application in the design of sanitary wastewater collection systems.JO! wastewsren ERGINEENING! COLLECTION AND BUSHENG OF WaSTEN SE Table 4.3 Typical distribution of pipe 1s in ellis In the United States tin Distribute, 2s, 1014.5.) | 02 19 iw (122 sa 14, 09 250,37 6 tates La 50 U8) | teat Ta i 30 ¢21, 21) ‘Adapted Grom Ref 9 Lased os ete fen $F sitios in 21 states, Notes aun > 0.08597 = in Figure 42 Precast mantle hase beizg fowered into position in the ewer trench. (Nate shat the ‘worker's iat Head is onthe pipeso-msnhols connector ord ticle Pan is gasping he balers of the marhate bse.) PK -y Investigations Comprehensive preliminary iivestigations of the aren to be sewered are ve- quired not only to obtain the dats needed for design stud construction be also 1» reconl pertinent information about the local conditions befere constriction begins, ‘Ai the outset of the enginecring work, all pertinent miaps and other drase- ings of the area should be obtained, Municipal and county enginzers and su ‘yeyors, regional planning agencies, local planning toands, assessment boards, fune-tide and insarance companies, and public utility officials oftea have such maps ankl perinit their duplication. For large sewer projects, useful maps may be obtained from the U.S, Geological Survey. various state agencies, oF the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fiold work, If satisfactory maps are not available, surveys must be made. ‘The degree of precision required depends on the project, The surveys should show the locations of streets, alleys, railways, public parks and buildings, ponds, streams, drainage ditches, and other feseuces ond stnuctores which may influ- fence or may be influenced by the sewer system. {n some cases, it is necessary to show property lines. ‘An accurate, permanent, and complete system of bench levels is needed. throughout the crea to be cavered by the proposed sewer system. A bench mark should be established on each block of every street in which a sewer is 10 bee laid and whore topographic datsils are to be obtained subsequently. Profiles, stowk! then be made of all existing streets and alleys, and if the existing and “ostablished™ grades difler, information about the latter mast be obtained. Where appropsiote, the adjacent areats) where sewers may be needed in. the future ought to be considered, In some cases, topographic notes can be sed for the plotting of e map with contours at suitable intervals. For pre preliminary designs, elevations of sireets and alleys at intersections, high and ow paints, and changes in swiface slope usually are sufficient; thus surface contours may net be required. However, contour maps often can be prepared economically by aeritl photogrammetric methods. Important information to be determined include the elevations of the beds of streanns, ditches, canals, and vents, anil the maximum expected and oxdinary water-surface elevations, Information on existing structures snd utilities showld include: 1. Elevations of the sills of buildings and depths of their basements 2. Character. age, and condition of the pavements of streets in which will be hid 3. Location of water and gas mains, electric conduits, drain lines, and other underground structures Where good information is lacking on underground facilities. it may be ndvis~ ble to have pits excavated in the streets to obtain the required data.106 WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLECTION AND FUMEING OF WASTEWATER Local rainfall and runoff date should be located or, where these are inade- quate, measurements in the field should be taken if possible. Taformation that builders and contractors can supply regarding groundwater should be recorded. and, in the case of low-lying areas, it may be desircble wo excavate pits or make borings to indicate the groundwater conditions, It is important to escertain the character of the soil in which the sewers sre 1 zg to be constructed so that the cost can be estimated with fair aceurney. For this g ig e purpose, subsurface explorations with soil borings should be made, with sam- Z 12 is ples ond blow counts on the sampler being taken at 1.5-m (5-ft) intervals and at 2h 5 3 every change in soil type. Soil borings should exiend dovin at least to 1.5m. G ft) below the estimated bottoms of the excavations, or to refusal when con- \entional drilling equipment cun ne longer penetrate the soil strata. Refusal does noi necessarily mean that bed rock has been reached. There- fore, at these locations itis often required that up to 3 m (10 ft) of core drilling bbe done to uscenain whether the refusal was caused by bed rock, a boulder, or extremely hant-packed earnh, Where structures such as pamping stations, large Junction chambers, or the like are to be constructed, core drilling should always be done when refusal has been reached with the soil boring. Special attention shout be paid 10 the locations and the nurber of the borings to be made in areas where consteuction difficulties are likely to develop. Example of such fareasare stream, railroad, and highway erossings; the sites of deep excavations or high-groundwater table; and where trenches or other excavations will be close to existing structures, Other important information includes the local wages of unskilled and skilled Tabor, the cost of construction materials and supplies, the cost of con- siruction of similar work previously done, and freight rates and remial charges. for trucks and equipment. This informatien is useful in preparing reliable cost estimates, oa 8b fe Preparation of maps and profikes. Work on preliminary maps and profiles should begin as soon as possibte during the field work, so that other studies preliminary to design may be started before the field work is Ginished, Asa nite, aps on a scale of 25 m to 10 mm (200 {10 1 in) are latge enough to permit the data to be shown in adequate detail for preliminary system design; but where there are many subsurface structures, a scale of 5 m or less to 40 mm (49 ft or tess to 1 in) may be necessary for clarity. For use in the preparation of design profiles, street cemerline elevations should be shown at least every 15 m (50 it) and at abrupt changes in surface slope. Contours, if available, should be plotted at 0.5-m (2-£0 intervals. Sum- sits in streets sliould be nusked, und the elevations sliculd be given to hun dredths of a meter, as should also points of depression or “pockets.” An example of sucha map fora residential area, where elevations are shown but snot pipes or manholes, is given in Fig. 43. Profile sheets of the ground surface along the proposed sewer routes should also be prepared in advance of the computations, z E zg i i i 1 3 & gure 4 0768 eASTENATER ENGIIERIEISG® COLLECTION AND PUMHMG OF WAST EWNTER System maps for planning or Feasibility reports ure developed from pre= liminary designs; these maps are usually presented in the reports at scales of 100 10 200 m1 fo. 10 mam (80D 10 1664) TY to | in). Report protites, wien used, are presented at scales as small a3 Feasible that will permit essendiat information to be shown, Detailed plans und profiles for construction and bidMing purposes are ussed later in this section. Kiasie Design Considerations, Designing 2 sanitary sewer involves 1, The estimation of wastewater Mowrates for the design date and the evalum ton of any local conditions that may aifect the hydraulic operation ef the system ‘The selection of the hydraulic. design equation, altemative sewer pipe ma terials and minimum sizes, minimum and maximum velocities, and slopes. |. The evaluation of alternative alignments or designs - ‘The evaluation of the use of curved sewers ‘The selection of appropriste sewer appurtenances A review of the need for sewer ventilation “These design details are usually determined by the information obiained from the preliminary investigations, Design flows, In most situstions, as noted previously, the total wastewater flow consists of three components: wastewater from residential, commercial, and institutional sources; industrial wastewater; and infiltration, Thus new sanitary sewers are designed for the following flows expected at Hie design date 1, Teak hourly flows from residential, commercial, institutional, and indus- trial sources for the entice service area 2, Peak infiltration allowance for Ue entire service area Aydrautic-tesign equation. As discussed in Chap. 2, the Manning equation is commonly used in sever design. It is recommended that a Manning 2 value of 0.013 be used to analyze well-constructed existing sewers und to design new sewers, nnd that a Manning 2 value of 0.015 be used 10 analyze most older existing sewers, Higher values of a should be used for existing sewers if de- crurres from Tine and erade, varitions of inside dimensions, ccposits, or inferior workmenship is evident, The n value of 6.013 for new and well-constructed existing sewers is based ‘on the use of individual pipe sections-—not less than 1.5m (S f) long with (re and smooth inside surfaces—and on the assumption that only first-class con- struction procedures have been or will be allowed. Some pipes made from the various plastics reportedly are smoother ini- tially wad retain their initial capacities longer than pipes made of traditional % DESIG OF sRIERS 169 matedals. Their standard Jengths are lenger than those af some of the elder kinds of pipe. Therefore, some manufacturers have advocated smatler a vallies for plastic pipes (n = (011 or « » 04110). But the number of building comnec~ tions, manholes, and other flow-disturbing appurtenances ina given sewer remains the same, regardless of the pipe material, For this reason, andl con- sidering the uncertainties inherent in sewer design and construction, the value of for sewer design should not be tess than 0.013, Sewer pipe materials and ses. The principal sewer pip materiuls are asbestos cement, ductile iron, reinforced concreie, prestressed concrete, polyvinyl chloride, and vitrified clay. The size ranges and information on the sewers made of these materials are presented in Table 4-4, Other sewer pipe materials include cast iron, corrugated metal, steel, nonteinforced concrete, and vurious plastics, either plain or reinforced with glass fibers. In sewer design, a minivan size of sewer pipe must be established because sarge objects sometimes enter sewers, and clogging is less likely if sewer ‘not smaller than 200 mm (8 in). Obviously, the smallest sewers should be larger than the building sewer connections in general use, so that articles that pass through the building connections may as readily pass through the sewer, A minimum size of 200 rom (8 in) is recommended for pravity-flow snattary sew. ers, The most common size of building connection is 15) av (6 in), but con- nections of 125 and 100 mm (5 and ¢ in) have been used successfully in some Minimum and musimunt velocities, If wastewater flows for an extended time at low velocities, solids may be deposited in the sewer. Sufficient velocity should te developed regularly to Mush eu! any solids that may have been deposited during low flow periods. Tae usual practice is to design the slopes for sanitary’ sewers to ensure a minimum velocity of 0.6 ms (2.0 f's) with flow at onehalt full or full depth. The velocity at tess than one-talf full cepth will be less thon, 0.6:mis; the velocity for depth between one-half Cull and full will be slighily sreater than 0.6 m's. Often, minimum and maximem velocities are specified in state ard local standards. Although the velociy near the bottom of the sewer siznificaatly affects how quickly the wastewater flows, a mean velocity of 8.3 mvs (10 fti5 usually sufficient to prevent the deposition of the organie solids in wastewater. To prevent deposition of miners! matier, such as sand and gravel, @ mean velocity of 0,75 mv’s (2.5 fils) is generally adequate in sanitary sewers. These ‘re minimum figures. In depressed sewers (sometimes called inverted siphons), where access for cleaning is difficult, the minimum velocity should be about 1.0 mis G.0 ffs) (sce “Depressed Sewers,” Chup. 5, See. 53). Slopes corre: sponding with mean velocities es low as 0.5 mis (1.5 Us) have been used successfully in some special eases, but sewers at such slopes must be can strucied with great eare and will probably require frequent cleaning, Repeated removal of deposited material from sewers is expensive and, i such deposits are not cleaned out, they may cause increasingly troublesome110 WastrWaTEN ENGINEERING! COLLECTION AND PLUM(HING OF WASTEWATER Table 44 Available size ronges and descriptions of commanly used pipe for pravity-flow sewers Asalebie size rane, Type of pipe rm (in) Deserpion Aubetes cement (AC) IND.) Weight Jess then otter commoaty rigid pipes. May be (659 susceptible © acid eonosing and iyleegen slide ‘acack, kuti properly cured sith stearn ot Bigh presture quoclave process}, may be used even [a ‘environments with modervely sgeresive waters of sls with high sete content. act iron (BD 100-1350 Gften ured forsiver erossings snd kere the pps aust (239 suppor: unosuully high Jouds, wheve ax unesually Ieakproof sewer I required, or wieze unastal root rrotlems are Hiely @ deveiap, Ductledcon piges fe susceptible toacid comusion and hydrogen su fide attach, and therefore shoul rot be wed where th groangwster is brackish, unless suite pastes five menearesrre ken Reinforces consrete (RC} 300-340 Really avatate in most localities. Suscepible 0 (12-144) corasion of inwriorif the amosphere over Waste- ‘water costal hydrogen sulfide, or feom outside if Dried in an acid oe high-sulate envrenmert. Fresteesel corerte (PC) DO-3400—Fepecially sued to long tcasmiison mains without 6-14) Willing comestions and wheze precautions agaist Ieskage are rcuized, Suscepibiliy To caresien ‘ve same as eisforced concete), Palyvieylehlonde (PVC) 100-3184 plas pipe used for sewers as ar altesnotive 0 U-19—_ ubestoscement and vtrited-cay pipe. Ligt- ‘weight but seoag. Highly resinaat «0 camosion. Vitried day (0) 100-999 For muny years the st widely used pipe for gravity G35) savers sill welyusedin emf and ened sizes. ‘Resstet to corrosion by both acids end alla Not susceptible to damage from bydragen solide, ‘at is rte ard susceptible wo breskeze Sizes listed are ready evallabe withou the weed for special design ur special manufeturing machinery orequgment, Sone siies within theliel ranges may aut be avalatlein allocates. [Larger sizes thenihote listed have been maée an ypecial onde. For exemple, ene insane of De manufretce of S0b-mm (N74) dkameter eirforce concrete has beey reperted, more then ove ‘manafstacer hat supplied 2750-xm (108) lamer wourd reinforced revit pipe, and pelyvisyh lorie pipe hes seen ude in dats upto 675 mm 2 i) athe Urited Stars aa 1000 mm (9 i) in Eucope, ‘Note: mm ¥ 0.03937 conditions. It is therefore desirable that slopes have self-cleaning velocities even though the cost of constructing steeper stepes may be grenter than the added cost of maintaining sewers Isid on fatter slopes. This is recommended because, if such maintenance work is neglected, a substantial deposit can re- sult, Then the sewer cannot perform properly, and it may fail to ansport the ‘wastewater atthe design rate, resulting in damage to property. estas oF SEWERS HT The erosive action of the material suspended in the wastewater depends not only on the velocity at which itis carried slong the invert ofa sewer but also con ts nature, Because this erosive action is the most importan: factor in deter- mining the safe maximum velocities of wastewater, the charscter of the sus- pended material must be considered. In general, maximum mean velocities of 2.5 to 3.0 m’s (8 to 10 tis) at the design depth of fow will not damage the sewer. High velocities in small-pipe sewers and the corresponding low depths ef flow may allow large objects, witich at times enter all sanitary sewer systems, to remain on the inverts, where they may become lodged so firmly that the next rush of wastesrater will not detach them, ‘Minimum slopes. Sewers with flat slopes are often required 10 avoid excessive excavation where surfuce slopes are flat or the changes in elevation are small In such cases, the sewer sizes and slopes should be designed so that the ve~ locity of flow will increase progressively, or atleast will be steady throughout the length of the sewer, Then solids washed into the sewer and transported by the flowing streain may be carried through the sewer and not depostied ‘at some point because of « decrease in velocity. In general, the minimum slopes uiven in Table 4-5 for small-pipe sewers in a sanitary sewer system have heen: satisfactory. In long, flat sewers buildup of hydrogen sulfide may take place, When released to the atmosphere above the Wastewater, it may cause serious odor Table 4-5 Minimam slopes for gravity-flow sanilary sewers* Slope, et Sue, ———. mmm Gn) n= 0013 #0015 20 @) ees nots 20 a0) ons 0003 a0 42) cers 00036 a5 03) Sons 90019 42 as) sar 00013 3 a) son oon Gs) ome oot 68 07) Soo 00009 20 G4) ome 2008" x6) S00 0.nkns? Based on Mansing's equation wih & ‘uhimam velasity of 06 mus. Wheze prac eable steoper slopes should be esed, “The minimom pracieabls slope cetsructon aba 0098 mim ‘Notes cin 4103927 = in wo 3.818 = ftEZ WASTRGATENE PRGIEFERING: COLLEETION AND PERMHING OF WASTEWATER problems and the deterioration of mateciats containing cement, such as rinforced-conerete pipe, asbesios-cement pipe, concrete walls of manhotes and offer structures, and mortar of brickwork. These subjects are discussed more fully in Chap, 7. ‘When designinura large sewer (particularly a trunk or intercepting sewer) it is important to consider the conditions that may develop at minimum flow dluzing the first fees years after its construction, It should be raid certein that the velocities will not be so low, for significant periods of time, as to resiit in ‘ibjectionable depasits inthe sewer, becanse removal of these deposits would involve excessive cost. An alternative to the constraction of a single lange Sevier to serve for a long period is to build a smaller sewer initially and to add smother sewer when the service area has developed further, Although the con- struction cost of two smaller sewers may be greater than that ofa single large sower, the high cleaning cost of a lange sewer during the exrly years of oper. tion might more than offset the inereased ost of construction of the two smaller sewers. ‘The concept jusi described probubly is not valid for smaller sewers because the relitive costs of constevction and cleaning are not the sume as for lange sewers, For instance, the difference in the construction cost of a 200-mm (®-in} sever and a 3iX0-mm (12-in) sewer is only the diferente in the cost of the pipe itself; pipe costs for these sizes of sewers typically range from § to 8 percent of the cost of the completed sewer. Other factors that should be considered are the costs, both tungible and intangible, and the public irritation at the incon: votiences and disruptions caused by canstcucting another sewer in the same aren after only a few years have passed, Alternative alignments and designs. Often two ar more altemstive pipeline Toutes may be possible for w given project. Usually it will be necessary to prepare design details for each alternative and to make comparative cost esti> mates before a decision can be reached. Some otherwise desirable altemative Foites may involve the placement of sewers across private property. However, unless thereis a significant advantage incust or other conilition resutingyfrom 2 placement across private propetty, it is generally not advisable to construct ordinary sewers outside public Fights of way. imerceptors are often con. stmeted in private easements because the most favorable locations for int ception ate usually in valleys near natural drainage channels. Use of carved sewers. Alternative alignments or designs eight include the use of curved sewers. ‘Traditionally, sewers have been laid ent in steniaht lines between mankoles so that maintenance personael can inspect and dean the sewers, Siraight alignments were also considered necessary to maintain desir- able flow characteristics. However, curved, instead of stright, sewer ali ments in curved streets sometimes allow for convenient construction with pub- lie rights of way, interfere Jess with other uliities, require fewer manholes, and. possibly provide more convenient sewer service to all the building sites. Many i ac DESIR OF SEES MA communities have had curved sewers for a suff strute the feasibility of their use For smaller sewers, the curvature is ustally ebtained by laying u succes- sion of straight pipes with the joints deflected slightly. Only the most watersigdnt Jeinting systems should be specified for these sewers, However, the likelihood of leaks developing or coats enteting the sewer will be increased by the use of the deflected joints. For larger sewers, curvature usually is obtained swith beveled-end pipe, preferably without joint deflection. Other details of desiga, inclading minimum velocity and slope requirements, should be the same as for straight sewers If curved sewer alignments are contemplated, the types of cleaning equip- ment available for sewer maintenance should be studied, Water jets and cles ing bells usually operate in curved sewers with no more difficulty than in straight sewers. However, if heavy grit depasits are expected and bucket cleaners are needed, curvatures should be flat enough so tht the bucket can be pulled chvough the sewer without demaging the sewer walls by either the bucket or its cables, Some disadvantages associated with curved alignments are: laser equip- ment for maintaining line and grade doring construction cannot be used; sharply curved sewers are difficult to inspect by closed-cireuit television or stilphocography; and leaks cannot be visually located except near the man- holes ently long time to demon Sewer appurtenances. The principal appurtenances of sanitary sewers are man- holes, drop inlets to manhotes, building connections, and junction chambers In addition, many special appurtenant structures may be required, depending on local topography, Detailed descriptions of appurtenances und special struc- tures are presented in Chap. 3, For this reason, the following discussion will be limited t a few specific design considerations concerning mandales. For sewers that are 1200 mm (48 in) and swaller, manioles shoul be lo- cated at changes in size, stope, or direction. For larger sewers, these changes may be made without installing & mantole. If possiple, vertical drops in the flowing wastewater should be avoided to minimize splashing. Where such drops are necessary, drop inlets or other means of conveying the wastewater 10 ‘a tower elevation should be installed. At such points, vitrified-clay brick oF other wear-resistant lining may be provided in concrete stuctures to prevent erosion of the concrete. ‘The nuniber of manholes must be adequate so that the sewers can be easily inspected and mawtained. Recommended maximum spacing between man- holes is discussed in Chap, 5, Sec, 5-1, Sewer ventilation. When wastewater collection systems were first built, sewer ventilation received much attention, and a variety af theories offered for the best way to provide it. It was at one time thought that sewers should be ventilated at manholes to prevent sewer gases from accumulacing and enteringI WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: COLLEC ellings, thus affecting the health of the residents, However, the real needs for ventilation srise from the danger of asphysiation of workers in sewers and manholes, from the explosion hazanl, and fiom the devetopment of gaseous odors. The subject of Ventilation and air relief is discussed in more detail ja Chap. 7, See. Design of Sanitary Sewers After a careful review of population and land-use projections, state standants, local building, construction, and sewer codes, the results of the preliminary field investigations, and the various design co Issed previ ously, the next step is to design the sewer. The selection of design oriteria and. the preparation of sewer design computetions for @ gravity flow trank sewer and for a gravity-flow sanitary sewer for 4 small residential area are illustrated in Exemples 41 and 4-2. In Example 4-1, the discussion focuses on haw to obtain the avenge and peak design lowrates for different types of areas. The details of analysis are illustrated in Example 4 [ixample 4 Design of a gravte-ow trunk sever Develop a pelinisary design, Delwling Alumrates, pipe sles, end pipe slopes, forthe tek sev 0 be conetncted inthe Covel Fork Developmen: shown in Fig. 44. Assume tht the ground slope ist. The seneral locaton of ‘he tuck sewsr was eitablistea wen the development was aid out ovginaly, The desen of ‘hetrunk sexeris tobe corsistent withthe design considerations discussed revioushy and 0he following specie data that are appiceb¥s to ths development. (Tis sume Gevelopmect wes Aacussed in Eeamgle 3-1 to iluseae ie procedures for estisating the domestic and indus: Ina wastewazer lows fora new development) aia on Aeexpectad saturaticn popubtion easies sad wasteneter ows forthe vai ‘ous types of Sousrg in the Covell Pak Development were derived from eetaal econts oF similac nea developments end re given in Tabte <5, The avenge commercial Ge'uding the shopping aes) end julustce waseewater Nowe esvances were estiated tobe 200 130 mflhs+ 6 2100 and 3200 galacre’c), respectively, Thess estinstes were determined by snalyang the nvidual types of faces toe included within tke wo roves, On the basis oF ‘cust flow meagernis of silat setvies, the average peaking factors a 1.8 forthe ‘commercnifzws ad 2.1 forte indvilual favs. Peaking fictorsfor the resident Rows are obtained from Fig 3, The plstned school within the Cavell Pick Developmen is to timate eapty, The average fave is 7S Listucent- (20 gash factarfor the ictool i 40, se 2099 students at 1D, and the peaking Sosetes: 3. Lay ows unk sever. Use the iayout ven in Fie, 44, ‘ 2. ‘Locate the manholes. Because thisisa pretivinary detign. any the ows, pip sizes. end low slopes wil bs extablshed between thers poitts."The dctafe af leeang makes, cleanout, another anpurtenances ate net considered eee Exacole 42). However, to aid athe preity computetion, nomber the maprjunctiors or pints where te trunk Sewer might change Sze, staning With the apgerend ef the trunk sewer that terminates, the area einglesomrly dseings Ce Fig. 3 EstaToh te liets of drastage areas ant the points of wastewater contribution. Assume thar the bourdary of Oye Covell Park Development aro defines the Hinds of the drainage sven and that the pets of sontubutien of beth wastewater end infsetion for exch Subaee a es shown in Fig 4 = Re ane Lewis weave ace as Cconimer, IY il Bs £2 eaul oO Sanne ea wrarsay igure 44 Location map for the design of the Covstt Pore tnunk sewer foe Fxample 1. (Only maior srets ae shown.) Nove: ba 24711 ~ sere: ine 32008LUG waszewaren PROMEERING: COLLECTION AMD SURMHING OF WASTEWATER Toble 4-6 Salurstion population asities aud wastewater Nows for Exaraplet-L 2oving Siteaion poyulstion Westemnter ty ensity flrs of ee devel ersomirha (pexseasieers)— Lieapitar dl (galeapits d) Reshentia) —Single-faity Uvellces 38 as 200 ew Revewiie) —Dupleaes o 8) 280 ey Resskemiad — Lawrise mt oo mas (oy Note: bs » 24711 = sexe Ts 02642 ~ gal aterm the area ofeach of the dricage ss 4a Summarize de bssie design enter, fa. Design pesod ‘Use the saumtion period Poputtion dense: Use the daca in Tanle +, ©. Residemial wastewater flaws Use the data in Fable 46, 4, Commereiat ee indus Nass i, Commercial=.20 mi/ba-d 3 Tnestcist—30 eho. 6 Ensitutionad flows: Sehoot—150 md (2600 stadoats x 75 Listuleet» 1000 Li J. inflation alowonce: i Forresidental yas, obtain the peak velues fiom curve B for new sewstsio Fig. 35. Ui. For commercial, infuse, and instnsons ares, also obian the peak vues form curve in Fig, 25, However, toke ino sevount that te tea ath of sewers in these aress sil geraly be 2s the hatin residents areas, use only 5) percent af she sctual area to compste the iefzrationallossance. go Inflow allewanze ‘Asuume thal the stealy-flow inllow is sccousted for inthe iefittion allowance “The requiced data ae siven in Fig requied t teach saturation portion) i W Indosett—2. Is! Inaction fechost) 00 . lafluation— 16 f. Hydmuiie design equation: Use te Manning equstion withana value 6.013. Tosimglify the computations, use Figs, 2-12 ond 2, J+ Minium veinacy Toprevent the deposiion of sols stfow wastewater lows, ese wisiue velsity of 118 mis during the peak Now condos Minimum cover tniscte dopth of cover over the top ofthe Sener: he curve given in Fig 3 pester oF sovwrns 117 Axcsistishet by thelosal community billing oe ihe actual vel of the mit over is wet tequized fortis exam) Propate stabuaton fom forcomploiagthe pelinieaty disign. Tho eoxgtetions fer teint senerace shown in Tal ‘own Sl yp seperaie column fr east step th: conpotation, Altaoush Table 47 is selfexplnalacy fortis ost par, the folowing comments clr fs development sua use, 2a. The Une under considerations idee in co. BL Columns Zand? usualy ate esed forthe mantisle numbers at each en ofthe ie ia fel, 1, ss exauple, the eumbers ieniled in Py. 44 ine entered in diese col unas. Ina detaded design, adicnal manholes woud be necessary The subacea i identi in col, 4, When s numberof suntess contrite 19x gven iis best to are separate entries for exch subazes (4, ‘The area in hectares, for each of Oe resent sutarss js entered in col. 5. The population density dita feam Table 4.8 aro entered in co. , The populiscn éenstey ‘ale for subsea A-f was obvained by assuming thatthe aes devoted to each type of residential developoone would be equal. Tecremeatal snd eumulstive population dat are susrmscized in cola, Pant 8, sespestvely. The average uni: ow data rom Table are entered in cet 9, The dow sansa Ard vas estimated by averaging thedata given in Teale 46. Abfogh awrighted average eocld be used a simple averabe as cunsicted conservative, The cumulative averaze resident ow i sivea in col. 1D, Forexarele, forline 2 the enrulsive average flow is equel to 3756 mild 2807 aid ~ BR? pecors « 225 Liespiiaed = 1000 Lim). The petkingfacter deeved from Fig 34, b2sed o7 the cumulative average flow: dats ghee ie eof 10, i given a cl. 11. Ths coxespentirs cumulative peak flow, chtsined by maltipying the eumulaive average ve (el. 10) bythe peaking factors aiven in col. 12 Tha commercial area, the corresponding unit ovr, andthe cumulative average Dows ave extared in cls. 13, 14, zal 15, respectively. The given peaking feztor forthe ‘ommercial area iscotered in eal, 16, and the comguted cunslative peak commer ows are ested in eo). J. The entices in cols. 18 Orovgh 2 fer theindustal ows are the su the coramescal ows (cls, 13 ehrough 1). 42. Waa sitar amet t0 the conmercie edincuseal aw, the fsttsional fos ore nieve in cols, 23 throwgh 2, espectively. 1h. The cutulotive oterge and cumulative peck domestic and iedustial wastenatee slows are suzetarzed in cals. 28 snd 28, wespectivels 3. The fist stepin datemsing the infration allowance (ols, 80 hecugh 3)is to enter the area fer each sotarea in col. 20, The cumulative areas summatzsd in sol 3 The unitinttesion stowance, obtained ftom cucveW in Fiz, 3-8 byusng the cart ive aes dae (ol, 3) (9 enteeed in co. 32. The pask curative flvetian a3 nse nso. 33 lsobtained by autplyingthe cettesponing values fa cls 31 32, 2 The total comutative average and curulatve peak desin Dos foe te vaious lines ice sien in cols. 4 and 38, respectively. These values inclule the dames, foie Ine, en jafkresin’nfi, coatitusions. The yeak design oss, expeessel in oabie eles per secon, gre given in cl. 36, 1h, Tho dathin col, A6arswed te dotecnime the sour dsign data cas 37 shea 4, ‘The Wid-sod-eror peocede reqiited to determine the seher pipe diameter, the slope, and the eapocity and velocity hen lowing fall, gen cols, 37 trough Ay discussed below. Thy description only hstates the island enrargrosesuze fa volved in selecting cever sles: the caine! rule in rower design i 10 wash fem 9 round-sudface prot in sizing and lying eut overs (ses Example 42 i To fied the required sewer sizss, Kcate the velue of the peck flow on the shscissain Fig. 2-1 and move verealy op the daria 1 the miniaum accep Ble veloc foe