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2. Apparatus Required
1)
2)
3)
4)
Drive Unit
0.5 HP DC Motor
C. R. O.
Connecting wires
3. Operating Panel
Operating Panel
4. Theory of Operation
Schematic Diagram
Signal Waveforms
4.2 Ramp-Generator
The IC 555 is used as an astable multivibrator in the ramp generator configuration by
using a current mirror. The current mirror starts charging the capacitor towards Vcc at
a constant rate. When the voltage across the capacitor equals to 2/3 Vcc, the internal
comparator turns on the internal transistor and the capacitor rapidly discharges
through the transistor. However, when the discharge voltage across the capacitor
equals to 1/3 Vcc, the internal comparator switches the internal transistor off, and then
the capacitor starts charging up again. The charge-discharge cycle keeps on repeating.
The Reset terminal of IC 555 is connected to the output of the zero-crossing detector,
thereby synchronizing the output of the ramp-generator with the input waveform.
Therefore, the output goes low during the zero-crossing period and ramps up till the
next zero crossing is encountered.
For open-loop control, a potentiometer is used to control the phase-angle. For closedloop control, the output of the PID Controller is used to control the phase angle.
An IC 555 is used to generate a 50% duty cycle, 5 KHz square wave to be used as a
pulse generator for the pulse transformers. The reset terminal of the IC is connected to
the output of the phase-control. The resulting waveform is a 5 KHz waveform
enveloped in the phase control waveform. Two transistors triggered during the
positive and negative half cycles further switch this resultant waveform.
Two 1:1:1 pulse transformers are used for providing the thyristors with isolated
pulses. Each pulse transformer has three isolated windings. One winding is used for
input and two for output.
During the positive half cycle one pulse transformer is activated and the resulting
signals trigger thyristors 1 and 1 and during the negative half cycle the other pulse
transformer is activated and triggers thyristors 2 and 2.
By "tuning" the three constants in the PID controller algorithm the PID can provide
control action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the
controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error,
the degree to which the controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of system
oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee
optimal control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the
appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired control
outputs to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the
absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are particularly common,
since derivative action is very sensitive to measurement noise, and the absence of an
integral value may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control
action.
Block Diagram of a PID Controller
Proportional term
The proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current
error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a
constant Kp, called the proportional gain.
Pout = Kp e(t)
Where
Pout
Kp
e
t
: Proportional output
: Proportional Gain, a tuning parameter
: Error = SP PV
: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in
the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable. In
contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a
less responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control
action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.
In the absence of disturbances, pure proportional control will not settle at its target
value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the proportional gain and
the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset, both tuning theory and industrial
practice indicate that it is the proportional term that should contribute the bulk of the
output change.
Integral term
The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the
error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time
(integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected
previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to
the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to the
overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki.
t
Iout = Ki e() d
0
Where
Iout
Ki
e
: Integral output
: Integral Gain, a tuning parameter
: Error = SP PV
: Time in the past contributing to the integral response
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of
the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs
with a proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to
accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the
setpoint value (cross over the setpoint and then create a deviation in the other
direction).
Derivative term
The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the
error over time (i.e. its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate
of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the
derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd.
Dout = Kd de/dt
Where
Dout
Kd
e
t
: Derivative output
: Derivative Gain, a tuning parameter
: Error = SP PV
: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is
most noticeable close to the controller set point. Hence, derivative control is used to
reduce the magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and
improve the combined controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a signal
amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the
error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative
gain are sufficiently large.
The output from the three terms, the proportional, the integral and the derivative terms
are summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. Defining u(t) as the
controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:
t
u(t) = MV(t) = Kp(t) + Ki e() d + Kd de/dt
0
and the tuning parameters are
Kp: Proportional Gain
Larger Kp typically means faster response since the larger the error, the larger the
Proportional term compensation. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to
process instability and oscillation.
Ki: Integral Gain
Larger Ki implies steady state errors are eliminated quicker. The trade-off is larger
overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated
away by positive error before we reach steady state.
Kd: Derivative Gain
Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but slows down transient response and may lead to
instability due to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error.
In the closed loop, the output to the drive section is controlled using a PID
algorithm. The PID section describes in detail the operation and functioning of
the PID algorithm. The PID parameters may be changed while the motor is
running. The set point may be varied between 0.0 to 50Hz. The various
parameters like set point, process variable (speed), error, proportional gain,
integral gain, derivative gain and output are displayed on the digital display.
The parameter required to be observed/modified may be selected using the
SET button.
5.5 Operation
5.5.1 Operating Panel
The front fascia consists of 4 7-segment displays, 14 LEDs and 8 switches.
The 7-segment display indicates the various parameters. The LEDs indicate
the mode of operation, motor status and the parameter being viewed. The
switches are used to set different parameters and switch between different
modes.
K P E
K KVS O
D
R
I P P U
R
T
In the closed loop mode, the following parameters may be set.
PARAMETER
RANGE
SP Set Point
KP Proportional Gain
KI Integral Gain
KD Derivative Gain
0.0 ~ 50.0 Hz
0.0 ~ 20.0
0.0 ~ 70.0 s-1
0.0 ~ 20.0 s
The value of set point can be varied from 0.0 ~ 50.0Hz. Please note that the
motor may not if adequate gain is not selected. All parameters may be set by
pressing the INC or DEC buttons and confirmed by pressing ENT. The effect
is instantaneous. The values of Kp, Ki and Kd are saved on power failure.
RANGE
0.0 ~ 50.0 Hz
-50.0 ~ 50.0 Hz
0.0 ~ 100.0 %
Display
Reason
Field Failure
FFAU
Field not
connected/faulty
Internal DC Bus
Not Ready.
Armature Current
has gone above the
limit.
Applicable
Drives
CP-DL-1
CP-DL-2
CP-DL-2
CP-DL-4
CP-DL-1
CP-DL-2
CP-DL-3
CP-DL-4
Comments
Requires
Power On.
At startup
only.
Requires
Power On.
6. Procedure
ARMATURE
220 V
AC
L
N
DRIVE UNIT
AA
AA
FF
FF
FIELD
DC MOTOR
0.5 HP
SPEED
SENSOR
Connection Diagram
5) Set the output to 10% using the buttons. Put the motor in RUN mode. Observe the
voltage, current and speed readings on the displays. The motor may not rotate at
10% output. This is normal.
6) Increase the output is steps of 10% and observe the readings. If the motor does not
rotate after 50V, switch of the drive unit and check the motor connections.
7) Note the readings in observation table.
8) Repeat the above experiment with variable load by applying different loads using
the loading system in steps of 0.5kg.
9) Draw a graph of Voltage vs. Speed for different load values.
10) Draw a graph of Current vs. Speed for different load values.
SN
Speed (RMP)
Voltage (V)
Current (I)
Observation Table
8) If the motor does not rotate, switch of the drive unit and check the motor
connections.
9) Note the readings in observation table.
10) Repeat the above experiment with variable load by applying different loads using
the loading system in steps of 0.5kg. Please check if the motor is drawing current
in excess of 90% of its rating.
11) Draw a graph of Voltage vs. Speed for different load values.
12) Draw a graph of Current vs. Speed for different load values.
13) Repeat the above experiment for speeds of 10.0Hz (600RPM), 15.0Hz (900 RPM)
and 20.0Hz (1200 RPM).
14) Draw a graph of Voltage vs. Load for different Speed values.
15) Draw a graph of Current vs. Load for different Speed values.
SN
Load (Kg)
Voltage (V)
Observation Table
Current (I)