Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by Paul White
( MA(Cantab) ARCM LGSM(MT) MTC )
Introduction
This guide aims to be clear, concise and practical. It draws on a number of well-known sources (see
Recommended Reading on page 31), but, above all, it is the result of several decades of observation and
experiment. Standard aspects of technique are discussed, but special emphasis is given to areas, where, it is
hoped, some new light is shed upon either the technique itself or the way of explaining it. The numbered
exercises mentioned in the text are available on line for free downloading (see page 31).
Contents
Posture
19
Wing action
20
Wrist staccato
21
21
Finger action
Therapeutic exercises
22
23
Held exercises
24
Free exercises
24
Non legato
26
Legato
26
Gliding chords
26
11
26
11
27
12
Octave glissandi
27
14
Practice methods
27
14
29
15
30
Staccato
17
Analysis
30
17
31
18
Recommended reading
31
2.
Posture
Freedom of movement is our aim, not restriction and rigidity. This applies firstly to the process of
breathing, which can sometimes inadvertently come to a halt when we are intent upon a demanding task.
Of equal importance is the way we sit, which should be tall but not stiff, with the shoulders relaxed and
down, yet with a certain feeling of buoyancy. Even when the hands are still, some slow, gentle rocking
back, forth and sideways from the hips keeps the joints of the arm mobile, as does a slow rising and
falling motion of the wrist. The latter can be practised first whilst holding down five adjacent white keys
with the hand in an arched position. The role of the back in producing tones will be discussed in the next
section.
Wing Action
There are two main approaches to playing at slow or medium speed, namely, the wing action, driven from
the shoulder, and the finger driven touch described on page 12. The wing action is illustrated and
described on page 3. The following notes are by way of explanation. The arm supports its own weight,
poised in a state of dynamic equilibrium between the uplift of its muscles and the downward pull of
gravity, ready to give either downwards or upwards according to need. The wrists, elbows and shoulders
are loose and free. The movement of the arms is a flexible one, not unlike the wings of a bird in flight,
with the upper arm descending first, followed by the forearm, the hand, and finally the three joints of the
finger, one after another. Likewise, on the up stroke, the upper arm rises first, followed by the forearm
and then the hand and fingers, in a continual smooth cycle of motion. This can be practised in the air,
away from the piano, then as staccato chords up and down the keyboard. The notes are sounded at the
lower end of the cycle, at the point where the wrist begins to rise but the hand is still falling. Due to the
delayed action, by the time the downward movement reaches the fingers, and the tone is sounded, the
forearm is already rising at the end nearer the wrist.
However, it is more helpful to think of the forearm as moving forwards and backwards, rather than down
and up. As shown in the diagrams (p.3), the forearm moves forward and slightly downward as the hand
rises, and backward as the hand falls. The wrist and elbow bend at the same time, and it is at this time that
the note is sounded. In staccato playing there is a simple forward / backward movement. In playing
sustained tones there is also an initial anticipatory backward movement (second picture), as the hand is
removed from the key in a hanging position. This initial stage does not always need to be executed
deliberately, as it will tend to happen automatically. The pushing forward (third picture) gives rise to a
feeling of the arm digging under the hand. The pull-back is like a scooping out.
There is also a slight rotary movement of the arm. During the very brief push forward there is an equally
brief turning outwards of the arms (right arm clockwise, left arm anticlockwise). This is immediately
followed by a turning inwards as the arm pulls back and the note is sounded. The two opposite rotations
are felt as a single rapid flick. The elbow moves outwards slightly as the tone is sounded.In other words,
the upper arm lifts sideways. The action can be practised on ones lap, first standing then seated. The
upper arm bobs down just before the note and rises on sounding it.
The upward and downward hand movements are not deliberate. It is thrown up and down by the arm
movements. This means that, even in slow tempo, the wing action can only be executed as a sudden, rapid
movement. In slow motion, there is insufficient G force to throw the hand, and it would have to be
deliberately lifted by the forearm muscles. These muscles are not used in the wing action, which uses only
the muscles of the upper arms, chest and back. These are the same muscles used in sawing wood, rowing
or operating a vacuum cleaner.
The idea of using three separate movements in playing a single note may seem overcomplicated and
unnatural. Yet it is almost identical to the simple act of throwing a ball. Examples of a forward thrust
followed so closely by a backward tug that the two are two are fused into a single act include such
civilized pursuits as snatching and punching.
3.
Wing Action
The whole sequence takes place within a split second, even in slow tempo. It is
usually greatly miniaturised, consisting of a barely visible twitch of the arm.
Stage 2 applies only in slow playing.
4.
Most of the time, the wing action is extremely miniaturised both in space and time, being but a
momentary twitch of the arm. It is the visible manifestation of a wave of kinetic energy travelling very
rapidly down the arm towards the keys, and is realised as a momentary impact after which the weight is
immediately lifted out. A similar type of chain reaction can be found in the movement of a whip. From
the observers point of view, the elbow moves noticeably backward in stage 2 and forward in stage 3. In
stage 4 (the sounding of the tone), the elbow remains in roughly the same place, but bends so as to lift the
forearm. From the players perspective, however, there is a strong sense of pulling back in stage 4. This
serves as a braking action to the forward thrust in stage 3. What is happening and what we see are
different, just as when an aircraft, upon landing, applies reverse thrust to its engines. Although these are
working backwards, the aircraft is still moving forwards, finally coming to a halt. In the same way, the
dog owner tugs desperately at the lead whilst the dog continues relentlessly moving forward. This needs
to be borne in mind by the teacher, who will see only two movements of the upper arms; backwards then
forwards. Furthermore, the pupil will also see only these two actions when the teacher is demonstrating.
The wing action should first be practised with staccato notes, chords or octaves (see p. 17) These omit
the preparatory pull-back (diagram 2.) Initially it could be practised with only the middle finger, or
with thirds played by the second and fourth. In this way the arm action can be perfected without
adding the further complication of the finger action.
The wave motion is channelled down one finger by partially withholding the others. It can be performed
with relatively passive, relaxed fingers, moving only sufficently to guide the hand towards the required
notes. This is ideal for cantabile melodies, and also for controlled, quiet playing. Here, the hand lift is
very small, sometimes barely reaching the surface level of the keys. The large muscles of the upper arms
and torso allow much greater control of dynamics than do the small finger muscles.
For slow practice of rapid passagework, however, it is better to think of the finger as the moving agent,
matched by a complimentary process in the arms (see p. 12). This is because the the wing action cannot
be carried into speeds above roughly 360 notes per minute. At higher speeds it is replaced by finger action
aided by continuous arm weight. It is helpful to think of each finger as starting from the wrist rather than
the knuckle. As the finger flies up from the key, it takes the hand with it, after which the next descending
finger causes it to snap back down. In very slow practice, not only does the preceding finger fly up, but
the finger about to play lifts a little higher in anticipation of the downstroke. This lift further contributes
to the uplift of the hand. At the same time, the arm remains flexible and responsive, although not activily
participating. It should not be held motionless and rigid, nor should its weight be rested on the keys. The
former practice leads to a weak tone and can potentially cause stiffness and injury. The latter method is
technically and musically nonsensical at low speed, as will be explained in the section The mechanics of
tone production.
At high speed, notes are executed purely by finger movements, with the arm movements following
phrases. The phrase begins at an earlier point in the cycle, where the wrist is still falling, and ends at the
point where the wrist rises and leaves the hand hanging (see p. 25). In performing the wing action
without withholding any fingers, all five fingers will extend together. This stretching can be altered to
imitate the playing of five rising notes, or five falling notes, as though the wave is breaking obliquely.
The action can be tranferred to the keyboard using exercise 27, Wrist movement in phrasing, and can be
developed further by practising scales and passages in adding notes and groups (See p.29).
5.
6.
Whilst arm and body movements cannot be carried into very fast playing, they can still be used in fast
pieces. They move with the quavers and crotchets, but not with the semiquavers. This also applies when
one hand is playing slower notes and the other executes rapid passagework. In the case of a melody with a
quiet accompaniment, the arm will move with each melody note. In strongly rhythmical music with a
driving beat, a Baroque Gigue for example, the arm movement will coincide with the strong beats.
The natural touch resulting from the wing action is non legato (p.9). This will seem strange to followers
of arm weight and relaxation, for whom the natural touch is legato.A modified wing action can be used
to achieve legato. Here, the fingers remain in contact with the keys, but the wrist bobs down just before
playing each note, then up again as the note is sounded. In this case, there is no lifting of the hand from
the keys, as this would inevitably cause a brief silence.
Finger Action
This is shown in the diagrams on page 5. The finger action is also a wing action in its own right, with
the knuckle bending first, while the other joints are still straightening. The second joint bends
immediately after the tone has sounded, followed soon after by the finger tip. By this time, the knuckle
joint is already lifting the finger from its key.
The extending fingers land on the key almost vertically, giving maximum transmission of energy. A rigid
or, still worse, contracting finger would strike the key at an oblique angle, with considerable energy loss.
One centimeter of vertical finger travel causes the same amount of key movement. A centimeter of
oblique motion moves the key only a fraction of the distance, as well as causing friction. The actions in
the first, second and fourth pictures is sudden and rapid, even in slow music. As we aim to exercise the
fingers and build strength, we should take them through their full range of movement with swift,
energetic strokes. The position in the third picture is held for the duration of the tone. The reason for the
rebound and partial retraction in the third picture is that we do not want to apply any unnecessary pressure
or weight to the key after the tone has sounded. However, we do not release the key completely, as the
dampers would engage, stopping the tone.
The unused fingers should not be held rigidly at maximum height, as this can cause stiffness. They should
be held comfortably high, and in slow playing, each finger should rise just a little higher immediately
before playing. A further cause of stiffness is the inhibition of hand and wrist movement in slow practice.
Whilst some methods make a clear distinction between pure finger touch and wrist touch, I prefer to
think of the two as working together, although in varying proportions. Even so, the wrist movement
applied to single notes in passages can only take place at slow or medium speed. At high speed the fingers
take over, reinforced by varying amounts of arm weight. This is because a given muscle (in this case the
muscles situated in the forearm) can only repeat its action up to a certain speed. The fingers, however, are
sharing the work between five team members, so that no one finger is obliged to repeat immediately. It is
helpful to think of the fingers beginning, not at the knuckles, but at the wrist. This is not an invitation to
accompany the finger stroke with a downward arm movement! As seen in the wing action above, the
pivotal nature of the wrist is critical. A downward hand movement is accompanied by an upward
movement of the forearm.
7.
The human hand is highly adaptable, changing its shape according to the multitude of different jobs
which it has to do. We should allow this to happen, rather than forcing it into a predetermined mould. The
fingers are more strongly curved, particularly at the knuckle joint, when playing on white keys. This is
because flat fingers would be caught between the black keys. If we were to move the hand further towards
us, the thumbs would not reach the keys. However, neither of these misfortunes occurs when playing on
black keys, so we can release the fingers into a more gently curved position. Furthermore, the black keys
are raised above the white, so that playing on them with a strongly curved position would require the
fingers to be raised uncomfortably high. They are also set back from the white keys, so that the less
curved fingers can reach forward for them. White keys are approached at an almost vertical angle,
whereas the black keys are approached more obliquely (see exercise 4). We tend to avoid using the
thumbs on black keys, but when we have to do so, the other fingers become more strongly curved than in
the normal black keys position, otherwise they would scrape on the lid of the keyboard. We should never
let the last finger joint collapse into a concave shape, as all firmness and control is then lost. In slow
practice we prepare the position of the fingers (vertically above the key) and their shape (gently or
strongly curved for black or white keys respectively) well in advance, preferably several notes earlier.
(See also Preparing Hand Shape", page 26).
Straight fingers can span wider intevals than curved ones. Occasionally, when a white key is easily
accesible to a straight finger (usually B,C, E or F), and when curving the finger would render the stretch
uncomfortable, we can straighten the finger somewhat. An example would be a double sixth from Ab to F
in the right hand played by the thumb and fourth finger, as found in Chopins Study Op. 25 no. 8.
Longer fingers, especially the third, are more strongly curved than shorter ones. The little finger is curved
in the up position and virtually straight in the down position. The hand should not sag towards the little
finger, which should form an almost vertical pillar when playing on the white keys.
The fingers are less vertical and less curved when spanning wide stretches, for example in playing certain
arpeggios. However, there should always be a degree of arching of the hand and raising of the knuckles,
as this gives an architectural strength to the finger strokes, especially when supporting arm weight. The
finger nails should be kept very short, as we often, although by no means always, find ourselves playing
on the finger tips. Changes in finger shape are often quite subtle, and should not be exaggerated. In
particular, excessive bending, either upon retraction or when playing a white key, can reduce the
efficiency of the touch. The thumb behaves differently from the other fingers. It is not raised, but remains
close to the keys, in order to avoid banging. Special exercises for lateral thumb movements should be
practised (see ex. 44). The last joint (the tip) of the thumb should never be bent, as this would render it
too wide to fit on the keys. The second joint can advantageously be bent outward somewhat, although not
forcefully. In playing ascending scales with the right hand or descending ones with the left, the thumb
should be brought under as soon as the second finger plays, and should then wait above its key while any
remaining fingers play. In scales and passages, the thumb should be played more quietly than the other
fingers, again to counteract banging.
A word about the arm weight transfer method: In this method, finger movement is minimal and the
weight of the arm is allowed to rest on the keys whilst holding the notes. I myself studied this method for
several years. Yes, it is possible to play difficult music in this way without undue fatigue. However, as
there is no attack to the notes, they sound unintentional, as though played by accident. The resulting
music sounds spineless, inconsequential and lacking in conviction, as though it were being thrown
away. It is musical wallpaper. I once listened to a Mozart concerto played in this way. It sounded like an
orchestral piece with piano accompaniment.
8.
For loud, emphatic playing, particularly with chords, we can reinforce the arm action with back
movements. Given that the default position of the wrist is high, the default position of the spine is the
straight, tall one shown by the blue line. When the wrist bobs down momentarily to the low position, as
shown by the pink line, just before playing a note, the back is allowed to relax into a slightly rounded,
slouched shape. It immediately bounces back up as the note is played, and remains high until just
before the next note.
Held exercises
Correct hand position, which changes for every group of notes or chord, should be practised by means of
held exercises. Place the five fingers on the adjacent keys CDEFG. Play each finger alone four times, then
in alternating pairs (CDCD etc.).The unused fingers hold down their keys. Here, the extension of fingers
is usually imperceptible, as the hand is so close to the keys. The playing fingers (except the thumb) are
lifted high before striking their keys. The exercise should be played forte and non legato, and should be
repeated, holding down a variety of different chords. (See exercise 25). Some held exercises prepare us
for the intricate finger co-ordinations found in contrapuntal music. (See exercises 5, 12 and 13). The
Leschetizky Method contains many valuable held exercises (see page 31). These are practised using a
finger - driven touch, sustaining the notes in a low position (see p. 12). In other words, the power of the
finger stroke momentarily drives the wrist upwards. The wrist then immediately relaxes down, and
remains in a low position until the next note is played. This adds more power to the tone, and avoids
stiffness in the wrist. Alternatively, the notes can be sustained in a high position (see p. 12).
Free exercises
These are followed by free exercises, where the unused fingers remain comfortably high and curved,
except for the thumb, which lies on top of its key. Each finger is repeated separately, followed by paired
fingers (see exercise 24). This is best practised with a non legato touch, forte, using the finger driven
action described on page 12. Begin at mm. = 66 and gradually speed up with the metronome. At a certain
9.
speed, the touch will lift off into a mezzo staccato, which will in turn merge back into a non legato at
very high speed. The touch can be maintained as a non-legato by applying a limited element of arm
weight (see below), to counteract the lifting off. See also exercises 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 18 ,19, 39 and 42.
The held and free exercises lead to the corresponding scales or arpeggios.
Free exercises yield their maximum benefit when played fast and loud. They should be speeded up to a
point where they become difficult, then gradually increased beyond that. Unless we push the limits, we
are not moving forward. Nevertheless we should also play exercises for a prolonged period at a fast but
comfortable speed, in order to build strength and endurance. This is analogous to the singer, who can
improve her range of high notes, not by constantly singing at high pitch, but by spending many hours
working on notes in the medium range.
We practise exercises with alternate hands at each speed, so as to rest one hand while the other plays.
Many exercises do not need to be played with the hands together.
As Neuhaus says, in The Art of Piano Playing, the fingers are our soldiers at the front line, whilst arm
movements and arm weight are the back-up team. The latter are of no value unless the soldiers are
properly trained, in this case with finger exercises. Sources of these can be found on page 31.
Non Legato
Finger exercises are usually practised non legato, using a finger driven touch (see p. 12). The term
implies a very brief silence between each note. It is analogous to tonguing on a wind instrument or
playing with separate bows on a stringed instrument. It comes about as a natural result of lifting the
fingers high, unlike staccato, where the notes are deliberately shortened. Passages practised in a non
legato will sound clear and highly articulated at speed. There are many grades of non legato, ranging from
a hairs breadth of silence to something approaching a mezzo staccato. The term is sometimes used to
refer to a physical process similar to the wing action. However, in this guide it is used only in its strictly
literal sense of not connected.
Legato
In legato playing, each note is immediately followed by the next, with no silence in between. This is
similar to the singing voice, or to slurred playing on a wind or stringed instrument, and is suitable for
playing melodies. It is not suitable for rapid passagework. Like non legato, it should be practised firmly,
with arm weight used on the initial attack but then immediately lifed out, either using a finger driven
touch or the wing action.
10.
third finger action diagram.
In controlling volume and touch we have two parameters at our disposal, namely arm weight and finger
action. Either can be graded to any level, but for simplicitys sake, let us consider six combinations
using low, medium and high levels of arm weight.
a) Minimal weight: Here the arm is actively pulling upwards and the fingers are as it were fighting to
reach the keys. With minimal finger movement this gives the quietest touch of all and is ideal for gentle
legato playing, as in Debussys Clair de Lune, for example. Nevertheless, such music should initially be
practised firmly with raised fingers and graded down later. In this way the notes will be much more sure
under the fingers. With strong finger movement it produces a leggiero touch ideal for quiet yet sparkling
passagework, as in Ravels Ondine. It is also suitable for much of Bachs music.
b) Medium weight: The arm adopts a neutral role, with the uplift of the muscles exactly matching the
downward pull or gravity. This is the normal position for slow practice as well as for much of what we
do in performance. With minimal finger movement this is suitable for legato playing at medium
volume. With strong finger movement it produces a non legato touch. At slow and medium speed,
this level represents the median level to which we would add impulses of greater weight via the wing
action, should a louder dynamic be required.
c) Heavier weight: This is only used in a continuous way at high speeed, when medium or high volume
is desired. A controlled, limited amount of arm weight is released on to the fingers like a flexible
blanket, in order to counteract the upthrust of the keys in rapid playing. As stated in the section Free
Exercises on page 8, it serves to maintain a firm non legato, as the touch would otherwise lift off into a
feathery mezzo staccato. Josef Gat in The technique of Piano Playing explains this phenomenon as
follows: If we imagine that each key has a nominal weight of one ounce, in slow tempo we may only play
say two notes during a four second period, with an upthrust of two ounces. In rapid tempo, we may play
fifty notes during the same time frame, and our fingers find comfort beneath their blanket of arm
weight as they grapple with a daunting upthrust of fifty ounces. One could say that the many little springs
of upthrust form a mattress of resistance against the weight of the flexible blanket. This may sound
fanciful, but it is the best way I can find to describe the sense of equilibrium which we aim to achieve.
As we increase the speed from fast to faster and very fast, the amount of weight gradually increases with
it. Let it be said again that continuous arm weight is never used at slow or medium speed. The reasons are
given in the section The mechanics of tone production. This pointless habit was correctly described as
the cardinal sin by Matthay, although many of his followers have unfortunately taken the opposite
viewpoint. There is also no point in using a lot of arm weight when trying to play quietly. One may as
well use a steam roller to make pastry.
When used with minimal finger movement the blanket creates a warm legato..With strong finger
movement it gives a powerful and brilliant non legato touch, ideal in virtuoso passagework. In physical
terms, those muscles which raise the forearm and which cause the upper arm to move forwards and
upwards are partially relaxed, causing the arm to drop. However, the muscles in the lower side of the
forearm which are used in directing the hand downwards and raising the wrist, must be activated,
otherwise the arm would cave in at the wrist, dragging the hand from the keys. The same muscular coordination can be activated in a sudden way on a single note to produce an accent. (see p.12), and is also
momentarly activated unconsciously as the note is sounded when using the wing action.
To introduce a student to the feeling of continuous arm weight, we can ask them to rest the weight of
their arm on the five fingers whilst holding down the notes CDEFG, feeling the strong pressure on the
fingertips. Without lifting the arm, they can then begin to move the fingers up and down the five notes
rapidly. After this, they can progress to the first exercise from Hanon.
Arm weight can also be introduced using adding notes or groups. Here, the wing action is appied to
11.
phrases rather than individual notes. It is used to release first the upper arm, followed by the forearm,
after which the upward movement of the wrist and extending fingers are introduced to support the
weight. Finally, the weight is taken away again on the upstroke of the wing. All these phases follow
each other in a graceful cycle. The wing action can also be applied to phrases independently of armweight when playing lightly. In other words, it can be used to contour phrases in both quiet and loud
playing.
When playing continuous passagework, as in some Baroque music, expressive crescendi and diminuendi
can be introduced by increasing or decreasing the amount of arm weight. The three levels of arm weight
described above can be practised by playing simple patterns such as CDEFGFEDC many times, or using
Hanon studies ( see p. 29), varying the weight each time. For example, a phrase could be played twice
with position (c), twice with (a), alternating, the quiet repeat being like an echo. Then, twice with (a),
twice with (b), twice with (c) and back again. See exercises 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 18,19. In rapid playing, we
automatically use a certain amount of arm weight without necessarily being aware of it. If we play a
rapidly repeated pattern (e.g. CDEFGFEDC) at medium volume, then gradually remove arm weight until
the fingers are just tickling the keys, without sounding them properly, then re-introduce the weight to
the same level as before, we become conscious of the continuous presence of arm weight being
transferred between the notes.
12.
fingers, however, remain fully active, with a feeling of firmness in the fingertips. However, the exercises
can also be practised retaining position (b), so as to develop skill in playing leggiero passagework, and
also with both sudden and gradual changes in dynamics, achieved with finger speed at slow tempo and
with varying arm weight when playing at speed. Dynamics depend upon contrast. Your loud is as loud as
your quiet is quiet. The majority of practice is loud, as this develops finger strength and a sure knowledge
of the notes. However, a significant amount of time should be devoted to practising very quietly,
preferably on a loud instrument. Playing at medium volume is easy, so we should devote ourselves to
working on the extremes. Above all, we should avoid following the example of testosterone-driven
pianists whose sole aim is to play as loud and fast as possible. The result is all sound and fury, signifying
an ego-trip. Nevertheless, quiet playing should come from discretion and restraint, and should not be the
result of weakness.
Continuous rapid passagework requiring endurance (e.g. Chopin Op. 25 no. 2) should be practised with a
strong finger driven action (see below), and at higher speed with transferred arm weight, but performed
mainly leggiero without arm weight, which feels effortless by comparison. The heavy practice should not
be done shortly before the performance as it leads to fatigue.
13.
In summary, the shoulder driven wing action and the finger-driven action form two opposite yet
complimentary approaches which use completely different sets of muscles. They can also be combined is
varying proportions, so that all the muscles in question are taking part.
The following practise methods develop the finger driven technique. This approach translates more
directly into what happens at high speed, whereas the wing action requires a change of gear.
14.
Accenting of single notes in passagework is not very common in real music. One example would be the
Rondoletto from Stravinskys Serenade En La. A much more important use of accents is in emphasizing
melodic lines (see page 14). For accents on isolated notes or chords, see page 26.
Many people find the upward wrist movement difficult to grasp at first. It may be helpful to imagine that
they are rolling a can of beans towards the piano. We can also say that the hand follows the fingers down
towards the keys. A downward hand movement is equivalent to an upward wrist movement, and serves
the same purpose. It is also helpful to show using the back of the hand how the arm divides into five
fingers at the wrist, rather than the knuckle. Any skeleton knows this. When playing, we may picture
ourself as some strange alien creature with no hands but just five very long fingers beginning at each
wrist, and capable of lifting very high. In this way the wrist movement is felt to be initiated entirely by the
fingers. If we envisage accents as being transmitted not by the whole hand but by the bone within the
hand of a particular finger, it becomes possible to accent each finger individually whilst playing the
others unaccented.(See Emphasizing melodic lines). Although deplorable as a technique, a useful way of
finding these bones is to rest the weight of the arm on each finger in turn, and feel it being borne, not by
the hand as a whole, but by the bone of that particular finger within the hand. The experience can then be
repeated in the correct way as a momentary impulse of weight which is immediately released. Having
said all this, we should not forget, of course, that independent finger movements from the knuckle are of
vital importance, but it is equally important to ingrate them with the movement of the hand part of the
finger, and to feel the work of the elongated finger as a single act.
15.
Where a melodic line is played in octaves or chords, it is often desirable to emphasize the top notes of the
octaves or chords above the rest. Paradoxically, a non legato touch with pedal sings out better than a
legato, as it is more incisive.
Where sustained notes are used in the accompaniment, they must be held with a minimum of weight, so
that the weight can be used for accenting the melody notes. (See exercises 36 38). The accented fingers
strike stonger and deeper, reacting upwards against the arms weight and downwards upon the keys. The
accompaniment fingers almost shy away from the keys. In other words, we extend (straighten) the
accented finger further and faster than the rest. There is also a slight sense of a shift in the centre of
gravity towards the accented finger, just as a standing person may lean more on one leg or the other.
Just as a quiet accompaniment sets off a relatively loud melodic line, so a detached accompaniment (non
legato or mezzo staccato) sets off a smooth melody by contrast. Such an accompaniment resembles a cat
padding across a soft carpet.
16.
or staccato. A combined wing action / finger-driven staccato is a particularly good way to practise rapid
brilliant passages, as it combines strength, elasticity and a highly articulated sound.
The dropping mentioned above is a little difficult to see in the case of the arm, as it does not drop
vertically. Because the keyboard is in front of the player, and the arm is, on average, sloping towards it
diagonally (with a bend in the middle), the weight travels down and forwards, eventually converting to a
downward hand stroke as the elbow pulls back on sounding the tone (see p.3). The net direction of the
weight is downwards, just as the direction of mains water is downwards from the reservoir, even though
it may be travelling upwards in the pipe system of your house. It is very important to steer pupils away
from the common habit of producing notes by directly dropping the arm as a unit. Initially they should be
taught to use finger movement only, and subsequently they can add the up-wrist accent.
In summary, we have an expanding unit (the finger and hand) kicking simultaneously upwards and
downwards. It kicks upwards not against a stationary mass, but one which is itself endowed with a
downward momentum, thus impacting the key with redoubled force. In its raw state this produces a
hard, violent assault upon the ear. It is the crude material which we must then refine to serve our artistic
purposes. In practice, this means applying it in varying degrees of strength to each note so as to create, in
musical terms, a balanced vertical texture and a meaningful horizontal progression.
When an object has been dropped, it must be lifted up before it can be dropped again, and this should be
done immediately after dropping, so the object (in this case arm weight) is up and ready to be dropped
again. This happens after the sounding of every note, when the wrist relaxes down and weight is taken
from the keys and taken over by the muscles of the shoulder blades and upper arms. As already
mentioned, the tone is then held down with as little weight as possible.
We should never use arm weight for holding down a tone after it has been sounded, (a) because it will
not be up and ready, (b) because only a minimal weight is needed to hold the key down, and (c)
because it puts an unnecessary load upon the finger muscles and on those muscles which keep the wrist
up. This can be seen by resting the whole weight of the arm on the keys whilst holding down, say, a triad.
If we were to relax the finger and wrist muscles, the hand would be dragged from the keyboard by
gravity. Therefore these muscles are working very hard just to keep the hand on the keyboard and hold a
key down, with no musical goal whatsoever, as the note has already been sounded. Some proponents of
the arm weight and relaxation method, claim that they are not expending any effort, and are merely
resting the arm on the keys. This fails to take into account the effort expended by the finger and wrist
muscles. Matthay, one of the pioneers of arm weight and relaxation, was perfectly correct on this point,
but has since been widely misinterpreted. Ironically, arm weight pianist who rest their weight on the
key bed have no further available weight to drop on the keys, and are therefore sounding the tones purely
by means of finger action.
At high speed, and only then, we experience a sense of continuous transfer of arm weight in the arm. This
is because the phase of holding the tone with minimal weight is now absent. The arm weight aids the
finger in producing a powerful downstroke at the moment of sounding the tone, and is then immediately
passed on to the next finger. We are still lifting off the weight in order to use it again, but this function
is now taken on entirely by the fingers, which bounce off the keys immediately, whilst the arm provides
its flexible blanket of support. (see page 10). In terms of duration, every note in a rapid passage is
staccato, although it is not heard as such, being followed, not by a silence, but by other notes.
Gat poetically compared this with the action of a road drill, no doubt fitting imagery to a Hungarian writer
of the Soviet era. When the drill is switched off, the operator must hold it up with her arms. Under the
imaginary circumstance of the drill working at a slow tempo, she would relax down the weight for each
impact, then take it up again in between times. However, when the drill is working at high speed, its
rapidly repeated jabbing is sufficient to support its weight without having to be raised and lowered by the
17.
operator, although she may be applying a certain elastic resistance (flexible blanket) not unlike the
shock absorbers of a car. (Gats original is slightly adapted here.)
When speeding up a passage using the wing action, we will experience a gear change at around 4 x 92,
whereby we can no longer accent the notes separately. At this point we must change to a staccato touch,
abandoning any attempt to sustain the notes. We must also relinquish all arm movement at this speed,
replacing it with continuous arm weight.
If we play an accented staccato note, driving the arm into the air, then let the finger fall back on to the key
without attempting to hold the arm up, the second note will be sounded at a speed of about 2 x 92. This is
therefore the lowest possible speed for bouncing unsupported arm weight, and at this low pace it is a very
heavy touch indeed, of little use in performance. As a practice method, however, it makes for strong
fingers, and it is also a way of introducing people to the concept of arm weight. Initially, it is advisable to
practise it on a soft surface such as the top of the piano stool. Between the speeds of 2 x 92 and 4 x 92, we
have a choice between sustaining notes lightly, or using bounced arm weight. Rather than bouncing the
whole weight of the arm, it is usually preferable to have the arm partially supported. We increase the
weight for greater volume, and also at higher speed.
In quiet playing, we are not deliberately dropping and raising the arms weight, or indeed consciously
using weight at all, but the horizontal leaf spring is still present, passively reinforcing the finger stokes
against the upthrust of the keys, and providing a stable platform to which the fingers are anchored at the
knuckle joint. If the fingers were not attached to the arm in this way, they would be too light to make any
impression upon the keys, however agile they may be. They would be like a featherweight boxer who
takes on a heavyweight, and finds that his own punches simply drive him backwards, without even being
noticed by the opponent. It should be remembered that for quiet playing the upper arms lift sideways
rather than forwards, and a gentle bending is felt in the wrists and elbows.
In the unthinkable circumstance of having to push my car down the drive, my own weight will be
insufficient to achieve this aim. If, however, I brace myself with my back to the garage door, the much
greater mass of the garage will enable me to move the car effortlessly. In the same way, the mass of the
arm braces the hand and fingers against the upthrust of the keys. In other words, when an irresistible force
meets an immovable object, then the entity generating the irresistible force will be obliged to move
backwards, unless it can find another immovable object facing the other way.
One of the main reasons why some people mistakenly press into the keys when holding a tone, is the
desire to create a feeling of continuity in melodic lines. When singers, wind or string players wish to
produce an unbroken stream of sound, they do so by means of continuous expenditure of energy in tone
production. However, in the case of pianist, the continuity is an illusion created by a series of brief
impulses of energy at the beginning of each note, then sustained with as little energy as possible. Its
appearance belies the means of production, just as the smooth gliding of the swan belies the frantic
paddling going on beneath the surface.
Staccato
Like sustained notes, staccato notes can be driven from the shoulder using the wing action, or from the
fingers and hand.
18.
19.
20.
At a slow or medium pace, we prepare the note or chord by placing the fingers on the surface of the
keys to be played (see p. 19). In this case, we may not begin with the forward thrust as in the normal
staccato, as the fingertips would simply dig in to the keys. Therefore we must first reverse out as in
the first prepared staccato diagram, in the same way as a car reverses out of its parking place before
proceeding forward. The prepared staccato action is very similar to the wing action for sustained notes
except that, having played the note, the finger, instead of holding the key lightly, leaves it immediately
and moves to the surface of the next key to be played. At a slightly higher speed the preparation feels
like playing an interim note on the surface of the keys, half way between the real notes, so that there is a
sensation of double tempo. At about 180 beats per minute the preparation becomes impossible, and we
revert to the normal staccato (p. 18). However, we still prepare the fingers in the air, vertically above
the notes to be played. In the case of chords, we form the shape of the chord in the air with our hand.
At high speed the hand flutters close to the keys, and the touch feels very relaxed. Rapid octave passages
are always practised staccato. However, at a slower tempo, sustained chords and octaves can also be
played very effectively using the wing action.
21.
ideal touch for practising brilliant passagework, as it combines strength, elasticity and a highly
articulated sound. See exercise 40. It can also be used for practising fingered octave passages and double
note exercises. For greater power, we can increase the element of wing action at low speed as follows:
Instead of sounding the note directly from the surface position, we can prepare then lift off as in the
diagrams on page 19.
The finger driven staccato can also be applied at full speed using adding notes and groups. It is applied
only to the last note of each group, which is sharply accented and flies off into the air with the wrist
strongly raised. It may be necessary to lengthen the silence between groups owing to the high orbit of
the hand. (See exercises 23 and 33).This is different from the usual way of playing adding notes and
groups, where the last note is quiet and is lifted by the arm. This latter method may also be used for
practising staccato.
Finger driven staccato can be practised on a springy surfase such as the top of the piano stool at around
200 beats per minute (See page 23).
Wrist staccato
This method is quite commonly used by some people when playing octaves. It consists of deliberately
moving the hand up and down using the muscles in the forearm, in other words, exactly what we are
trying not to do when playing with the wing action. It is possible to attain quite a high speed using this
method, but it is very tiring, and is not suitable for extended passages. We should use the wing action
most of the time, keeping the wrist touch in reserve as a booster for the fastest passages.
The hand begins in the air, and moves swiftly down, then up. It remains up until the next chord or octave
is played. In other words, in slow practice, the hand is in the up position most of the time, and from the
audience perspective the wrist appears low. A useful practice technique is to hold the underside of the
forearm, close to the wrist, with the other hand, supporting the weight of the arm, and ensuring that there
is no movement in the forearm, the entire action being executed by the wrist.
A light staccato approaching mezzo staccato can also be achieved by speeding up a very quiet non legato
without adding any arm weight. This touch is ideal for playing leggiero passages at a moderate speed.
A very dry light staccato can be achieved when we place the finger on the surface of the key, sound the
tone lightly then withdraw the finger with a sharp upward hand movement (as opposed to wrist
movement). This, however, has the disadvantage of using the upper forearm muscles, which render it
somewhat stiff and awkward.
The bounced arm weight staccato can be used effectively together with the sustaining pedal in
declamatory melodic passages. An example would be the octave passages in Albenizs Albaicin from
Iberia.
22.
As a general principle, the amount of visible movement decreases as the speed increases, just as a ball left
to bounce freely will gradually increase in speed but decrease in height of bounce. The height of the
initial bounce sets a certain speed of travel, and as each bounce gets lower it is able to complete the
distance in less and less time. In the same way, we need to increase the distance travelled by the fingers or
wrist in slow practice in order to attain the necessary speed of movement for velocity playing. This means
lifting the fingers high, or exaggerating wrist movements.
The larger the body mass involved in playing a note, the slower will be the speed at which it can operate.
The full wing action with back action is only possible at low speed. As we accelerate, the next stage
would be the wing action accompanied by a feeling of being thrown backward and forward on the seat,
so that the knees can be seen to move. The next stage would be the wing action involving arms only.
At a still higher speed, only the fingers and hands are seen to move, and, at maximum speed, only finger
movement is apparent.
Therapeutic exercises
Finger driven touches make excellent high impact work, developing strength, elasticity and endurance
in the fingers. However, after a prolonged period of such practice, the fingers may become stunned,
rather as the ear is stunned after listening to deafening pop music. The keys may feel unsatisfying and
unresponsive. It may also be that having emphasized a very strong down-stroke, the release of weight is
taking place a fraction too late, a phenomenon described by Matthay as key-bedding. Mose seriously
of all, we may loose our ability to play leggiero passages. Under these circumstances, the following
exercises may be helpful.
Practise passages with a strong finger action away from the piano, in a standing position, with the arms
and hands hanging loosely by your sides. Here there can be no question of any key-resistance or arm
weight being involved. Allow the hands to follow the fingers. Also practise the piano with a leggiero
touch, i.e. a non legato with a strong finger action but with the arms as light as possible, pulling away
from the keys.
To stretch the finger muscles, place the fingers fully outstretched and spread as widely as possible flat
upon the piano stool. Very gently move forwards, so that the knuckles and wrist are bent back. Hold for a
while then increase slightly and continue to hold. Do this with both hands at once. It is a yoga like
exercise. To prevent the fingers from slipping, it is better to use a leather or plastic stool, and to slightly
dampen the fingers. Then very slowly allow the hands to return to their normal curved position. Hurrying
this can result in injury. See illustration on page 23.
With the arms hanging loosely by the sides, shake the hands rapidly by rotating the forearms from side to
side. This can be combined with swinging the arms backwards and forwards.
It is sometimes suggested that practising exercises causes stiffness. This is untrue, provided we bear the
following points in mind:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
23.
Stretching exercise
Moisten the hands slightly. Use a plastic or leather covered duet stool with a firm cushion in the centre.
Place the hands in the corners with fingers and thumbs outstretched. Gradually lean forwards so that a
stretch is felt along the muscles on the underside of the forearm. Hold for several minutes. Come out of
the stretch very gradually. Do not attempt to bend the fingers for at least a minute afterwards. If a duet
stool is unavailable, the exercise can be done in a standing position using a normal stool.
Gymnastic exercises
Remove the cushion. Kneeling beside the stool, practise the following staccato touches, using the soft
surface to cushion the fingertips. The stool functions as a trampoline. After doing the exercises, return to
the stretching exercise.
Wing action: Use the whole hand first of all, then each finger in turn, many times.
Here, the hand and fingers are passive, the impulse coming from the shoulders and upper arms. Work at a
natural cruising speed (probably around 200 strokes per minute).
Bounced arm weight: This is the opposite of the previous exercise, with the shoulders and upper arms
completely relaxed, and the work being done by the finger muscles and the forearm muscles which move
the hand up and down. This will produce a stronger attack than the wing action. This can be alternated
with the wing action in order to give rest periods to each set of muscles. Also practise with one hand
using wing action, the other using bounced arm weight.
Combined wing action and bounced arm weight: This produces a much stronger attack than either
action alone. Again, try this first with the whole hand, then with each finger in turn.
24.
25.
hand behind, in a hanging position. The back straightens. At this point the wrist is high, as indicated by an
up bow sign (See exercise 27).
The phrase may be unaccented, or the accent may be placed on the first note (down wrist) or the last note
(up wrist). As many phrases begin on weak beats, accenting the first note lends an expressive syncopation
to the music. It is particularly effective in the strongly contoured music of the Classical period, especially
in Mozart. Accenting the last note (up wrist) gives a much stronger effect, particularly if it is played
staccato. Placing accents depends of course on the musical context, and it is helpful to mark the score
with down bow and up bow signs.
The hand and forearm always move in opposite directions, and this constant wave motion brings freedom
of movement and avoids stiffness.
When used with a single note or chord, the note is sounded at the beginning of the up-stroke (see p. 26).
This coincides with the tip of the wing action described on page 3. The note may be unaccented or
accented. We should never use an individual downward stroke of the arm for single notes within a
passage or phrase. This is a common failing among children, who sometimes play the notes with their
arms instead of using their fingers. For this reason, it is inadvisable to teach the wrist action in the early
stages. In rapid passages, individual notes are produced by the fingers, whilst the arm movement is
completely independent, and follows the shape of the phrase (down an the beginning, up at the end).
When using the finger driven touch and the unintentional complementary wrist movement mentioned
on page 24, the arm movement is upwards, not downwards.
For very long phrases, the wrist may also move during the phrase, following the natural movement of the
hand as it finds its way around the keyboard. In general, it will tend to rise when playing groups of black
keys and sink for the white keys. It will also rise as the phrase rises in pitch towards a climax, and fall as
the pitch descends. The rising is combined with an increase in arm weight, and is a gradual application of
the same principle used in producing sudden accents. The wrist movements should be determined
intuitively by experiment, and then noted in the score by means of down bow and up bow signs.
When a rest follows the end of a phrase, the hand is lifted off altogether, leaving the hand hanging in the
air. When the last note of the phrase is sustained, we hold on to it with the tip of the finger, with a
hanging hand. At this point, the finger, which has been extending towards the key, has sounded the tone
(at its straightest position) and slipped back a fraction, as in the third finger action diagram (p.5).
The wrist action in phrasing is not usually evident in very slow playing. At medium speed, it can be used
either without arm weight or in conjunction with the wing action or finger driven touch. In this case, the
up-down wrist action applied to the individual notes is performed within an overall down up movement
for the phrase. At high speed, the wrist action in phrasing can also be combined with a sense of even
transfer of arm weight, or, once again, can be done without arm weight depending on the volume
required.
Sometimes there is a feeling of lifting on a strong beat, similar to the action of some conductors. An
example would be the opening of Mozart Sonata K. 332. This is not a pushing up of the arm by the
fingers, but a lifting out of the fingers by the arm. Again, it is shown by an up bow sign.
The down up pattern can also be applied to phrases consisting of octaves or chords. Here again, there is
an up-down wrist movement for each octave, within the overall down up movement for the phrase.
This technique is especially useful when playing small, rapid groups of two or three chords or octaves. In
this case, the last octave of the group is played with a strongly accented staccato, using a sharp upward
wrist movement (see page 26).
26.
Gliding chords
For repeated chords used in accompaniment, we use a slow, smooth version of the wing action, beginning
with the back and shoulders, but without lifting the hand at all. The fingertips remain in contact with the
keys. The fingers extend (straighten) and the wrist rises, pressing the key down. The fingers curve as
they release the key, with a stroking motion. The whole pattern should follow in a continuous cycle,
giving a feeling of smoothly gliding from chord to chord. Where octaves or chords form part of a smooth
melodic line, they should be fingered like any other two - or more - part texture rather than treated
separately. Here, octaves can be played with the third finger as well as the fourth and fifth. Accenting the
top note of each chord produces a very expressive effect.
27.
accented, using a finger driven staccato, with the first chord being a quiet anticipation. The right hand of
Chopins Revolutionary Etude can be played in this way. When three chords or octaves are played
rapidly as a group (a favourite practice of Rachmaninov), the first should be played with a down wrist, the
second is at the bottom of the arc, and the third is played with an accented staccato up wrist. (See exercise
16, 28 , 41, 43).
Octave Glissandi
Octave glissandi can be played by people with very large hands by bending the tip of the little finger
(outward glissandi) or the thumb (inward glissandi) towards the palm of the hand. For the rest of us, it is
possible to play inward glissandi by bending the thumb backwards very strongly, so that the gently
curved underside rides over the keys like the front of a sledge. This is made easier by tilting the hand
slightly towards the little finger. Examples of inward glissandi are the end of Beethovens Waldstein
Sonata, and the first book of Paganini Variations by Brahms. Pianos with a light, shallow action and
slightly rounded edges to the keys lend themselves to glissandi. Outward octave glissandi are beyond the
reach of most people. A sane and well-balanced person would not wish to practise glissandi too
frequently, although there are pianists who scarcely fit this description.
Practice methods
The ideas in this section are well known, but are included as so many people lack any methodical
approach to practice, and simply use the time for playing through pieces at full speed. The methods
suggested are unashamedly rigorous, since, in the world of piano study, standards of quality are apt to
slide to a level which would be unacceptable in almost any other walk of life.
Keep a written record of what you are currently practising, including sections covered, speeds reached
and other details. I use a sheet of A5 paper with a soft pencil, and continually rub out
and update items.
Begin your practice session with technical exercises, scales, arpeggios and studies, then move on to
pieces. I always begin with very slow held exercises from Leschetizky, which warm up and stretch the
fingers, then move on to more rapid work.
Writing fingering on the score is the foundation of good practice, and should be applied to every note
except perhaps where a phrase is immediately repeated. A soft pencil is ideal for this purpose. The student
should work ahead and have the fingering checked by the teacher before practising it. Some guidelines for
fingering are given in the next section.
Initially, you may wish to go through a bar or phrase at a time, with each hand separately then together,
working out the notes. Fluent sight-readers may skip this stage.
For pieces, take roughly a page a day for slow practice. Try to make it coincide with a musical section in
the piece. Practise slowly and loud, with a finger driven touch or the wing action, as appropriate.
The metronome enables us to speed up pieces very gradually. Begin at the following metronome speeds
for the shortest time-value occurring regularly in the piece (usually a semiquaver or quaver):
66 80 96 112 2x66 2x80 2x96 2x112 4x66 etc.
It is of course much more difficult to play with hands together than separately. Therefore any practice
28.
regime which gives as much time to working with hands separately as with hands together is inefficient.
The above speeds could be used with hands separately then together, but some of the intervening speeds
(69, 72, 76, etc.) can be used with hands together only. Having reached a certain speed on one day,
it is advisable to backtrack to a somewhat lower speed the next day, and, using hands together only,
work up to the speed in question, before proceeding further in the normal way.
When practising difficult, rapid pieces, it can be advantageous to work gradually up to a speed faster than
the real tempo of the music. In this way the reactions are sharpened to a point where performing at the
normal speed will be relaxed and effortles. As full speed is approached, the increments should be
decreased, sometimes reaching as little as one notch on the metronome. For slow, complex pieces, start at
a very low speed and increase by very small increments. The metronome can be left ticking the whole
time, or, alternatively, it can be used to set the speed initially, and to check it periodically, but otherwise
switched off. This encourages the player to develop a steady sense of pulse, and allows the notes to be
heard more clearly. Practice should never be a matter of mechanically putting fingers down without
listening to the sound produced.
In difficult pieces, it may be impossible to reach the higher speed without first memorising the music, or
at least the most difficult sections. In general, though, the speeding up should precede the memorisation,
otherwise mistakes will be memorised.
Once the piece has been brought to full speed and memorised, several further speed ups with hands
together, starting at about half speed, are to be recommended. These can be played from memory, and
also sometimes with eyes closed.
Memorise everything. It focuses the attention and stops the mind wandering. Mental practice ( i.e.
going through the music in your mind paying attention to every note, without playing it ) is even better.
Use the following scheme to memorise a piece:
Go through the whole piece in 4 bar sections (or equivalent phrases), then go back to the beginning and
do it in 8 bar sections, then 16 bars, 32 bars etc. For each of the above sections, do the right hand in the
following way:
play it twice with the music
once by mental practice
once from memory
once again with the music to check
once again from memory
Repeat the above steps with the left hand. Then do the right hand and left hand once more from music and
once from memory, then repeat all the above steps with the hands together.
During all these repetitions of phrases and sections, do not play in a mechanical way, but pay attention to
phrasing, dynamics, touch and expression. It may also be possible to increase the speed during the
repetitions.
In addition, a rapid read through each hand of a short section, without playing, is valuable. Here, we are
capturing data rather than music, for example, the apperance of the notes on the stave, fingering and
similar peripheral matters.
Memorise the difficult sections before the rest of the piece, and run through them several times from
memory every day thereafter. Run through them by mental practice whilst waiting for trains. Closely
allied to Yoga, this habit is both productive and very soothing.
Having memorised the whole piece, play it many times from memory with hands separately and together,
taking special care to retain the left hand in the memory.
29.
Practise the difficult sections using some of the following special techniques :
First, go over the difficult section again very slowly and speed it up with the metronome.
Re- memorise it if necessary. Then, try to diagnose what the technical problem is, and use some of the
ideas explained earlier in this guide to remedy it. For passagework, some of the following are standard
techniques:
Practise the passage in different rhythms, for example, dotted quaver / semiquaver, and the reverse. (See
exercise 34).
Divide it into groups of two, three or four notes. Play these as phrases, starting with a down wrist and
ending on an up wrist. The phrases can be unaccented or accented on the last note. (See exercises 32
33). When using a group of a certain length (e.g. 3 notes), initially begin the first group on the first note
of the passage. Next time, begin on the second note, and finally on the third.
Passages requiring endurance, particularly rapid octaves, can be practised first in groups of three,
separated by rests, during which the muscles can recover, then gradually increasing the length of the
groups to 4, 6, 8, 12 and 16 notes.
Use adding notes: i.e. play the first note, then the first two, the first three, and continue adding a note at
a time, but always starting at the beginning of the passage. Again, this can be done unaccented, or
accenting the last note reached each time. (See exercise 34).
Play the passage normally, but accenting every second or third note. (See exercise 34).
For loud passages, practise with an accented touch on every note, starting slowly and speeding up.
Practise the passage with a double hit on each note. This may be unaccented, or with an accented staccato
(up-wrist) on the second note, or with the first note accented (up-wrist) and the second note sustained.
Where the same note is repeated rapidly, play the first note staccato.Use a different finger for the second
note. Play unaccented, or with an up-wrist accent on the second note. (See exercise 26).
Where there is a difficult leap across the keyboard, practise alternating between the notes on either side of
the leap. Repeat the process with your eyes closed. Where there is a leap, or indeed any change of
position, after a rest, the hand should move immediately into position before the rest, and wait there. For
rapid leaps, play the note before the leap staccato, as this allows more time to negotiate the leap.
It should be pointed out that when applying the above special techniques, we should select those which
are appropriate to the problem in question, rather than going through the whole list of techniques. To do
so would be like a doctor who gives the patient every medicine on the market, in the hope that one will be
effective.
30.
Fingerings which work well at a slow tempo may prove to be impracticable at speed.Therefore try to play
the phrases at something like a realistic speed when determining the fingering.
Sometimes, a fingering which may not be quite the most comfortable for one hand, is nevertheless easier
for the coordination of the two hands. Therefore, fingerings should be tested with hands together as well
as separately.
When fingering repeats, use the same fingering. Where possible, also use the same fingering for phrases
repeated at a different pitch, as in sequences, development sections and recapitulations. This makes
memorisation simpler. However, if the change of pitch results in an awkward or clumsy fingering, this
will have to be changed.
It is sometimes conceptually helpful to divide a continuous passage into smaller groups of notes
(usually 3, 4 or 6), each group having the same fingering. However, this may result in some awkward
hand positions, usually due the the thumb falling on a black key. The advantages and disadvantages of
this approach need to be weighed in each case.
In general, avoid using the thumb on black keys, as this forces the hand into an uncomfortable forward
position. However, some of the other points mentioned on this page will often override this
consideration.
Sometimes, a fingering which is less smooth or efficient mechanically is more suited to the expression.
For example, when a dramatic Bump is required, it may be better to repeat the same finger.
For octaves, use 5 on white keys and 4 on black, unless there is a very good reason to do otherwise. This
greatly simplifies memorisation, as we know in advance which finger to use.The slim fifth finger can
easily miss or slip off a narrow black key.
Changing fingers whilst holding one note is an undesirable and messy practice, but is occasionally
unavoidable. When it occurs, it is better to get the change over with as early as possible. This normally
involves the 4th and 5th fingers, and can sometimes be avoided by walking the 5th finger behind the 4th.
We memorise fingering together with the notes, so making numerous revisions to fingering can be
confusing. However, if we have a brainwave about the fingering of a certain group of notes, the new
fingering should be written in and the passage in question thoroughly re-memorised.
Finally, the editor is not infallible. Some of them are not even pianists.
Analysis
Having achieved a perfect performance, analyse the music in order to understand the composers
intentions. Annotate the score with points of analysis. Further discussion of analysis is beyond the scope
of this document.
31.
Recommended reading
The Leschetizky Method by Malwine Bree (Dover). One of the oldest and still one of the best books on technique,
particularly as regards the raised finger action.
Famous Pianists and their Technique by Reginald Gerig (David and Charles). A long and interesting survey,
particularly for the chapter on Ortmann and Schultz, who developed the extending finger action, although they
did not invent it.
The Technique of Piano Playing by Josef Gat (Collets). Meticulously researched but too long and detailed for most
people. It contains some good ideas and some less good ones.
The Art of Piano Playing by Heinrich Neuhaus (Barrie and Jenkins). Full of wisdom and a pleasant read.
Anecdotal rather than systematic.
32.