ELEMENTS oF GASDYNAMICSCOALCIT AERONAUTICAL SERIES Aetonvsauces or mee Arereant. By Clark B ‘tito Marane sto ‘Tessox Casevtos want Aretck "hond to. Mecmuvicy, Exareyy 0 ‘Aenonatecs, By Arte Dc Bussey Exoitoamce. By Bread “Sle. ssi Tatoo Arora ere By anes ov Gaswas By H.W. Le ‘monn and ev te oes repration ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS H.W. LIEPMANN A. ROSHKO California Iai of Technology GALCIT AERONAUTICAL SERIES JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. Now Werk Landon» Sreyconmmen © 161 A Rigs Reseed hs book oy prt her) an a Ed em Liteary of Genres Canoe Cant Number 565625 Editors’ Preface The sim of the present woe isto modernize and extend the treatment of compre ad aerodynamics which appeared in 1947 nthe GALCITY ‘eres under the authorship of Hans W. Lipmann and Alen, Packet, ‘The new volume includes a review of maay problems of high-speed aero= dynamics which have received incensed attention by engineers and sen- tits ia the ast decade, Te elifosbalive that nation to such exter- Sons inthe teatment of arodyamicproblens, the reader wil welcome the incision ofthe Ist chapter, containing a shor presentation ofthe funda- renal concepts of th kinetic theory of gases, and also the references in (Chapter 1 to some problems in aeothermochemisty, such a8 the La of ‘mass action and dissociation. Tt appears that cerain fundamentals of Physics and chemical Kneis are gaining more and more importance inthe fei of aeronatial engineering "Tals bok is intended manly forthe we of students in aeronautics, but ts hoped that it wil also be useful to practicing caginers and scientists ‘tho work on problems involving the acoyaamics of compressible fis. ‘Turoooxe vos: Karte Chant B, Maaxa ‘agree Arona Latrtry, Calor Ina of TengAuthors’ Preface Problems of ow of compressible Mud have ben studied for ong time, For instance, shock waves were investigated fn the last century, some of the hodogrph methods were stulied around 1900, and many features of rozl fow, supersonic ets, te, were known at about the same time. The fundamental frmula for the thery of thin supersonic wings ‘could have been ound in Lond Rayleigh’ “Theory of Sound"! The interest in this eld, however, was restricted toa very smal group of people. On the one hand the ual problems interested only few pists; he majority considered the subject closed and uninteresting, ‘On the other hand, she applications of gasdynamics were almost entirely restricted to ballistics and steam turbine design and thus intrested only a small number of engine. ‘This situation change radically during World War TT withthe develop ment of fast aircraft of mises, and of explosives wit age energy reae (Concepts fom compres id flow theory became sudden essential for avery large number of mathematicians, physicists, and engineers the Sed hasbeen developing and expanding at very rapid rate ever since the. "The Inteduction to AerodgnomicsofwCompressble Fluid by A.B. Puckett sand the senior author appeared in 1947. ‘That book, developed fom war ‘ning courses taught by the authors, was intended to farish a coerent account of the topes fom gasdynamis which were of prime interet for ‘eronatialapplieton at that time, For a numberof years now, it has been apparent that 2 new edition, with revision and extension of that materia, was needed. At the ime of publication, the bok was practically the only Eaglsh textbook onthe subject, but a number of exellent books have appeared since then, and some rudiments of compressible Auld ow ‘hn now be found in many elementary fd mechanics texts, Te was therefore decided to abandon a revision of the origin] text and instead to rewrite the book completely. ‘The choice of material today is such mele than it wasn the tite the Pieductonappred. Afr Sonne consieratin, it was decided to split she material into two independent volumes. One of these, the present ong, inches the fundamental material of gasdynamice bat gos no farther nto application han what i necessary tolllusratethe theory. We hpe this wl be fllowedevenaslybysnother @a AUTHORS PREFACE volume in the GALCIT series, more advanced and specialized, with particular erphasi on the aeronstical and mise els "Thus the present volime i intended to cover the fundamentals of gate fetzact the energy AE trom the system ant ifthe weight. The process ie iovribe tis very easy tod other similar situations, and indeed al atual or “epowonrns” proces are ireril. Ufone srutinaes these reversible proces, it ecnnes evident that the devition of the system from equlbrium daring the proces is of primary importance. A ‘motion like th string of «ui, sodden heating, et, induces cures {nthe wstem, ‘The term carn refers tothe fax of quantity ike het, ‘as, momentum, ete. A curvent af heat ows, if thete exists a finite tem perature diference; a current of mass ows, if thee exist ferences in Concentration of one component; a cure of momentum Hows if Uhre cet dierence in ety. ‘A Systm bin te of euirivm if ii fe of eurents. A process leading from one state to another x reel the sytem remains during CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS 7 the whole proces equilibrium; ie, ifthe work W ad the heat Qareadded. [in sach a way thit no coments ate pode. Swe an ideal reverble process can actually be elosely approsimated in an experiment. For ex- ‘mpl, instead of using the pad whee, 1 could be transferee to an in- flute system bya slow displacement of piston, so that the pesre and temperature remain uniform within the system during the whole proces. (Eseree 1 gives «simple and instractive example of an irreversible poe. es) “The changes of state discussed ete lead from one static condition ofthe system to another Te soften mach more convenient to conser processes hat proce at ately rate. Thief tur for mary measurements is tReradyeanics and bs enenlial for Gud mechanics Thus, instead of Ts) revebly, Se, bya slow addition or removal of heat. We then Gnd thatthe tmpertaret ae cortect for state 4 but thatthe pressures are diferent, say fy ad fo ‘We now move the patio sony toward the low-pressure side until the preurs ate equal” Ths ast step Bas to be cared out keoping the tem erature constant, Le, with additional heat transfer tothe sate Ths we anon the coin fin [B= feta pte 2 la T @ we (e2t +0") ci eee SRSA bow kfm -f,2 wenden 2) (1-390) But Pp is related to Ti, 7s by Eq 13 rine aes Hence the entropy diference becomes with 5 = R-+ co nse [Bf Ro non Tt BD Sn Sie Lf B- [Boson FEE! wy mans Now, TERE > 1, whenever Ti Te and oul to 1M Ty = Tr Hence Sp Sy except in the tevial cae where the temperatures are Initial equal For the st example of Article 18, che expansion ofa perfect gay one can show siiary that unin to? Sen atin CEP any (On the other hand, for the adiabatic, reversible proces of tile 17, E+ paV = 0, and hence Eq, 137 o¢ Eq. 157s leads immediatly to So Su 0. Consequently the function $ dened by Ege 1-57 of 138 has, atleast fr the eect pas, the expected property. Tt can be shown that this is equally tue forall posable thermodynamic ayes, The poo an be given by ting the sold Carol ele, or by the more elegant fand dret method of Caratheodory, For ths poo! the eer i eterred fo the standard textbooks in thermodyoamis, ‘We formulate the second lw then as flows (2) There exits an extensive variable of sate S, the entropy, and an Intensive vaable T, the absolute temperature. ‘The euttopy ference between two sates A and Bis given by Se -Q Se-Sn f 2Pena Setup cay epee ke ‘tParccnal ncn oeatenkirs rite wk eh hel caton Stet in woh puncte tbr ty ae eevee prs, 48>, tna inte eee han nd ten = 0 betdS> 0 Thani wate natin pve can ee. 138 - dQ - ssa f® em Fora perfect gts, 5 or the specie entropy s an be given explicitly as function of Vand Por p and 7. Like Band If, $i determined ony wp to an additive constant: So f FAP A f APS + cons Hee sop SerefoLenmeram (09 anv om sf EE, west a 5 yop ee ‘The above rations ae fora thermally perfect gas. Hit sls calorcally perfect (Constant cand the equations maybe written eons eoln T/T ~ Rint bess sno T/T: + Ring Dorasa) where (py, %, Ty) ae the conditions at some reference sate, 140 The Canonical uation of State. Free Energy and Free Enthalpy Fora small reversible change of state, we have T'S = dQ and thos a= Tas pav (te) a= Pas4Vap ea) agustoas 14a and 1b iavlve now only soriales of stat, sine &Q as been replaced by T'dS._ From thee equations it becomes clear that the ataal choice of variables fr Bare Sand V, and for Hf, and p. Thus covcerrs row reRuoprwauics nin (2-7 (Bj--1 oan (= ( (ua) Enuatons 146 and 1468 thus give co pain = 8 ws a Re Fo const. Rexp Gieyipvt= FE casa) » ee oe Hence Bg. t-te yields the caloric equation of state k= e+ const, and Eq, 1480 yields the thermal equation of state po = RT. ‘tis not always practical to use S and V, or S and p, a8 independent stables Its natural to ask whether one hn construct factions related 0, S,and ff which have V, 7 and, Tat natural variables, A simiar onsidraton led us already t ntrodace Hn Ba, 12, ‘We introduce F, the socalled free energy Gometimes called availble energy or work function), and G the free enthalpy (sometimes called ibs! lee energy, and alo thermodynamic potential) defined by" FeE-TS (498) u-Ts (1498)2 ELEMENTS OF GaSDY‘AMICS rom Eg. ha and 1-448 we ths ind dP = dE~Sér—TdS=—Sér—pav (1508) AG =a —SaT~Tas——SaTEVap (1508) Hence the natural variables are V, Tor Band, T for G. We have, anal ogous to Ba. 15, (9,--5 @,-7 su) For example, the spec fee enthalpy of perc gi (1516) a foat— rf E+ ering tot he pls) 1 follows immediately from Bags 126 and 1-3). ALL Reciprocity Relations Often very wef a relation between the caloric and thermal equations ‘of state isobtnine xsl fom the diferent form of the second aw Tds~ah— dp ass) From s = 6(p, 7) it follows that dem Fart Say and similar, since = (9,2), ah ae ten Bers Bay hence fom Eq. 158 1s (sey 21G-) ws uations 184 are called “reciprocity eatons.” From Bas. 154 we ean ‘liminate + by diferntnting Eq. 1Sta with respect t0 p, Eq. 1SIb With respect to, and subtracting: hus we get CONCEPTS FROM TuBRoDYNawIcs a oi ator Equation 15S relates the caloric and thermal equations of state For instance, using the perfect gas as test case, pass) ar ? sand hence of ? consequent bonny Relations simar to Eq. 158 cam alo be written for e(,). 4612, Batropy and Transport Processes Irreversible changes of state necessarily involve currents inthe eter “The increase in enteopy during an reversible process est thas be elated to these corzents ‘One may proced beyond classical thermodynamics and inguire whether ‘tis pomable to dene the rele of enrapy increase during the iereversible proce One can say that, during the proces eatropy i pwduced and Fein the system. In this way, one ca define «continuity equation forthe speci entropy, ia much the same way that one obtains 8 continity equte ta for the density. Nemaly, one can formulate aration forthe rate of ‘ange of specie entropy ina fixed volume oming to two contbutions: the net fur of entropy into the volume and the production of entropy inside the volume. Special examples of thi procedre wl be lf for ater chapters Hlre we are mainly Interested Jn the production term. Cleary the ro. uetion of entropy must depend an te “arent,” sac it vanishes if the furents vanish. ‘The curents, onthe other hand, depend on the spats) rate of variation of variables of state, suchas tempertare mass conces- tation ete, and on tnnapert parameter, such a heat condoctivty, dif svt, ete "The formal relations of entropy production have to satisfy atleast che following requirements: (@) The production must vanish if he curent vanish (@) The production must be postive, For the simplest case of small one-dimensional currents in an isotropic ream (which includes all us of clasial id mechs), this lends to the flloving rel. If denotes the rate of entropy change per unit* usunvrs oF cssonvasacs soe st myth fr te of candi, az) °" T\e, wie eth ce ent civ, The ny te on due to variations af momentum inthe direction of ow, ain round waves or shock waves, given by ayes 5 19" ian Conitons seep, Fa ipo py 22, Me @ ws @ 156) oe sing the rt la, Tas~ GE + p3v) <0 (ste) Tas ~ (GH Vip) <0 (st) ‘The notation 40, 5, etc, refers to a socalled “virtual” variation, Le, & smal change ofthe varabes compatible with the contains ofthe system From Eq, 131 follow specie conditions forthe "thermnyamicpatentas™ S,E HVE, an G lor vaious costal 1. Fora closed sjstem, eg, the expanding gas in a ied, heatisulated vesiel, JE = 0, 87 = 0, and hence asso bass) Le, the entropy reaches a maximum. (For any virtual proces Scan only Aecreas; hence has a maximus.) 2. IFW and Tor p and T are kept constant, we introduce F= ETS and =~ TS. Iallows fom Eq, 187 that in eqlibiam aee0 sr=0 BV parse) iGo ar=0 ao bcvso) Free energy F and fre enthalpy G havea minimum of equlibriam under Ue respective consent. concerts PROM THERMODYNAMICS a ‘These two case are the most important cases for out purposes, ters are of course, posible. ‘The study of thermodynamic equilibria was developed by Gibbs, who patterned i after the mechanical eqibriam conditions. LA4* Mintares of Perfect Gases ‘The working Mid In aerodynamics almost always mixture of gees, and the range of variables of state usally such thatthe gases ae nest perfect. Hence mixtures of perfect gases represent the most important {hermodynamie spats for aeronautical speation ‘Such a mixture i homogeneous sytem iin equim al variables of state are uniform throughout the system But the naturel nl 2 simple ‘ulm since the mses = ofthe component gases eed to be specified in ‘ition to the wut variables of state of simple system, ‘Thus we shall have, for example, BUS, Vax) (sta) Hm HS, .2) sis) If the component gases are ine, no reactions wil ocur between ther and hence fora gven assaf mittre the x wil be constants, dependent of temperatare and pressure, Tn tis ease, the mictre wil behave lke & Single pret gos, For example, ait is a mixture of Nz, Oy, and traces of A, C0}, ee. Over 3 lalely mile range of tempertores and presres, the ‘component gaees re inert andar can be treated asa single perfect gs ‘On the other hand, any diatomic as (or, of couse, any polyatomic ras) wl disociate at high temperatures and form reacting mistre. Ths trogen at high temperatures wil coma of = mitre of Np and N and the masses sy and sy present will depend upon the presre and temper: ture. The seis tue for chemically reacting gases ad als forthe prac: ‘sof onion, ‘Now Eq, '6le or Eq 161) gives a complete thermniypamic description of the mixture provided we know the a8 functions af 3, p and T. “This relation feraished by the socalled Iie of mac action which follows from the equilbrium conditions ofthe previous aril, ne wil be shown presently. "To apply the eqlibram conditions to 8 mixture me have fst to see how the variable of state of the compound system ate obtained fom thase ofthe component gases. A given mast of ps brought into a volume ¥ wil it completely the presure wil adjust sell accordingly. This ie characteristic for a gts ora pee 3, tis filing of «volume andthe adjustment of the preseire ae independent of the presence of anyother perfect gases nV. “Hence, ina ELEMENTS OF GasDYNaMIcs 1 minture of pevfoct gases one can assign partial pressure po the th Component gat. ps wil aly the pefet gar equation one = BR oon and the total prestre fof the mixture qual tothe sum of the patil resus oe ce Equations 162 and 169 ate known as Doon lw. ‘Now the spec energy and enthalpy of the ith gas depend only om he temperatare, which ithe same forall he gases. Consequently B and 2 of the mistre ae: £= Dem Dsedr) dite) BoD Sastr) Piro) "The apecic entropies 2 depend upon volume and temperature or peesure an temperature. The entropy Sof the mixture becomes $= Ls Yasir) as) Tse Dealer) bvse) ‘enc, in forming the entropy ofthe intare as the um ofthe component ntoopies, oe have to he litle carell a to which variables to chose Vand Pare the same fr al gases in the miture; but = V/svand pare ot the same, ITwe want to choose pressure and temperature as variables, ‘ne have to take into acount that each gas ha its own partial pressure pe uation 1.65 wil he the more convenient for vs to we Since wedo know Hand S,explily tram Eqs. 126 and 142%, we have a= Xa[ fear + oor] as) s-Ee[ fiat or the derivation of the law ofmase atin, we shal ped the recentalpy G= 1 ~ TS, which follows fom Eas. 167 und 148 dicey = Salat + ROI] aw) shore i writen short for wafer rfnd+ dor oor (ay CONCEPTS PROM TuBRMODYNAMICS 7 145" The Law of Mass Action Consider now a iste of reacting prtct gases. A vation s described by symbole relations ie: 2H 4 0252140 QNSN: at For example, two molecules f hydrogen plus one molecule of oxygen form two molecule of water vapor. Ixy 2p 0 are the mass of Hl Oy, and LO, respectively, we sce that a change ds snot independent of dry and di, since the reaction relation has to be sais, Cll, my my the tases of the Hy, Ox, ad yO molecoles and intdace a viable} such that any = Imad y= madd oo “Then any change in gives the proper relation between dey den and day forthe HuO eecton, In general, we ca thus inteoduce by: asm randd 0 wheres tan forth Integers inthe ection relation. ‘We are now ready to apply the equilibrium condition, We choose as potential the fee enthalpy G.Equllsum eit if for w given presure nd temperature, G has 2 minimum, Now G = G(p, 7,2) but p and T te fined. Furthestaore the can be expreted in tems of the known con- “tants rc and my and the variable A Hence the equlibriam condition econ: an we have oe : ©. x [Manenronitanrsing] 6m ‘The lst tras tobe written sine the f, depend onthe xan hence on 2 Gq. 162), butt vanishes because rings yy BBE oe Dane ht yee2” ELEMENTS OF GASDYAMICS but pW aRt wd p= DK ‘Thus because f= const “us the Sly, om Ey. 172 and £1 wh 170 Eman + rm np Linpom (193) Which i the lew of mass actin. Changing t the exponential, Eq. 1.73 becomes ppp por K(r) = exp ‘The derivation of Bg. 174 ed to Gide. Sometimes a s-alled “tan ard sate” fntradaced; Le erence reuters chosen foreach gus ‘We ean then subtract the expression» In y from etch side of Eg. 173 es zm(iy" eT) + RT In Be = a(T hich is the ee enthalpy evaluated at Tand pi, the “Standard” fee en- Uhalpy- "Thos Eq, 178 ssometimes written in the iteratre zn(t)'=-2 vase here 3 is short for Eammg(T, 5). For example, one may choose faq to atmoepbere forall Then Eama-- sy 1 Eola + Areal (078) ax where the pare measured in atmospheres and J refers to the “standard fre enthalpy att atmosphere” CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS » 146" Dissociation ‘As a spec, very important example, consider the dasucation of a &i- storie gue like onygen. At sulicenty high temperature (= S000°K), ‘he pa il consist af bots Oy and O and willbe a reacting gas mixtare. [Let z andy be the masses of Oand Os present in the mista. Consider unit mass of misture je, +t and introduce the "degree of dis sociation” @= <2 thas nra acing ‘Theenthalpy bof the mitur's thus given in tems of fy andthe specie enthalpies of © and O, by Be ah + (1— elke ha bethh~ he) POLS) Equation 175 i thus the caloric equation of state for the mintore. Tt ives the important result, t= hig, 7) because a= ap, 7)! This mise of poe gse dosnt bekae ie pee as, foe which depen T only. ‘The thermal equations of sate are abtaned fram na2areter 176) no2are! Since the moles mass of Opi twice the mleclar mass of 0, we bave r= 2 and hence fom Ba, 176 ponte Babe vam Hence the thermodynamic behavior ofthe mntue is determined as soon 5 a(9,7) is known. eis given by the law of mass atin, Eq, LTS The reaction equation s 2050, ence 4 = 2:94 = 1, and consequently Eq. 174 becomes ae Bann and, using Eqs. 16 and 177, we have fot _ Cr) ia 1A ge dein of 3.78 may De ound aE 110. par0 BLEMENTS OF GasDYNAMICS K(T) is given by Bq. 174 and hence sa known function of T.For out purposes bere it sficent to nate that K can be tabulated or potted for ny rection of the type conser. Knowing K, ove have in Eqs. 175, 171 and 178 8 suticient momber of equations to dative any thermody” amie property of the mixtore “Two more general atone can be easly derived for hi spec example (@) The het of dsscaton fv he eat every to dssciate unit sats of Os at constant pand Ts given by" Jom hh dar) ‘Tis fllomsimmesiatly from the Sst law: oh Pi rn vay— Bers sd fom Ea, 175 one obtains Bg. 1-79. ® an tae thus oe P4180 ‘To deve Ba, 180, we use Bs, 175, 177, and the reciprocity elation (Eq. 183) ap * Tar We gett nit. BT se Mapp ar and, wang Eq, 178 we obtain Eq, 180 directly ‘Both Ege, 179 and 1:80 canbe obtained in general and are not reticted to his special problem. “The heat of disocistion lis function of 7. However it variation with is often sal enough tobe neil nest approximation. Th this ease Bg. 18 canbe integrated and yk K~ cont, ctor (1300) Figure LS shone a plot on K vers 1/P for Op The curveis very neatly {straight lie end hence Eg, U8Dy is good apposition. lo/Re bas Cviently the dinesan of temperate and hence can be called a ebay (rae temperature for disiton, Bo CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS a rn ver /T fe ion (Deane LW, menton on Taerodnie pert of Tare Date Guy” NACA Tech ‘Naesit0) 16, Fo. 15 Dept of Scion wea luc tenpentue dancing diate (ata ten om ACA Tet Hate s70)2 LEMBNTS OF GASDYNAMICS 1 the variables of state of a dssacntng disomic gus are plated as functions of p and T the plot ders for diferent gases Tt instead of Pa reduced temperature 9p/T is intraduced, sgl graph can be used af Prosimately forall datomic gases Figures 1 und 17 show types plots for and te Tip ho. 17- Race nay vers eel emerte for inn di (Dusan rm HAC Tah ae 390) Applications of the mast lw to disciation of polyatomic gases oF to cases where netzal component gases are also present alow the same lines. Finally the important problem of fvizatin can be—to a good approxima: oman likes dsoriton problem For example assume that ata temperature stil higher than dssocaton ‘wedal with atomicoxjuen, ie, with thegasO. Ifthe temperatures become sicily high, the O atom may lose an electron «andthe gas becomes & mlsture af 0", and O, ie, of iowa O, electrons, and nett O. At ‘hese high temperature al tree can be rated as perfect gases, and hence CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS 2 sre have a reaction equation or teso, to which the mass action law, and th sme consideration as used above, again apply. 1AT* Condensation TInsome applications, pecially inthe design ef high sped wind tunnels, ses at comparatively low temperatures ate alo mportant. Hence = Ierogennus sytem composed of a gaseous ad a liquid phase ofa substance 1s sometimes of intrest in psy, The coresponding thermodyeamic rdatons can be obtained fm the ‘equilibrium conditions. This eonventiona derivation set forthe execs “ere we lok a the problem ina diferent way: In gatdynasnics we usually eal with & condeslg gas in which the iid phase i formed in minute ropes atid along ith the stream, and in which the vapor is ear & erect gus. Insicha case econ conse ee droplets like the mulecaes of ‘wry hesny gos and again apply the law of mass action to the “weactin” between the gas and the droplets; eg, for condensing nitrogen, Ns, the “teation equttion” i wee D Where D stand for “droplet” and miss very large namber, ven fr the all droplet of inter in guna, If we apply the law of mass action (Eq. 174) to this rection, we have es Pe xen asp orn rm hppa nk) =~ oma ~ ma) se mente tthe Sas fen tte Be. Now STA Sie pe ae For large the second term becomes negligible, and p= px + fe fi ‘Thus, dividing by m, we find Felon ame ad "RR np ding ar doves)ELEMENTS OF GaSDYNAMICS Heres the he o sprain” node exact like the heat of dss ‘ation in Eq. 179 and 180, Hauation 85 i one form of the Capeyron {ausas equation forthe pressure in pase equibriam, The latent est f tow isa measure for te energy required to break one ofthe droplets up {nto it component molecules. The simurty withthe dissociation and Toniation process ethos apparent, end thsi the reason forthe approach ven here Infact, I at dened here wil include surface tension fects ‘which ae usualy Inzeduced separately. Enthalpy, ent ee, can be Shtained exactly a nthe dissociation proces 18 Real Gases in Gasdyamies ‘Mort exp ests inthe theory of compressible Mud dow are worked out fora perfect ga with constant specie heat. Tais is done beestse the Simplicity ofthe working uk! makes pose to bring ot the physica af the dow without such cumbersome computational detail The thermally and cleialy perfect ane however, an ideation, and eel sass wil ‘eviate fom it oa greater ot leer degree ‘We shall devote thi lst article of Chapter 1 to brie rund of these sovcalled “rel gas elects” Fortunately the number of gases of interest in Seronauial application is comparatively ama, f we exclude combustion, ‘nally one hss to dea! with gases like Os, Na, NO, He, tc. seldom with 1Hs0 and CO; and very eaely with more complex gases than the last two ‘Urually the main interests with comparatively high temperatures and low pessures Thus the dscsson of “real gas elects” is much simpied nce canbe restricted to afew gases aad limited range of pressure and temperatre “The Thermal Egaton of State. The equation of state of el gas can be wtten formally in tems of the “compreblty Tactoe” Za fen (rsh) “Ths Z = 1 gives the perfect gas relation, Deviston of Z from unity are mainly defo two eects: At low tompeaires and. high preswe, the intermolesust forces become imprtant. These ate the salle va der ‘Was forces which account forthe posbiity of liqulying a gas. At gh lempertures ud ke pressres,dissaton ad loization processes occa {i012 ders from unity bectuse thew process change the nomber of ticle; with his formulation, isa constant reference value (#q,17) "he fect of the van der Waals fores can be exprsed in fst approx: ration in terms of the socalled “second vial coeficent,” and Bq. 1-8 concePrs FROM THERMODYNAMICS 3 can be written Pores ’ Beratung 38) “The correction term 8p/RT diflers from gue to as Deasse B/ is evi ently characteristic function for a particule gas. However, fr the Timed number of gace with which we are concerned, itis posible to Intruce dimensionless variables and eeyrite Eq 185 in universal for, Let To, joe denote the citcal tempertare, presure, and epee volume, "Note that 6(7) has the dimension of «volume. Equation 18S an be written in disensionlas variables yy Pe PTD Bre eee (86) [Now pn RT. = aa constant with very nearly the sme vale for the gases of interest (Ge alzo table at the er of the book). carly a univer faneton of Ty for Use gases. Consequently we en site B86 in the convent Form mig hg(E fr 1+ 26%) as (0/7) fs the same anton for al our sie, Fo numeri etinates the following values of ¢ ae convenient tata 00 Vales for fT; are ven in the abe at the ead af the Book. ‘The equation of stat ofa dissociating, diatomic sas was given in Article 116 (24 £77) fay Bette (138) Hence Z ix bere simply related tothe degree of dsecation a which in torn is fueton ofboth p and ‘The characteristic temperature fot Aisociation was define in fermn of the heat of raction lo by Bo = fo/R (The same definition could have been used for the effects due to van der Waa forces in terms ofthe eat of vaporization his, howeve, castomary tose the critical data inthis case) "Now fp is rlited to the force with which ihe atoms are bed within the role; J, to the force been mole. Concequently fp 3> aod 7 as fae nen rn. 14, FA. Gage, Toft und Ping Cy Arteta 50» ELEMENTS OF CASDYNAMICS hence the temperature sang in which dissociation eects occur is wsully far removed frm the range where the van der Waals forces are important. ‘Thus ine given problem in guudynamic one has tardy to worry about pomiblesmaltancous eect of both "The same reasoning apples to ionization, where the forces that bind an ‘ect in a atom and the corresponding fonisation energy, ar invaved. ‘The Caloric Byuation of Sate For perfect gas the caloric equation of se facto re) and eg and care rated by (099) Equations 149 and 1.90 are det consequences of f= RT. ‘The varia- tiom af y mith 7 cannot be given by thermodyamice but bas to come fom ‘experiments or statistical mechanics, Classical statistical mechanics Heads {ola simple expression fr cy in terms of, the umber of degrees of res dom’ ofthe appropriate moleclar model fel Chapter 14) on ttt aon) 2 For a smooth sphere ora ms point, y= 3. This sa good model for monatomic pases uch a He, A, etc, and indeod experiments how that for och ses =m cover a very wide range of temperatures, from near condesstion up to Soniation, ‘Thos sonatonic gases are very nearly ealorally perfect "The simplest model fora diatom molecule sa righ dumbbell with ny = 5. Distomic gases (ad len “ineae” itome gases ke COs) nea? room temperature asa have spciic heats correspaning to Bq. 191 with an However at high temperatures cy increases, with T, above $8, because the atoms in diatomic molecule ae not rigidly bound but can vibrate Caseally, this vibration would add 2 degrees of freedom, and we would expect to find nak 18tow terpenes yn dara [tense th tata desl ede stnaae™ Hoeves fe Sy Oey tect emp aon ia he ihr cK sd cho oe ape ont bre Rottinl ate ‘Serato CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS a “The tempertare at which the specific eat change from # to 4R, a4 well Gb te fenton (7) in the tao ein, yond dasa statistical Imecanie, but can be glen by quantum statistical mechanic, The [pele heat foro diatoms gs in tho range of temperatures between. di ‘ation and the veg f van der Wal ects is ely represented by: ot, [ann i+ Lana oan where 6, denotes characte terperatere for the vibrational ener. (Waues of for diferent atomic ase ae given ip Table Tat the back of the book) Equation 192 shows that for Te 1/2, an for Posen cy/R—9/2 as expected. The statisti origin of Ee. 192 out lined in Ace 107 “Tatomie psc like 1,0 sbow salar beavis however they start vi 6 degre of ieedom, ad hone the constant term § = and more Unt one mode of vibrato are usally important Finally, ay devkaton in te thermal equim of tate from the perfect as rnton alerts the caloric eqiaton of tte, since bath are rated by Seiki best 5 7@), sing the equition of state othe frm of Eg, 184, we have arthermore the difernce cy ~ ¢ 7 R, because fom Bq. 122 ec) (e+rZ) ry g ad thos eran a “This brit discussion inietes the Limits of the applicability ofthe perfet 2s approximation. ‘Summary. (3) Atlow temperature and high pressures, a gas becomes hermally aod alrzaliy imperfect due othe intermolesar forces. Then Ze tant k= hi) {@) At high temperatures and low pressures, Z= 1 and k= A(P), but= Hf, te etn oh ah mae Sethe tapencre Als hgh engen, 2 o b= ,7bse of ie stk pana gs CO tes ery and aly per TET wtp } Ft mi tin ma lS ‘One-Dimensional Gasdynaenics ‘Wet po yh main cng with he ‘SEOSESS acy 2 ibe td cy le sof os! eal ese 4 = A ad Popo pein Sin et cine he Nomis ot wel poet ls ‘Son tv yao it ce Ees 2 ‘Silo ts eyo ge a an seas ero geet en he ‘Sietinsnon tle Webern Cpr obese atne eta ekee ‘ncaa bt ee oh Meats "ee ‘remand ont tne wc anda te pe” ELEMENTS OF GASDYNaMICS 22 The Continuity Bquation 1 thefo in the tbe of Fig. 24 seedy, the mass of lid which pases «given section must eventually pass all the other sections farther down- stream. This i simply a statement of the law of conservation of mass [At any two sections where condition are uniform, the mass dows ae eq that ie pimids = pode deo “This form ofthe continuity equation is very general, since it holds eve i conditions beter the sections are not uniform. Ifthe ow i uniform at ‘every section, the eatin may be writen ud = const. = we 22) ‘nd applied continuously slang the tube. Ie may be dillerenisted, to give ‘he diferentil form ofthe steady continuity equation, 4 Liomay=0 des) 1 the fow is nonsteny, the continty oqation is obtained as fallow, In Fig 22 the mass contained between sections 1 and 2 isp, and in @ ua pike Lise _— oso id nose 0 10.22, Flow thaagh be meme crt ete) Th et eet te a rag 1 ‘minis the ow through 2 tha is the net indow,t a @ = Zoona) ax = 2 (94 80) ‘does nat depend a time and may be divided trough, to give Sua) + 2 toa) pes Weare craig aca wih the exes maybe dt er een he tons ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNaMICS a 28 The Energy Equation In Article 18, the fist aw of thermoiyamies was used to relate the ‘eulibrium conditions in a throtling provas. This isa flow proce, as ompared to cases like the reversible expansion experimen, also described in Article 18, n which the equilbriam states are static, In the later case, whereas in the throttling process hah ‘The derence between ther x duet the “ow work inthe attr ese “Thus for flowing filth ave thermodynamic quan the enthalpy, rather than the intra ener Ts the thaling proce of Ate 4 the fow was asuned oe Sow that its Kinetic energy was negigible” The extension to abitary Bow spends may be made by imply iaciding the Kinetic eneray Jn the total oer ofthe Bi. The erly y of he id defined ae the enthalpy that null be menued yan “lserver” moving ib the Bi. The con ‘on of equim tat reve to this bscrver there sould be bo currents ofeoay, momentum, ee (Are 13). Tes ao ay € ince extra beat edition inthe eqston ant low are hangin the fo, and thus to obtain the energy equation or one-dimensional Bow. The deus, which may be compared wih the JouleToomson procs of Arise 18 ra los ‘Wesel for the "yste” «dente orton of ai (Fig. 23), betwen sections {and 2a Ge loner prt of the figure, is aystem i shown Bounded by pions atta 2, stead of ul. ‘These are eqlaentthe Sid they replace, and they lp to carly the work done onthe sytem, wh como a eit a of Ol ‘uti the sal ine interval n whith te i is paced to eon bounded by sections sad quantity of et aed. According to the ene, 4-+ mo done ~ cea of ogy es) To compute the work assume that the volume dpacl at 1 isthe specie wm m comeponiing to «whi mas. "Then, for edly cond lm the dp coeat a 2ial eit aay tala vou The we done onthe system by the pistons, daring hs dsplacment, it~ pa (There might be adiona external wor, ona chine between {end 2, bat his il be omitted) Weave then, Work done = ps — pre eo) Finally, we ave to compute the change in the energy ofthe system. The2 ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS lowing uid possess not only nr enrgy« but suo bine energy 4? (per unit mass). Thusits lal energy se 4a, per unit mass, Com. paring the ener ofthe nystem after the displacement with that befor, t ai T 4 en | I XK toe 71a 1,25 Sem for clentog ery rato in Sow. il be ten that there has ben am increase of energy, + dun, carespod ing to the displacement from 2 to 2, and decrease + dH at Io The set rents Tncreas of energy = (e+ Hn!) — (ek ba) 2) “The energy equation for seady owt is then atom t= Gt iw) tie) 8) “The notation may be spied by invodacing the enthalpy, beet e Thea ohana det jt a) [As shown inthe fiat, gi “external het,” which is added from outside the walls (eat of condensation, chemical reaction, etc is inluded ink) {Te eu fo some Som deepen Cape ue 7.8). ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMI a org = 0, we have the adiabatic nergy epation not Ba = hat det bes) Equations 28 and 29 relate conditions at two eri sites (1) and (@) ofthe Aw. They or valid vn if thre re ison ise, hea anor, or ther nonepiira conditions bean cectone 1 and 2, log as (1 and (2) theme are eulibrivn ste, ‘equlbrum exits all along the ow, the eqlibeam equation is valid continously and may be writen But = const 10) which applies to every section. Tt is then pose to welte the diferetial form Me badeno 100) 1 the gasishemally perfect depends nly on and the equation may be elt udu= 0 2108) it i alo colorialy pret, eis constant, and s0 aT + i? = cont perro (A gus whic i both thermally and caloially perfec wil sometimes be Simply called perfect, excep i cases wher the distinction must be made explicit.) 24 Reservoir Conditions "The constant in Eq, 210 may be convesently evaluated at a place where td the Bid i in equiriam. "Thus BP = ba en “The quantity hy cll the slagnaton or rz endl fo it mu be the enthalpy ina lege reservoir ike that stated in Fi, 24, where the ‘locity ia practically er. Furthermore, i there ino heat addition tothe Gow Between the two eservoits in Fi. 2-4 en also the vale ofthe ethalpy in the second reservoir That i, So aiabatie ow, kya ew) “This realy no more than the result obtained forthe throttling process of Article 18. ‘The “resistance” or “thro” i now the conpecting tube between the reservoirs, which we shall preatly consider in more deta« ELEMENTS OF GasDYNaMICs For peel gas, h~ eyP, and the energy equation is oP Mit = elo a) where a isthe stagnation or reservoir temperature. Fora perfect gs, the temperature in the two reservoirs are the same, no matter what the respective pressres may be, that T= risa) 1 the ga isnot perfect, Eq, 2438 doesnot necessarily hod but Eq. 243 dot. According othe second law of thermodynamics, the entropy inthe second reservoir cant be sale than in the Est one that vom m0 en “To check the consequences fora perfect gas, we hae from Fa. 14%, So s9= Rin gulp cola Po/To 21s) “The lst term i eo since T= To, and thus i i necessary that pip'o2t it) “This agrees wth te intuitive notion thatthe presure in the downstream ‘eaervoir cannot be preter than that inthe upstream one, Thi eu tually true for any ga, since i fellows from the deiion of entropy? at so that an increase in entropy a constant stagnation enthalpy, must result in a decnase of etagnaton presure. He-) ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNaMICS 6 ‘The ireversibl increase of entropy indicated in Bq, 244, and the core: sponing decrease of stagnation presre, i due tothe prducion of erapy inthe dv between the reservoir. Only if there are no dispatveproeses, thats ony the fw isin eullrum throwghout, wl there be no produc tion of entropy. ‘The exuality signs, 9 = 50 and p's = fo apply only to sich an iuentope flow. “The coniton that we have been calling reservoir of stagnation condi- tion are also eal aa conditions, eg. total pressure. ‘These terms are loapplied ina broader sen, ta define coadions at any pont in the ow, ot notesarly atthe reverie. The lal tal conditions at ony point in Ie fw arth cndtion ht wold be atained if he le thre were brought to et isi. For example in an adiabatic ow of a perfect gas the loa stagnation temperature is everynber To, but the local tagation pressure is smaller than or at moe eal of the value depen on the amount of dsgation trick the lds undergone op to the pit in question. Since the imaginary local stagnation process is an isentopl one, theca spt cry ty anon qe hes avy ha ad thu eis not necessary to we the subscript. Fora perfect fs ths the oa entropy fread to the otal prewure by Eq 215, thats are -Rinp'lte dese) since T%p = Ty, Thus measurement ofthe local total presure furnishes Ineasure ofthe entropy ofthe dow. Unde suitable condions the measue- tment may be made by sneans ofa snpe pitot probe (ee Chapter 5). or stagoaton condition to exit it ot esough thatthe welcity be x0; ‘tao aecessry that equilbiam candions exis. For example thet= ‘motte inmered in a Sow will ot measure the loal total temperature, ten though it brings the ow to rest on ts surlace, for the Hud at the furface is a0 in astute of equim: the large viscous stress and heat {tanaler which are usally present corespond to large “currents” of enegy find momentum. Solace presues and temperatares, inthe presence of ‘eco sear and het conduction, wil be diseased in Chapter 1S. 5 Euler's Bquation in thiscecton we shall apply Nevrtons nw toa Bowing uid, Te states that Force = mass > acceleration ‘We take the Eulerian viewpint, that sme observe the acceleration ofthe ‘uid particle as it encounters the varying conitos inthe tube though which it lows.“ BLEMENTS OF GASDYNaMICS ‘The acceleration isthe time rate of change of velocity, and is de to ‘to elects. First, since conditions vary long the tube there is a velocity gradient du/ae in the dvecion of tow. ‘The rate of change of veloc [Proportional otis gradient an to the pend with which the particle moves ‘through it. Thus the acceleration due wo “convection” through the velocity aadient is e Second, condtoas at pte section may be changing, ifthe fw is non: steady, or nonstationary. "This wil ves moneationary term, au a ‘The acceleration ofthe patie, then, in general, a +0 216) BP) ae deoanae BO) PrLowae © » eo [Next we have to compute the force the particle. Conser the particle shownia Fig. 250. For thissimpe shape the orc inthe y-direction eay compute 28 ad). Dg by 4 tne fe we ante ts el weg “a. ily deg Sg yt ne forme ma ery “This reuli valid for «partie of any shape for example the one in Fig 2254, as may be prove by an application of Cas aw (Chapter 7). Tae "he resales valid for the particle in Fig 2S, and thus for a diverging or ONB-DIMENSIONAL Gasp AMCs " converging stream ube, ‘The st result eal proved diet, by taking Into account the prewares onthe inlined faces ‘This computation af the force des not include any viscous terms, either ‘hearing stresses onthe sides or normal vicou trees onthe end ston, and Bq. 217 applies only if these are negligible, tht is, the fow ie "The expressions forthe free fx and acceleration 6 may now be pt in Newton's law which, written for unit mass, i ply wah ye ata pa oe ‘This called Baers putin For steady flow, the fst tem ie zero. ‘The others are then total deriva Liver nd may he writen ween pam) | Eyt ‘evaluated later. For the moment, it may be noted that for incompressible ‘ow, p = pi, ad Bernoulis equation has the welt known frm in integral form, const (ois) low + 9 = cost ass 26 The Momentum Equation Tes ote convenient to observe the ow through «space defined by certain fixed surfaces and sections, a4 we di when deriving the continity uation (Fg. 22). Fortis punt of view, one neds an equation which ‘scribes the changes of momentum ofthe Mud within the “contol space.” ‘This may be obtained by combining Buler's equation with the continlty equation as follows. “Maltplying Buler’s equation (218) by p4 and the continuity equation (24) by wives, espectvey, Adding thee,« ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS sional momentum equation, ” a 2 nt a 2a B tut) + 3 ota) = ~ Zoned 8 (outa ot =nntad~ v— tf 04 fomereettante toner seen = [508 de 2 (Fig. 26), and the last integral may be evaluated by defiing mean pressure, fas Thos 2 uayae: #7Aa — prmi®Ai) = (puds ~ Peta) + falda — AL) 8 [mre th = = a le 4) “The efthand side ofthis equation i the rate af change of momentum in the agac eter 1 and 2; cot of wo terms be conto am ree tany change inside the space and the eontibution fom transport wrfus of mementrm into the space, though the end sections. The ight. fond side ie the force in the sdreton, due to the pressures on the eo ‘Sections and os the wal or sendy fa the fst tee in Bq. 249 8 210 ‘The integral form of the momentuia equation is actualy more genta than bas been indicated far, ance it valid even when there ae fice toma! fortes and regions of dsipation aii the contol space, provided hot thee are abvent atthe reference section, 1 and 2. This generality rane for the Kelling reason. The itegraton ofthe diereatat momen- ONE-DIMENSIONAL GasDYNamics o ‘tom equation corresponds physically, to a summation of the forces on ‘adjacent Sui elements, and of the dows into them, as strate in Fig. 27. The forces on adjacent intra! faces are equal and opposite, and so they cancel inthe summation. Similarly the inflows and outows through adjacent faces cancel in the eommation. One left with the fore and the fx atthe boundaries of the contol space. If there is a noneqalibium region ide this spac, dacs not alec the integral esl. ‘ ’ Tia at ben + cnt fi ait foto FL fa mtn) 0.27 Meng tesa lane ment the cote ct. ‘One sometimes takes the integral momentum equation, instead of Bale’ ‘uation to be aiomat, a we shall do in Chapter 7. or lady flow in dact of conta! are, the momentum equation be- comes especlly simple: pa — piu = Pm a i220) 21 Tsentropie Conditions as stated ia Article 24 that ow which is aiabatic and in exud- rium isentropic. This may be vere from the energy and momentum Ccquations which have been derived, For adiabatic, nonconducting fom, the exergy equation dkpade=0 pple ll along the How, and sinarly in the sbeene of frtion forces Euler's equation udu dplo=0 is applicable. Elimination of from these two equations gives th ration betwoen the theemodyzamie variables, ah dplo=0 But the entopy ofthe flow is related to these variables by Eq 153, fom vehich 1 dro} car apip)=0 2 const ea)0 ELEMENTS OP GASD¥NAM«ICS long the ow. ‘Thus a adioatie oman, nonconducting flow i en ropa tha cate then, either the momentum or the eneegy eqetion tay be replaced by Eq. 221, For a pevect gua thie condita may also be writen #1 0= (alm)? = (T/T (2) “The conditions of equilibria cannot beste atsined in areal, non ‘uniform flow, since a Aid partle must adjust itself continously tothe ner conditions that it encounters, The rate at which the adjustments rust be made depends on the gradients in the flow and isa measure of {he degree to which the Sidi out of equim. "This fara, i fact, ‘an exact measure ofthe rat of production of etropy. In ene-dinensioal ow, the entropy production terms are (ee Chapter 13) FG) st we) “They depend on the squares of the velocity and temperature gradients, reepectiey, and a are always postive. The ceficients and # are the Coeficiente af viserity and conductivity. Tn a teal uid theve entropy production terms re never strictly zero, since gradients are always preeat an since fad Bare ite. However, the idealized Rls, hich are obtained by neglecting them, form a large a seta part of te subject ater of aerodynamic, nd of fd mechanics in genera. ‘The usual way of expressing tht idealization isto dseibe ‘he fuid as nonviscous} and nonconducting (@ = O and f = 0). “This Weaization is etter, the amaler the actual values of and However, this sa reatve ster, for even in Bui of extremely low wi. only and conductivity the nonequilibrium terms wil not be nligibe in regions where the gradients are extremely high. Such eons must occur in llreal ows, They appear at boundary layers, wakes, vortex cores, and, in supersonic domo shock waves The moder progres in the under ‘standing of fu ow isn ange part de tothe dacoveryof how to analy ‘hese narrow, nonequilibrium regions party and then it them into the onvicousRow fel 28 Speed of Sound; Mach Number [Aparanterta is fndamental in compres ow hon the sd af wom Aul beso the et cape, he pe ich fall itunes (eaves) are propagated though compres eid Tintin to the compro the ad gen by e-(2) diaz at aang sendin” ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS a "The disturbances produced ina uid by a sound wave (more precisely, the temperature and velocity gratients produced) are so small that each fit Patil undergoes «nary entropic proces |For purposes of computing {he wave spe the process asumed tobe strictly entropic (oe Aties ‘2and 56). Accordingly, the derivative in Eq. 222 evaluated with the isentropic relation. Ina peso gs thie P= const 9? ging eo 2a yar e225) In a flowing Ait, the speed of sound isa significant measure of the fects of compressibility only whea its compared to the speed of the fo. ‘This introduces a dimensionless parameter which ia called the Mack number, Ma ale Diz2sy tis the most important parameter in compre Bow Uae. {isevident that A wl vary from pont to point na given Dow, nt only because a changes ut also because « depends on the local condition, according to Eq. 223. The oal vale ofa tlie tothe loa value of ‘sccoding to a Yaton that wll be obtained Later. Kor the present, need ‘only be noted that in aiabatic flow a increase of w always comesponds to fo ocense of the flow spe exces the loa sped of sound, the Mach number is agreate than Land the How ie ale supersonic. or Mach numbers blow 1, ts abo, 29 The Area-Velocity Relation Some af the elects of compresiblity are simply demonstrated by con- sidering steady adiabatic ow in a stream tbe of vazying area (Fig. 28). From the continuity equation (2.2) we have ea eye 25) Pima For incompresle ow, dp ~ 0; thi redaces to the sng sult that ne crese of wl i proportional to decease of aes The nay in which {hiss mole by compresbity may be found by tng Esler ation 7h en say th he hg a anand wave ae i tt patel cao eo un he Sah panna mo cly a he at ate ‘Saladog. Inet, theorist erste hg uta partie seen {ret mutt ep the wok acd tenprtre passa For empl {SS ney a ota empitade wave neue iat, he ea be ‘soem ge hat he ces aetna ene2 ELEMENTS OF GaSDYNAMtcs (2.466) to ind the relation between density and velocity changes. We may reaite it inthe form} = eet wa Bo Bee ot ae ee nrc the Mach ums, ges ears a) The role of Masa measure of compresbity i well ustrated bere, At very low Mack numbers the density changes ae so small, compare t the Yelocity changes, that they may be neglected in computing the fow fel, that is it may be considered that p = const. Equivalent definitions of ncompreaible dow” area = oor = 0 ‘Substitution of thi latin in Ba, 228 gives the aea-velocty relation de _ audi eo -M hich shows the following Mach numer effects (1) AtAF = 0, decrease in area gives a proportional increase in veloc (2) For vaoes of between O and fy that iat suole speeds, the ‘eltion i qualitatively the same a for lncompresible ow, « decrease of re giving an increase in veloty, but the eect onthe veloc iselatively ‘grater, sine the denominator ies than 1 (G) At sopersnie speeds, the denominator becomes negative and an Increase of pedis produced by an nee of ara. For one accustomed t9 ‘inking is terms of incompresible fow, this behavior may appeae quite remarkable. Its due tothe fact that at supersonic speeds the “density scenes faster than the velocity increases" that the zea must increase to maintain continuity of mass This may be sen fom Eq. 226, which shows that for MF > 1 the decreas in density is eater than the increase in velocity, “There romain the question of what happens at sone sped, If = 1. Consider a tube in which the velocity increases continuously, from 2e0, sand eventually becomes supersonic. The above discussion shows thatthe tbe mst converge in the subanie and diverge a the spersonicportin Jatt at MF = I thee most be a oa! (Fig. 28). This i dea also trom Eq. 221, which sbows tia, at = 1, du/ucan be nit only if 4/4 = 0. ‘The same argument appli to the case whete the vlcty decreases eon- \insouly from supersonic to eabeonc. The important coveuxon is that dian) ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYWANICS 2 MC = 1 canbe atid only af «rat of the tube (The inverse does not told that is, AF not necessarily ata throat. But, fi isnot chen Eq, 227 shows that throat coresponds toda = O; that i, te velocity attains «maaimum or minimum thee, depending on wheter the flow is ‘ibzone of supersonic) "Neat = 1 the low is very sensitive to changes in the area, since the denominator ls Eq. 227 5 thea sal. 240 Results from the Energy Equation Te was shown in Article 2 that in adabaie ow the energy equation fora pores gost is Wher = ate am) With the expen ot = 1 Rothe sed of sound his ves 4 deo) “Then, multiplying the lst equation by (y ~ 1/6 gives atte prot Bay tote de2s0) “oe i eats (4,226) may thn edo aa ee feat=tany"® os m= (1425 tar) dest wey" des) {In Bgs. 228,229, and 2.30 the vale of Ty and oy ae constant throughout the flow, co that they aay be tnken as those inthe actual retervoe. Tn igs 231 and 282 the vals of fy and py are the lea! “reservoir values.” “They are constant throughout oly if the fw is Benteopic. "The celations between the thermodyaamie variables and the Mach ute ae tabulated in Tables Tt aad TIC at the back ofthe bok fo ar (= 10) oatend of the reservoir, we may ute any ther point in the fow for crating the constant in the energy eatin. A particulsty usefal one {Fhe point where AF ~ 1, that a doa. ‘The low variables there are Called “soni and are denoted by the superscript *. Thus the dow spod nd sound speed are w” ad, respectively. But, since the Mach number ‘ie leary pre inst pubes Tinta otBLEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS fn 1, these are equal, that iw" = oY, The nergy equation then gives ay dette Comparing with Eq. 228, the ration between the speed of sound inthe throat and the reservoir i 33) ey “Thos fora given fi the sonic andthe reservoir temperatures are in ed ratio, so that 7* is constant throughout an adiabatic ow. For air the ‘umedel values are Te/To= 0833, ot/ag= 0918, eas) ‘The sonic presure and density ratios may also be obtained by using the ‘entropic relations with Eq, 23 or by atting M= 1 in Bag. 231 and ae 2(2Y osm a Ga)” oe. oo G) eee Of cous, i snot necessary that trout actualy ext in the Bow fr the onl values to be ued a reference, "In some problems, pecially traneonie ones, the speed ratio w/a is con= venient. This will someties be denoted by A = wot 236) (This ia not suey in greement with our convention for tarred quantities, because acconding to it, A = 1. However, this Hcene is convenient aod should cause no confusion) ‘The relation between A and Af may be obtained by diving both sides of Eq, 283 by w, The resulting expression tay be solved for Mor AP, giving tt A Peaare) ae 2 posi -G-0 (ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS s From these it may besces that MY < Lor M < and M* > for A> 1 211 Bernoulli Equation; Dynamic Pressure ‘The energy equation (228) may be remitten by using the gas law p= Ror tocliminate 7. This gives y & Ly per This eqution is vali for adiabatic Sow. For isentropic conditions, the relation p/p = fo/as" nay besed to eliminate resltingin tay (2 pee at a 3) Equation 28 je the integrate Bernoulli equation (2.18) “Tn compressible fw, the Game precrare Ip a po longer simply the Aierence between stagoaton aed watic pressures, a in the incompresible fase. It depends now on Mach number aswell as on the static resure ora pets gs, the relation is ert hee) y= byow =3,(2) we Sattar = 1(2)s “The dynamic pressure is wed for norman pete ad fore cote cients, Forex the prea cxicet (pete eee fat pate sa(-1) bom wher U an My arte efeence voy andthe Mach ube. Foreplay 3 ay be tn soe he neo he leat Mach number 2p = pany onsale] e00 Finally, introducing AG? = Ufo? A= aA/at and sing the energy uation to eliminate othe pressure coufisint may be obtained inthe form aalete(-a] 4] em6 BLEMENTS OF GaspYNastics 242 Flow at Constant Area Consider adiabatic, constant-aea ow (Fig. 298) though a nonequi rium regan (down shaded). If sections 1 and 2 are outside this region, then the equations of continty, momentum, and energy’ are put = pate ate) ot punt pak oot ean) yt dt = at dat eng ‘The slain of chase gives the relations that must exist between the owe Durante atthe two sections it wil be worked out presently. ao (4 ab : @ e o @ ro, 29 Marg chang cam contin in ost are Som) Un fe conn iter oa teen nonemity espe, () ermal ‘Sects sho nove tora to ion Sean “There suo retiton on the size or details of the dspstion region so long s the reference sections aze ouside i. Tn partcala, it may’ be deal- fae by the vanishingly thin region, shown in Fig. 29, across which the low parameters are said to “jamp."”The contol sections Land ? may then be brought abit clo to it. Such a elacotinity i alld» shock ose Of cure, real ld cannot have an actual discontinuity, and this ‘is only an idealization of the very high gradients that actualy occur ina shock wave, inthe trunstion from sate 1 to 2. ‘Thewe severe gradients Doduce vistous sree and heat taser, Le, aonequileum conditions, Inde the shock. "The meckanist of shck-wave formation aswell as some details of cond tins ini te dsspation region, wil be dicased later” For application to moet aerodynamic problems ts ufiint to calclate the jumps ia the ceulibium value, and to represent the shock as a discontinuity. Since the sefernce sections may be brought arbitarily near tothe shock, the ‘devie ofa constant area ct ino lange needed, at, thereat always ‘oso hock nave wala eer ya dot ain Fig 298 srctarintene tadorepi eg ig 210) The owed sigh ine rte alien ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDPNAAICS 7 ppl locally to conditions on eter side of «shock, provided ti normal torte seatline (Fig. 290), ‘OF course, the shor relations may be applied to eulbium sections of real constant-aen dct, such a the ne stain Fig 29, but its neces ‘ty thatthe (clon foceson the walls be negligible, since there ate no ‘tition terms inthe momentum equation, An examples the consantarea supesonie fuser, in which an adverse presare gradient reduces the wal Itction to negligible values. The difsson ocurs trough a complicated, tree dimensional proces involving interactions between shock waves and ‘boundary layer, For eqirum tobe stained the diter mast be ong in curious contrast tothe normal shock, for which equilibrium i reached in a ‘ery short distance. Figure 2108 shows an example of compresion ina constant-aren duct; Fig. 2108 shows a contac, an example of a normal shock wave. 243. The Normal Shock Relations fora Perfect Gas Equations 2-41 are the general equations for a normal shock wave. It wil usualy be necesary to solve them numerically Gee Brercse 36). orev, for @ gas that is thermally snd claricaly erect iis poeble to obtain explct solutions im terms of Une Mach number My ahead of the shock ‘ising he ws ofthe moments egton (28, peste ty pn ant pt ich area eth cont equal, es eee gear Here the pect gelatin = Pfs bn wed. “Then and ny beep yng ory unto ors pret a why at ty ot pacos After some resrangement there is blaine the ple relation sa = ot diosa) “This known asthe Prantl or Meyer relation Tn ters ofthe spot ratio” = m3, Us equation is Bey = ae, 08) ‘Now Af*2 1 coresponds to M 2 1, and thus the Prandtl sltion shows that the vloty shane acroas normal shock must be from supersonic to subsonic, or vice versa It ml be town later that only the former” ELEMENTS OF GASDYNautICS possible, as might be antsipted since the elect of dsipation can hardly such ast incense the velo. The correspondence between A* aod M was obtained in Arie 210, hes ot pw set = aw When wed to replace M's and. Me in the Prandtl equation, gives the relation betwen the Mach numbers 1+ Mat = bossit The ratio ofthe velocities may’ alo be writen quite simply oe ae (46) This together with Ea. 2-4, wel in the derivation of oter expressions For instance, ung the continuity equation, the ratio ofthe densities mom ot DM 2 pe Dane re a> = pa? the ast step being due fo the continuity equation, Tn dimensionless form, Finally, with a1? = yP/oy and Eq, 247 for aa/m, the presire jmp i lit In the form Boh 8h Boge) es) BO NaH Te ratio Apu/P is often used to define the shack srengih. One may also use the ratio ® by Boe ae 2480 not Yess) “The tempeeatur ratio may be obtain fom Eqs, 247 and 248, wing« [BLEMENTS OP GASDYNAMICS Tals = (PaloNulo_ Aleroatvely, starting dzety from the eneey ‘uation, and sing Bq, 246, we Sd, after some earangement, oP Te, 2O-DMHN ygy i. fen + Ga ae AED bow) Finally we may compute the change of enttopy. From Bq, 14 it may be rewrite inthe form eel" By using Bas. 247 and 2-488 for e/a, ‘Then a Bet eia(1¢ Ben) aemrern Seles] ® ‘This expression & all exact. For values near Mi = 1, is smal, and the expression may be simple, sioce each of the terms in parentheses is like I+}, with «<1. Bach of the thee terms obtained by the log sithmie product role i like In (L-}), which bas the sees expansion e—€/24 8/3 +---. Collecting terms, it found that the coeicients ‘of mand me? are eo, leaving aoa 24 sigh onder tems RT GtDs that non, ty weno “Gti toa Since the entropy cannot deceuse in adiabatic fon, Eq, 21 shows that A, > 1. Thus of the tro posible obtained eal, only the jump from supesosie to subsonic conditions is posible. Examination of Eas. 2247, 248, and 249 shows thatthe corresponding jampsin density, presse, and ‘emperatare are from lower to higher values, The shock is sd to ‘ompresthe flow. TAn portant result is that the increase of entopy is third order in an? 1. This may be writen im terms of shock streogth by using gq, 248 in Bg. 251, whence nen, 2t (any sn OWR-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS a ‘Thus small but ite change of pressure, fo which ther are corespond- ing frstonder change of wloity, density, and temperatre, gives only a thinorder change of entropy. A'weak shock produces a neay Bentopic shange of sate. Fitlly we can find the change of stagnation or total pressure. Sine Tog = Ty the change of entropy is rated to the total pressure, 8 shown in Article D4, by 41 igh gin nte 253) ite fea = As/R= — i oe We ae ate ha pe te ste —n(1 8), sss t/a som OF aagy) zr a tt ‘Thus, small entropy change is dee proportional tothe chang of total resure follows thatthe change of total presie is alo tied order ia the shock strength, "The exctexpresion forthe ratio of total pressures may be obtained fromCHAPTER 3 One-Dimensional Wave Motion 34 Introduction Disturbances create ina fi by @ moving body are propagated ocom- rusicated to other parts a the Bid. The motion ofthe disturbances ela {ive tothe fui scaled ve mation, and the peed of propagation is called the wove sped. ‘This the medhanis by which the various parte ofthe boy interact withthe uid and with each other, and by which the forces on the body are establishes. ‘Ths, wave motion under alprobles offi ‘motion, though it not alwaye convenient nor necesay to describe it plc. this chapter we shal study only the cate of one-dimensional motion, Ina tbe of eonstant area thatthe case of “plane waves” Since some of the examples may’ be generated by the motion ofa piston inthe tube, they ae sometimes called “piston probes.” Theres ofthis chapter are not exsntil to the following ones, in which sxe shall agin return to the cace of steady Bom, fom the conventional Arodynamle viewpoint. But awtudy of wave motion, even in the simple one-dimensional cite, i help in understanding some of the undesying ‘mechanisms in two- and three-dimenona steady Bow. ‘The motion in & Tube is alio of considerable practical importance la connection with shock tubes, startag process wind tunnel 84 The Propegnting Shock Wave Tn Anile 213 we studied the flow conditions across a shock wave, suming it to be stationary, as ustated again ia Fig a, ‘The Bd Als though the shock with speed a. Alteratively we may say thatthe shock s propagating vou ike fad with peed.” This ilstated ore ‘plc n Fig. 1, whichis obtained rom Fig, 10 by a wnform velocity ‘tansormation, "The id ebead ofthe shockwave Is a ret the wave is ropagting into withthe wave spot ” 1) nd the Au behind the wave is “llowing” with the spend aman ow OWE-DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION “ ‘The sate desta, presures and temperatureson ithe side of the shock are aotafected by the transformation, and are sl elated by Eqs 27, 248, and 249, Thus, a shock wave propagating into a stationary Ou sets it nto motion and raise is pressure, density, and temperature re am sata Ro. Stason a propetng sic (@) Stack etna Ad 1) emry Condens el) agin the So in ‘Ic may be asomed thatthe Bud behind the shock wave i followed by a viving piston, moving atte spoud a strated in Fig. $1. 1 fact Ail the conditions that we have calelated are stiied by the motion ‘hatrated on the 24 diagram (Fig. $6), ln which the piston is start imputeively at time = O with seid a Tt establishes chock wave which rune abe a the speed che pressure onthe piston i The eegion of Conmpresied Hui, between the shock wave and plstn, increases in length at the ate (= a) “Even the piston attains the speed gradually, rather than pale, ‘onform sate af motion is eveatualy attained, since ponunformiis in the compres region catch up tothe shock Int. ‘This elect wil be iscated in Article 310. “This example of «snowing piston iustrats the general elect describeda BLEMENTS OF G4SDYNAMICS in the introduction; that i, a moving body establishes a certain wave motion and a coresponding “piston pressure” on surface. “The "jump relations aeroe the shock, wich were obtained in Arile 213, may be rowlten in terms of andy by using the tacsermation equations ($1). For instance the Mach numberof the shack i B= e/a, where? = (dp/dpie For apliation to practical problems it i often more convent to se the pressure ratio f/f a8 the basic independent parameter, All other ‘quantities may then be computed in terms ofthis ato ad condition inthe Uundtarbed fui. For instance, by using Eq. 248 to relate fs/ps tothe ‘Mach number, th shock veloc, fora perfor gas is eo anes (Pe BY 2) ‘The density rato and temperature ratio ae given by the Rankine Hgonot relations (Beercse 25) 2 os rR bow rhe i cy behind he ki 11, S4and eee heme fg Ee a(n_;)| ZH G-)iss oo (ita Awe sat dnd oe or wich tna prea jumps very tt Bema noon ONE-DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION s ‘The oer dstrbances are then correspondingly small, 2s may be seen by ‘expanding the above equation in sere and retining only the fist er in ‘p/P. Thieves os ow (eerar) (69 ‘The last equation shows that the speed of very weak shocks is mesly equal A try srong shack is dfn as one for which the pressre ratio fu is very large, Th this case we have (600) 88) Gee) 2h oat (oa) 3 One-Dimensional Ieentropic Equations ‘The propagating shock wave iustrates the folowing general problem: ‘Given the form af the "turbance" at some time f ow does it change sulsoquatly and what azo the elation between the variaes quantities involved? Tn general the problem cannot be reduced to 2 corresponding stationary one, asin the preceding example, and the solution mst be obtained from the nonstationary equations of motion. We stall frst on. Sider the cae of adiabatic, nonvacous motion ‘The diferent equations of contimity (Eq. 24) and. momentum (Pq, 248) were obisined in Chapter 2. Fora tube of constant cro sectional are, may be factored ot ofthe continity equation, giving 2 ee Spt uZ mo bon)“ BLEMENTS OF GaSDYNaMtcs ule’ for of the momentum equation is lie at 12 row) “This equation, without friction tems, is valid only ifthe velocity gradients are aml enoogh to ensure that friction is negligible Tt implies further there being no external heat action) that lbeatropic conditions exis. ‘The lentropi elation between p and p may bell, forthe presot inthe funtion form | ew p=) Since the presure thus depend exlicly on the density, i snot an inde event variable ofthe problem, aad may be repiced jn the momentum auaton by mesos of the relation 2 dee ae” tp 2 * 69) inher the pressure density elation, dp/d is represented by ‘We define th disturbances or "perttbaions” to be relative to the por- tion of the Bail that ia rt with w= 0, aloes of ciferent from cr, and values ofp diferent romp, ae called perturbations. They sre not necenarly eal ls convenient to introduce the defniton nt) 1) ‘The dimensionless quantity 3= (~ u)/n is called the condosation.| i a, in et ay Sen(Et)tmzeo ot um, 6, ow a ee “These two equations determine the reltonbatnee the fundamental dis turbance quanti that bythe pole syn a08 te eondestion& ‘The prose I ete to Fly te eto rllion;fr poe gs, ae ° ou) yearn ox Similarly, the temperature is obtained fom saber (e109) The entation ut weal ee dg i rom ent ONE-DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION o 94 The Acoustic Equations “The equations obtained inthe ast article are exact insofar asthe motion nay be cosideed fctinless and nonconducting. However, they are ot sendy integrable, the principal ditialty beng due tothe nonlinear term, such as w(u/ds) and t(@u/25), a which the depndent variables Appear as cocticlent of thelr derivatives. ‘The equations canbe finarzel, Ahi considerable slnplifeation realized, by making the assumption of ‘mall districts or instance, assuming #1, it poublein Fs $11 to neglect #(u/32) compared to O4/as. The tema 34/3 and w u/3e ar of the same order fod may alto be aglcted. (This willbe made more precise later when the relation between and Fis worked out) The a, appeatog in Fa [11 my be expanded in Taylor series about the value ain the unde turbed id, that 5 4 (8) 4 (£2) yoy = 08+ on( 2 2 @),+ Gomer +o), “Thus alder fom its vale inthe unsure fi by a smal quae tity and nthe lat tein Bq 11 ny be apoio). ‘For small disturbances, then, the exact equations of motion may be spprosimated by a set of equations thet contains no nan inear terms bisazs) besa) “These ar called the acon uation by wietue of the fact thatthe dix turbmnces due to sound wave are, by dtaltion, very smal, ‘The corresponding approvimatins in the entropic relations (Eqs $:10Band 3100) fora peer gas ive +H 139) Fritono (G13) Either ofthe dependent variables may be eliminated from Eqs. 312, oe oe ince B= FH roa ierenintion gives jt ae ag dette)o ELEMENTS OF Gasprwantics and simialy ow) ‘This equation, which governs both # and & calle the wave epuaton [tis pea for phenomena In which 4 "turbance is propagated wlth A definite signal tdaciy or sot tlc. "The signal velocity here, a8 we hal se, “The elation ofthe wave equation may be writen in very general form itis Fo Fe au) + tet os) >is150) ere P and G ae erbivey facts of thes arguments. This may be {ected by diet subtuton in the wave eqaton Let €= =~ ai and sasha he 3 gh do an ae at ae were the pine deste diferentiation with react to the angen. ening in ths wayy tay be shorn that @4/0# = oP") snd Yea = Pao that Be. est ‘Sins the oan foe w may be wren tt of two arlary tenes, al-F' +6) = flea) + oe + 0) G1) (Of cure, fand gaze rete to F and, for w must be related toy the cignal equations (12). These are satisfied if fear G80) o (ise) sas may agin be checked by direct substitution 125 Propagation of Acoustlc Waves The character ofthe solution (Eq. 3450) may be stated by Gest {aking @'= 0, thatthe density distribution at time is given by a) ‘This represents x dnterbance, or wae, which at time = O had the (ri trary) shape =F) nd which now atte has exactly the some shape, but with omesponding ints displaced a distance oto the ight (Fig. $2). That isthe velocity ff each point in the wave, and thus of the wave ilo. (ONE-DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION « |A-wave suchas thi in which the propagation veloty iin oe direction, is called a simple wove, If its sesimed that = O and that the wave described by Fe Get ow) one obtains simple wave propagating to the lf with speed ay. The general Solution (Eq. $15) ea superposition of the two kins of simple wave, one ‘| /, TF) — o o 0.32 Sinplwaveintn las.) Riseredppgning 4g? “i ata pags are, = le a. ea of which propagates tothe lft and he other tothe Fight. Any acoustic trave may be resved lato two simple waves, The method i illustrated in he example of Arce 38 "The lines in the plane (Fig. $2) which trace the progres of the ‘waver, tha the ines Of slope de = oy, are elle the characteristics, of the wave equation 946 The Speed of Sound “The quamity «= apap called the sped of sound, o acoustic speed, since itis the spend wilt which ditarbances propagate throogh the Mud. In the equations fiom which thie rit was obtained, in the preceding aries, twas assumed that ction fs negigible, and ao fhe result app ‘able only to disturbances which aesall enough fr the assumption to be ‘ali Souod wave at, by dentin, "small enough"; the stron is that the velocity gradient de othe disturbances bes small that retin forces ace nelle, and that n/a 1. TE folows that the motion in a sound wave is ientropi since the eateopy production which opens on the aqazes of the velocity gradients (and0 ALEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS temperature gaint), is luo aegis the presure-denstytela- ‘ion in sound wave must be the ieieplc oe, anda should conectly be ‘The apie of onary suble mnd iamalnogh s that he a prediction of entoy fi csp snd Eq 310 vey aust {orconpatngthespet of propagation. Avesta thee or sna fii ample my be ates fn By 3 ‘The parameter lass cen on cmpreibl low thy bese sei nay, the prema desire for te fui ised im tat hepa om te monte, Arties 29nd 2) By eno te ebttin 2 _ dae _ ie as” par “ae ‘The ue of the total derivative imple that pis esp «function ofp, that Is, p = pl), while the intzoduction of implies that this presse. ensty relation is the isentropic one. Thus the above aubnitution is valid only for isentropic Bows, Ta eases with fiction, beat addin, ar any nom lientropie pros, the pressure depends also on entropy,» = Pls 5) and then a a nt Ge), {n which th entopy tem containing 3x appr exp Fly fnay eased tat o may alway be elated from the equ ion of tat, ing Eq 16. Fora psec gus (Eq 18) thi gies = ve = vet is often wed os replacement for the temperature, fr instance, in the ‘oer equation, bt this abetiution ie wai oly fora pecect au When cvaluated for air (y= 14, R= 1718 felb/lug" {his relation gives for the speed of sound the value 1095 fjsee at T'~ 500° R (41°F) a= BB m/sec at ‘The values at oter temperatures may be convesietly obtained fom these {Pico ta ey) le cng ged ONE-DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION " aavh {07 Drenue and Pare Vole ina Sound Wate ‘The pressure distarbance which accompanie the density wave may be obtained from Bg. 3154, fora pect gat Its Sones ean by ung the ration “Ths thepresre wave bas hese shape a he density wae, dflerng nly bythe nant ator 9- ‘As te wave progres roe the i, the prewure dtrbance sets the id inmotion ving velo wich led the pre ‘This i not to be confined with te wave sna, which i ordinary imc higher. "The eorespondig voi in the sack poem (Aicle $32) ae tp ‘Aspe wave, #= F(2— ou), propagating to the Fight, produces a veloy distance which om Eas. 345 w= oF(e oi) = 08 ot Ina ema propagating we, w= ~G(e+ 0) = 0 cis) “These relations betwen andthe tw kindof single wave, are shown in Fg 33, ‘The vais pats of the wave ae called conentins o rractnt, sependlng on wheter the density i ighee or lowe than the wndtarbod dena “Te ct thatthe wave profes on the ful depends on the saat ofthis density (and premue) dstution and onthe deaon of motion ‘the wave. Thus the portion of a wave tat eee the density at en called compression, anh ck deren the dey Sn esonson "The corepontingdstrbain of parte veloc, shown in Fig. 33, ar¢ ost vis19) for compressions and expansions respectively. Tt may be sen that acom- ‘Ths he in he fa the gant dene in E3106 ‘rom hak ay been tat 2 22 wh maa poe wate 8 esi compro al th term fn B91 1 tithe et ofthe mnie {Sree in bnig Ee 912 ELEMENTS OF Gasp¥wantics pression accelerates the ld inthe distin of wave motion, wherens an fapunson decelerate t. In the general ase of « ponsimple wave, which is {uperpostion f two simple waves (Eqs #18), the ration between parle velit and density is »_F-6 are ie wariable a pace an time. or later ference it may be noted that inthe imi of vanishingly small istutbances the pertorbation quantities may be writen in diferent rs [ee i | ie i is 88. Thmrnting ns ins scaninavn (Rha pepe eve Png og a seve ay) liter) prpaging wave! F= Gl 4), each a orm, and ¥ are replaced by the diferent! quantities di and da/p. and Fags $19 and 817 ate then written dun ta m0) G20) foom which we may’ slo obtain dp = sep dn om 358 “Linearized” Shock Tube ‘Tillustrte the application of the acoustic equations to a specific prob= lem, ennider the shock tube (Fig. $4). ‘This is simply a tube whichis Avda by a mentrane or diaphragm ito two chambers in which the pret ONE-DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION n sures ae direst. When the membrane i nuenly removed (broken), ‘wave motion is st up. IF the preure diference so small that the ‘mation may be approximately described by the acoustic uations, the sok tbe might be called "acostic” or "ngs" ‘The exact eg: ‘on far shack tube are abtined in Article 12, twee fan ere) pine co, P34 Acme mode fk tbe) elem: (oF dagen; (te “Si tne ‘The low-presure chamber (1) may be taken as reference (fy = 0). At the initial time 1 = 0, immediatly after the membrane i removed, the wave bas the shape shown in the figure, that ia “step” datrbaton of lensty. "The particle velocity at this ist instant is everywhere 210 "Thus the description of the wave at = O's given by >of Ht) aoe F0 + Ge) = nt = { (2,0) = aiF(x) ~ a1G(x) = 0 ‘The sinutanu ton ofthe eqn et Fee) = ce) = sate) = B28 fh ese hac ged hk ie ow de i Ae” LEMENTS OF GaSDYNAMICS “Thus the description ofthe motion at any subsequent toe given by usar He) = Valeo) +ibletow) = lh ance cat 0 Fe mei! ° sD ar le, 8) = Baxi ~ ox) ~ forinle + ax) = Jmdoi al p) and lower tha a in ‘eins of rarefaction. Thi means thatthe wave distorts asi propagates, the region of higher condensation tending to overtake those of lower Condensation, ae shown in Fig. 6, In repos of higher condensation, the ‘Character ines (Article 38) se inclined more, since the slope iavere}y ‘proportional to the wave see. Th terms af the compression and expansion regons deine in Fg. 33, the net eet isto stgpen compression repine and to Aaten expansion ONE-DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION 7 ‘regions, in which the charctcstic lines converge and diverge, respectively. Ina corpralan eon the characterises woud eventually cos ening to the situation shown for f= f. But this would be physialyimpossise, {or it implies thee vais of deat ata given paint x. Actually, before this happens, or eves ele the station of =f reached, the velocity ‘ad temperature gradient ia the compression regions become bo great that Irion and bet tonfrefects Beem mprtaat. These have diusve Seton which counterncts the stespening tendency. The two opposing ‘fics achieve a balance, andthe compression portion of the wave becomes “stationary” in the sense that it propagates without further distortion. eis then a shock ave In compresion regina, the isentropic rations ae vali oly upto the tine that friction and eat transfer frst become important. On the eter ‘hand, once «stationary balance between difasve ad stepenig terms has ‘bean eached, the conditions acrezs the wave front are piven by Che shook ‘nave relatos of Article $2; the conditions imide the shock are discuss in Arlee 1512, ‘The intermediate, nonstationary, sonsenropc interval ‘a be treted only with the fll opatatianary equation, including frtion fd heat talr terms and in thi ese isthe most compliated one, or finite amplitudes, then, there is an important dierence in the behave of compression and expansion waves. A compression wave tenis to stepen and reach "stationary" state in which tno longer ientropi ‘An espanion wave, oa the other hand, alvays remains isentropic for it tends to fatten and o further rode the vloty 2nd temperature gradients never achieves «stationary conn, carespnding, in shock wave {heory, tothe fet tht Chere ate no “expansion shocks "The mechanlams at work bere are basally tne to thas in the two- dimensional, steady supersonic ows tobe Acute in Chapter 4 and the rstling fects are analogous. Far example, inthe expansion regions of steady, two-dimensional supersonic Bow, the characteristics or Mach lines ‘iverge, wheres inthe compression regions they converge to form a shock nthe shock wave motion dacussed in Article $2 it atumed that the piston is set into motion impulsively, with the velcty a and thos the hock wave startet instantaneously, with the speed Tt may be sen bow, fom the preceding diacusaan, that, even ifthe velocity is attained ‘radu, so hat the cmpresion isentropic a re, the steepening eect wil eventually establish the same shock wave a inthe impulsive case. In ae, this fect wl alma tend to steepen an smooth a wave in which the pressure incre. For example, the complicated motion in the inital Instants of am explson or in the burting of © shock-tube diaphngm {ream influence in supersonic eld vey help, for allows lows to be Anaya or coustedcted step by sep which sa method that snot posible fn th abeonc cae a“ WAVES 18 SUPERSONIC FLOW s 42 Oblique Shock Waves \Westhall ist investigate the condtons for a stationary shock wave tobe Sligue tothe How dzetion (Pig. 41). This could be tented in the sare way athe normal shock Arle 13) drety fom the eqiationsof mation, ‘aking into account the addtional component of velocity. However, sme ‘alevaton can be avoid by making se of the normal shock rests inthe Iolloing wa of or 1.41 How thnghanobluesck wane (esto of wy copes (Sj ementonl amencatre| 1 wniform velocity = i superimposed on the Dow ld of the normal shock, the reultant velocity ahead af the shock may be adjusted t ony Sliretin snp by adjusting the magnitude and dinetion of fois taken parle to the shock wave, a shows Ja Fig 1a, the resulant velocity rad of the shock iy = Vig? # and its indintion to the shock is fsven by 8= tar! (4 /e). Nowy since isnot the seme as uy the in- flination of the Bow after he shock ie iferent fom that shed, th i he hw tune abroply at the shock. Since ws iv alvays les than a, the tara it slnays towards he hock, abd th angle of daecton, dened in Fig. 1s priv. In part () ofthe figure, the fw of (0) hasbeen rotated so tat the init flow direction is more conventionally aged “The relation forthe conditions before and after the shock may’ now be etermind eal, sace the superposition ofa uniform velocity» does not ‘fect the static pressures and other static parameters which were defined for the normal shock (Article 213). ‘The only modification is that the inal Mach number i now fy = 9/0, and that ay = 2 sa oF asing wn “Ths wherever m/s, occurs in Has. 247, 248,249, and 250 isto be re6 BLEMBNTS OF GasDY‘vaMics sce by Mf si. ‘This gives the coresponding relations for the oblique Bock pe tobias GDM SB pon hat 21) MASEEB— La i GFF Maaep MEAT beo besa) (sia? — 1) bas) 1+ [rey aemen- of Ge DaEaiNt a PMY feSiaaiire| "=F «9 In other wor the rain of the ttc thermodyaame variables depend ny onthe normal component ofthe velo. rem te normal shack “talyi, ths component must be supesont, tat If sin 2 1. This lise minimum sone ination fora given Mach amber The mem trove ination, of cone, is ht fors norms shock, = x/2 "Ts we {ive fore ever nil Bach number, a range of posble wave angle, « For each wave angle 6 (at given Af) there is corespoding deletion sngle The relation between Shem is obtained in the following article "The Mach number Mf after the shock may be obtained by noting that My“ wx/on and (Grom Fig. 10) tht fag = Masia (26). Thi isto be substiuted for Mf in Be. 245, giving 14 tot atsots Mint — 2) = —> a “ph sin? 8 — 7 [Nameril values ofthe oblique shock relations for a pesect ga, with ‘y= 140, nay be obtained from the cars at the end ofthe book 49 Relation between Band @ rom Fig. 4, the follnng two relations may be obtained (44) wavas ty surensoxtc Flow ® weg-n=8 oa ning an wg ony a 42 ge as Tes DWE? yy und mF DM 4 & J taon ng a Woven 8 For given Mf this san ili relation between @ snd 3. With a litle friginometiemnipaation, it may be rewritten show the dependence of explicitly, an? sit = 1 MPG + ow 2B) +3 “This expression becomes zero at = #/2 and at = sn“ (1/2), hich se the limite ofthe ange dened in Eq 46 Within this range dispositive, {Ind must therefore have a maximum value, This is shown in Fig. £2, in tno di10) ents” BLEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS which the relation betwee and 9s plated for vatius values of Mf. For (ch vale of Af there a asim vale of @ 119 < Bu, then foreach Value of 9 ard AF there are two posible sok tions having diferent values off. The lrger valu of gives the stronger shock. On Fig #2, the strong shock sotions ae nicted by dashed lines ‘Also shown of the Bgure isthe loess of soins for which Mp = {the sltion with song shod the fre bames subsonic. Tn the sation vith weak shock the ow remains supersonic, excep for small range af Tralee of alighaly amar than ase "The elation between # and 3 may be obtained in another seal form by rearranging Eq. 49 in the following way. Divide the numeratr and denominator ofthe right-hand side by (/2)4f2sin 3, and then save for 1 yttueg—9 a1 tame" 2 ane Further reduction then gives Se 2 singsing , Mi? sin? 8 Ma been oral ecto an hit maybe apposite by anesitp = (Face) eto Eis very large, then 8&1 but MS 1, and Hq, Ate reduces to rth partly au) 44. Supersonic Flow over a Wedge Ts notviacous flow, any stealing ca be replaced by a sled boundary. ‘Thus the oblique shock Now, described in the lst ail, provide the solution to suprsoni wince, asillstated in Fig. 43, Forgiven ales of fy and 8 the values ofan Mp ae determined (Charts {and 2). For the presen, we shall consider only caes in which My > 1. This resect the oblique shock tothe weaker of the two posible coe ad also requires that @ be smaller than uy The other (stronger) satin, a well athe case 8 > Ban, wl be dace later ‘By symmetry, the dow over a wedge of nose angle 29 is also obtained (fg. 4535). ite not esensil thatthe wedge be symmeti. In ig. 443 the ow on each sd of the wedge is detemined only by the incinton ofthe surface oa that side, This i general real: fie shock ware are WAVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW » tach othe noe the upper aud lower curfaces ore independent, for eres fo lnence on the flow upteeam ofthe wave as 43 Sueno ih queso (6) Comer) mee as ae ‘ack; @) nee tng ef tack 465 Mach Lines “The portion of Fig. $2 that we aze at present considering (Me > 1) shows that a decrese of the wedge ane 8 corresponds to a deeeae ofthe veave angle When # decreases to ser, # decreases tothe liiting vale (ig. £4) whieh sven, rom Eq. 44, by the expression Mitainte 120 @2) ‘Te wl bese that dhe strength of the “wave,” given by any ofthe jmp ‘quanchea (Eqs. 42-45), also bacomes aero ‘Thee iin ft, no distur. ‘bce i the ow. In Fig 448 there i no longer anything unique about the point Pt might be any pint nthe How. ‘The ange wis simply a character [tke angle awocinted with the Mach number Mf by the sation \ dos) 1 called the Mack angle ‘The lines of inclination» which may be drawn at any point in the How~ ELEMENTS OF GaSDYWAMtcs fe are called Mach linet, nd, sometimes, Mack waves, ‘The Inter name, however, misleading for ii often wed, ambiguously, forthe weak but Snite waves that are produced by small disturbance. Ifthe flow i not uniform, then varies, with Mf, and the Mach Hines sre curve. ‘At any pont Pin the Bcd (Fig. 446), there are always two lines which Intersect the sieamline atthe angle (In threimensional Bbw, the © o © ie 64 Comparten fob sha (9) Osu sho doe deen) do ‘oso wo Mache as #0 (lead ihe ring Sch Ins at ah sity in a heb ‘Mach lines define «conical surface, with vertex at P.) Thus trowdimen- sional supersonic flow is always associated with two amis of Mach lines. ‘These may be conveiently distinguished by the labels (+) and (—), as show in Fig. 4-4. Those inthe ) set rum othe ight ofthe streamline, fad those inthe (~)set runt the left. They ar alia called characterise, {ame tat derives from the mathemati theory ofthe hyperbole dif ali equations tht dscrbe the ow. They are in fact, analogous to the two fam of characteristics that trace the propagation of one-dimensional ‘eaves in the 24 plane (Arle $5). Tn Chapter 12 i wll be shown how the characteristics system proves the bass af a method of computation, Like the charctesis in the plane, Mach nes have» distinguished irction, thats, the drcton of flow, which the erection of "inressing tine" ‘This elated nan obvious way tthe fac that there sno wpe Intuence in supersonic ow. WAVES 1N SUPERSONIC PLOW ” 46. Piston Analogy ‘The analogy between characteristics in the acovatc problem and Mach tins in two-dimensional eapersonicfow applies also to other aspects of wave propagation, as shown in Pig. 5. Tn Fig. Ss thea pane of Chap ter 3 has been rotated 0 thatthe Fx is horizontal. ALE = 0 the piston ie started impulsively with vlocty ay producing a shockwave which runs hea atthe speed cg ‘The traces of the piston and shock wave in the {ef plane correspond to the wedge surface and oblique shock inthe 21 ‘lane (Fig #56), In ths analogy the axis "imele” L owe IT Kay, | Ota oe ot] SS Ease , |e reanice Ys sense (6) Tato ane tin a (0) edn gen fo oer ine els Saag Btwn te tan ae Ifthe piston ie soppd impively at = then ts ubsequent istry is lie at constants. On the meg, this coresponds to shoulder fo lowed by an afterbdy with surface parallel tothe fee steam. Tn the ston problem, this produces a centered expansion wave, starting fom In the wedge problem, thre fs an analogs expansion wave, centered at the shoolder. Ils poi is indated by the stalght Mach line, inclined at the leal Mach angles to the steamlie. ‘The fow relation for this ‘expansion “fan” wil be given in Article 410. nthe plane the font ofthe expansion wave catches up to the shock ‘wave atthe pont a. Th the subsequent interaction, the shock wave is ‘oatnully attenuated and its velocity decreases (approaching the acute ‘speed ei), until very far fom the iil point ie strength is negble (Not shown ae very weak waves tht are elected buck tovard the pston.) Similarly, in the How over the yaige, the eet ofthe shouler is ot felt by the shock ahead of the post e where the lending Mach wave of the ‘expansion fan “overtakes” the shock-- This Iimied uptream infuence in ‘ipertnic fw ir a moat lnportant feature, fori allows stepystep onstruction of fw Bel, Tt abould be remazked thatthe analogy outlined here is formal one” ELEMENTS OP GASDYNAMICS ‘and that the actual geometries inthe two planes cannot be Hterally related teach other. Forinstance ix posse forthe leading Mach ines rm the ‘shoaler of the wedge tobe inclined wpstreom, but in hepato problem the ‘characteristics cannot possibly be inclined toward ngatve Nevertheless {he analogy is useful, especialy for visualizing the general nature of inter actions in the 2 pane 47 Weak Oblique Shocks For smal defection angles 0 the oblique shock equations reduce to very simple expresions. The approximate reston, fom which others may be derved, was already piven in Bq. 1, sestp— (Fan) For anal the vale of is lose to either #/2 os depending on whether My <'tor My > 1 Gee Fig, 42). For the present, we are considering only the latter case (Mfa> 1), for which we may use the approximation fens tony = ‘The preceding equation then reduces to the frm yth ae see aagaaaiaee 2 Var ‘This is the basic relation for obtaining al other approximate expressions, since all the oblique shock relations depend on the normal component, ‘Maing. Thos, from Eq, 43 the prewar change seal obtained, bam ap. at ee This shows thatthe srngl of he ware is proportional tthe defection angle “The change inthe ther How quantities, except the entropy, ate ao proportional o8. ‘The change of entropy on the other hand, is proportional to the third power of the shock strength (Article 2413) and hence to the third power ofthe defection angle ane 16) “To fnd expisity the deviation ofthe wave angle frm the Mach angle we may pat a) ‘ beers) ote here In the expansion of sin e+.) the approximations sins # « 1 may then be wa to write Sing & sing eco Since, by definition, sin y= 1/3, and cota = VET, thi gives Mi sag = 1+ eVIEST (tte) Mist p= 14 2 F am Comparing with Ha, 414, the tlio between «and 8s 1) or afte decom ale 0, the dnstion of the wos ifr from the Mack ieton by om amount hich i ofthe eae order a 6 We sal alo ead the change of fow spect acon the wave. This may ‘be found frm the ratio (ee Fg. +1) wt wets we where Eqs. £8 have been used to replace wx and w/t. In the lst term wre have from Eq. 4178 a) A similar expression for cn? (8 — 8) is obtained from this by replacing bye Thefnal result, after droppingall tems of order # and higher, ev.) 19) 48. Supersonic Compression by Turning [A shock wave increases the pressure and density ofthe fuid pasting through hate compre the flo. A simple method for compressing ‘supersonic flow isto tm it through an oblique shock, hy defecting the wall through an angle ,showa in Fi. 463. "The turn may be subdivided into several segments, wpich make smaller corners of ange Sf, as lustrated in Fig. 4-65. Comprason then oecars through socesive oblique shocks. ‘These shock divide the eld ner the tral into segment of wlfrm Now. Further out they must inteset each ter, since they are convergent, but forthe present we shall consider elyBLEMENTS OF GaspYxastics ‘the dow neat the wall. Tn this region, each segment of flow i independent of the following ooe; that i, the Dow tay be constructed sep by step, proceeding downstream. This property of limited wpsresm iuece exits » Fo 4 Compe x pane wy tig an ange (0) Sal sack of rg #0) ven weaker sca ck af sng (smut ents 1 long a8 the defection doesnot become so great that the fw becomes ‘bean “To compare the compression inthe two cates, (2) and (8) of Fig, 46, we ray ste the approiate expressions for weak shodks, obtained in ‘the previous atid. For each wave in (8), we have apes as (0) There are segments inthe complete tars, ‘hea the over pressure and entropy changes are hows fy 5 alae ~ m a0(ae)? ~ (a0) WaVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW 6 ‘Thus if the compression is obtained by oning a large number af weak raves, the entropy incease can be reduced very much, compared to & Inge shock ving the sare net election. Te decreases a I ‘By contauing the proces of subivisio, the segments can be made sasishingly small, 490, and, ia the Timi, the smouh tr of Fig. £6 is obtained. ‘The entropy increase then becomes vanishingly seal that i, {he compression i seni. “This limiting procodoe also gives the following results. (1) The shocks become vanishingly weak, thelr Limiting positions being stright Mock Tins of which few are sown in Fig Ge. (2) Each segment of uniforms flow becomes vanishingly narrow and finally coincides with « Mach ine ‘Thos, on each Mack ine, Uh dow inclination ad Mach number are cot- fant, (3) The limited upsteam influence is preserved the fw upstream ofa given Mach line isnot affected by dowrstream changes inthe wal} (@) The approximate expresion for the change af speed across. weak shock becomes a difcrenial expresion, div20) wVieai Sina, the other approximate relations of Article 47 may be writen in ‘lierental form. Equation 420 applies continuously Uhrowph the isentropic turn; when integrated (Article 410), gives a relation between @ and Mf, which forthe present we sal simply rite in the form ae) em) We may now zotur tothe question of what happens farther out in the stream, where the shock waves of Fig. 468 and the Mach ines of Fi. 4e converge. The interetion of shocks willbe considered in Artie 412; here we are interested only in the continuous comprasion, whichis ius: tented again in Fig 47a ‘Due t the convergence of the Mach lines the change from My to Meo streamline b emir ns shorter distance Ua om stealing, and thus the (radients of velcty and temperature on b are higher than those on 6 ‘An latersection of Mach lines would imply an infinitely high gradient, for ‘thee would be tvo values of AF atone point. However, this cannot occur, for, inthe rpon where the Mach ines converge, and before they rss the% ELBMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS gradients become high eacugh so that conditions are no longer Kentopie- {isnot pombl to discuss the deals here; qualitatively, a shock wave is developed inthe manner ilstrated Figue 470 shows smallscale view ofthe shock formation. ar from ‘he comer, we must have the simple, oique shock discussed in Arte #2, Fn. 47 Mating Macha ome in compro. (6) Sick fran; {eae mati re) Calcite for BM and0. Infact, if the suaght walls on either side of the conner extend 1 infty, then sale i a relative matter, and fom “very far amay” the ‘tm look ike sharp comer. "The convergence of Mack lines in = compression is typical nonlinear (sfc: decreasing Mach number and increasing fo inclination both ted to make sucesive Mach lines steeper. The analogous nonlinear eect leading to the formation of shock maves in nonstationary flow was die ‘ced in Arte 310. ‘fa wall is placed slong one ofthe streamlines, say 8 n Fig. 470, were WAVES 1 SUPERSONIC FLOW ” the gradions aro still mall enough fr the dow tobe isentropic, then an Jnentopie compression in a curved channel is obtained, a8 shown in Fig 447e. Teinay be noted tha, Since this fow is isentropic may be versed, without violating the second law of themnndymamics The reverse isan cexpansin ow. 49 Supersonic Expansion by Turning Up to now me have been contri only turns tat are concave, that is, tums ia which the walls deected “into” the Bow. What bappen i convex tur in which the walls deflected “aay” from the oncoming stoeam? In particular, what happens in supersonic flow over a convex ‘comer, ike tht istrated in Fig 82? hot a> a fe me Fe 68 Supremus. (0) ot poe on theaynnic oun (eee "spunibe ave sine gio ‘Atom through singe oblique wave, ike that iustrated in Fig. £86, 1 not poate. I would require, at shown by a simple vetor considera. tion, thatthe normal component of welt a, after the shock, be greater than the normal component ead, since the tangential component 5, sndza;mart be equal. Although this woud tify the equations of motion, Te woud ead to a decresse of entropy, a shown in Article 215, and thie ‘snot physally posible ‘What actually happens & the following. The soninear mechanisa, which tens to steepen a compression (Arie 48) produces the opposite ‘let aan expansion. Instat of Being convergent, Mach Unes are diverge, {as show in Fig 48h and and consequent thre isa tendency to de. tease graients. Thus ox expansion is tetopie throughout.ve ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS “The expansion at a corer (Fg. 448) oats tough a centered are, efined by a “fan” of straight Mach Haes. This may be encoded from fone of severl arguments s flows. {t) The fw up to the comer i wnform, at Mach number My, and thes the lending Mach wave mort be svaight t the Mach angle. The sme “reumea, together with the Limited upeteam iene, may’ be applied to tach succeeding portion of fw, ‘The terminating Mach ine tans the Angle gto the downstream wal (2) Sine there ino characteristic length to define a sale inthis com ‘guration, any variation of flow parameter can only be with respect to Angular poston, teseured from the coer. ‘That is, flow parameters ‘must be constant along “rays” fromthe corer, hiss the “conical flow” tgument which i ferced to in Article 421, (3) A centered wave is indicated i the analogy with the piston problem (rg. +5) "Ths eeateed wave, more often called Prandd-Meyer expansion fw, i the counterpart, for convex corner, of the oblque shock at a concave Figure 48e shows a typical expansion over a continous, conver turn Since the Row is aetcole, it reverble. For example, inthe channel formed by any two streamlines, the forward flow is expansive and the reverse flow is compressive “Te relation between flow ication and Mach suraber in thee isn ‘uopie tun is ven a funetional form, in Eq, £203, o= aan) We have yet to evaluat the function, 410 The Prandt-Meyer Function eqution 420, which gives the dieretial ration between # and AF in an teatropic compression or expansion by turing, may be writen = View : + out = [VE ‘To evaluate the integral and thus Sind the explicit form of the function » vee may rewrite win er of by ung the relations| ay (4210) wo aw sod WAVES IV SUPERSONIC PLOW ” from which ST a = et VIE Vet oe ee VIET pinot oz oe ex he 0 sng enter ee It is called the Prondt-Meyer ction. The constant of integration has been arbitaly chosen so that y = O coresponds to MC 1. The dimen: sone (din) for for» which results from Eq. 421i usually converted Into degrees for convenience in clelating Aow inclinations. Tabolated values of for integer values of» in depress), are given in Table V at the end of the boske Corresponding values of pressure ratio ele, are obtained from the isentropic equations (Article 210), Some of these are ‘ko shown io Table V. Values of» ar alo tabulated verre in Table I "Thus, «supersonic Mack number M is always axocited with «dente value ofthe fonction. Ae AP varie from {tor ineeases monotonically trem tone ee x( fe) am ‘The slatin of the Prandtl-Meyer function », and thus of Mach number {Pomona nnn a io eect a ne10 BLEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS 1M, to the ow inition 9 is itstrated in Fig, 49, for both compression {ind expansion turns In the proofing arti, 6 was considered poltive in the direction of compressive deetian, but here the quetion of algebraic ‘ens wil be aveided by using absolute values of flow defection. Thus for ‘compression and expsnion furs, respectively, Pema m) (compression) (280) ventle—6l (expansion) as) “In pec cases, sign convention for @ can easly be adopted, if msde Tn a compression tro, + decreases, Whereas, in an expansion tro, it Increases, ineach casey a amount equal tthe Bow defection, Theat ‘value= 7M, may be found in Table V; the called value of», for {ny tle of, then gives the corepoading value of A. Usually itis con ‘enient to set = 0 ince only the defection matters. “As an example, «flow at Mach number Ay = 2 corresponds tom, = 26.38" (Table V)- If thie fow is turned ough a compression of 10°, ‘the final value of is 16.38" and the corresponding Mach number i 1.652 (terpolation in Table V); it turned through an expan of 10" then P3638" and A= 2386, 411, Simple and Nonsimple Regions “The isentropic compreasion and expansion waves dicuse in the pre coding several ates ate called simple ase” A simple wave I distin fguishod by the staght Mach lines with constant conditons on cach one, and by the simple ela- tion (Eq. 428) between fo Aletecton and Prandtl Meyer fonction. “A wave belongs to one of two families Ct of —), depending on ‘whether the wall that pres it Ie to the left or right of he fo, ,440- Repo in ete genie respectively, a shown in Fig, 410 en (chao Fig 4). Ta the region where two sip snaves of opposite family, interact wth each ater, the ow is nowsiple, ‘ht iy the reuion between ands tthe simple one given in Es. 425. Such region may be treated by the method of eharacterstics, described in Chapter 12 nhere vome addonal dscuson of simple end nossple regions may be found WAVES IN SUPERSONIC PLOW wo 412, Reflection and Intersection of Oblique Shocks ‘Wan oblique shock ie fnterceptd by wal i is reflected” a down in Fig. Fe, The incident shock deflects the ow through an ange @ toward the wall” A second rected shock, ofthe oposite family, isreqied to tm itback gain an atnount 9 and that say the conseant ofthe wall eee eect eae (a) Shae eatin (0) Stock nec. Atough the dfstons produced hy the two socks are equal in maga tude, the peste iio are not, since fa < Af. Typia! dstsibations of pressure along e straraine td slong the wall ar shown im the igure. The Strength ofthe retction may be defined by the overall presue ratio, bak nT mA 1 the prodect ofthe advidul shock steng The reflection in ener, not specular that ithe ielnation of the elected hock snot the same a the inclination ofthe ineMent one "There are to contbuting ects: both Mach number and Sow incipation shea of the second shock are emaller than ose abead ofthe fis shock. The to elects are opposite, andthe set zeal depends onthe partclar vallts of Afy and, Teeannot be writen explcily in genera form but may ‘nly be found for particular cases, fom he shock chart For high Mach tnumbers 3" whereas fr low Mach nimbere 6” > 8, with the reversal ‘Mach sures depeading on 8 "The wall streamne in Fig. 4118 may ls be Hentied with the centralwe ELEMENTS OF GASDYNautcs strealine ofthe symmetric low shown in Fig. 4118. This gives the iter ‘section of to shocks of equal strength but of opposite file. The shocks “passthrough” each othe, but are slightly Dentin the proces, The owdownstream ofthe shock systam spall to he iii = Bow TT the latersecting shocks are of neu! strengths (Fig, #12) anew festa apes The streamline through the intersection point divides the flow into two portions, ‘which experience diferent change in ta Ye 412 nna of hcta ene the shock wave nystem, The over oe fll reslt must “be such that the two Gteratseneis, —Soatonsbave the some presure and the same flow direction, The latter is no longer necesariy that of the ce stream, “Thee two requirements determine the final direction and the final pressure ps, ‘All oher parameter are then aio determined, but they do not have the sae values on the two sides ofthe dividing streamline (hown broken). ‘This streamline, in fet, a sipircom, or bear layer, since the magnitudes of the velocity on elther side of it are diferent, Tee aleo called «coma surface, because of the fact that the temperature and density on either side arediferent, Basically these difeences are elated othe fact at the el ‘entropy changes experienced by the id ae dierent onthe tw ids af the Intersoton. Note the analogous eect n the shock tube (Artce 812), 413 Intersection of Shocks ofthe Same Family the two shock are ofthe some family, produce, for example, by suc- ceasve corners in the sme wal then the configuration is ke that of Fig ‘E130. Here the two shocks cansot "pas though” each other but mst coalesce to form a single stronger branch. Here agua, the dow on eter side ofthe intersection point, experiences diferent entopy changes and a slipstream o is produced. An sitional wave o, of the opposite faye ‘eee to equalize the pressure on the two sides of the sietream. ‘Tit ‘may be ether a compression or expansion wave, depending on the par ticalar coniguration and Mach number, but in ay event i is very mauch weaker than the primary waves 1 the second shock by ia much weaker than the Est one a then of always a compression, ‘This interaction may be convenient described as follows the second shocks prtly“transmtid,” longo, thus augmenting the stone, and partly “rected,” along 2 ‘Skala nthe interaction of an expansion wave witha shock wave of he WAVES 117 SUPERSONIC FLOW ms same family (Fig 413), the mai effect ian attenvation ofthe shock, bat there is also a partial eelleton of the expansion, along Mach lines of the paste fal.” ‘These reflect waves are alnay sry much weoher than e443 ction of wae of these ay) Femi of tng se ‘om two sho) section fsck yep nave the primary ones, nd may be neyece in al but the strongest interactions, Instead ofthe single igeseam of here isa whole raion of vorticity, that san entropy Sel, downstream ofthe interaction. 414 Detached Shocks ‘So fa we have restricted utslves to cases in which the How after the shork remains tupersonic (Fig. 42), We have now to return to the ‘question tat wete postponed in Arle 4-4, conceraing tbe possible oblique ‘Shock solutions Whit ow enguratons does the other (tronger) solution represent? Second, what occurs when the wall defection, or wedge angle [seater Gat fu? We shall conser th sind question fst. ‘There sin facto rigorous analyte eatment for prolers in which the delction anges are pester tha gu Experimentally, it cbserved ‘hat the flow conigurations are like those sketches in Fig. 41, The fow i compressed through a curved shock wave which is detached {oom the medge an stands at some distance abead of. The shape ofthe Shock snd its detachment distance dep onthe gomety of the Badly and fon the Mach number Mf ‘On the central stealing, where the shock is normal, a wel as on the earby ons, where iis nssly noel, the Bows compressed to sbsonie Conditions,” Farther ost, ab the shock becomes weaker, it becomes Tess ‘erp, approaching asymptotically to the Mach ange. "Thus conditions ong the detached shock wave ren the whole range of the oblique shock Solution forthe given Mach number (cf, Fig. 4:14, which shows one curve ftom Fig. #2). In such coniguratins one docsfind shoe inclinations08 ELEMENTS OP GASDYNAMICS corzsponding to the other (tong) solution. Shock segments ofthe strong ‘olution may alo appear as parte of ether complex conuatons "The compesty ofthis and sine examples rated to the appearance of sso regions. When the fw behind the shock s subsonic, the shock fs no longer independent of the fardownstream conditions. change of ieometcy or prestie inthe subsonic potian aferta the entre daw up 12 the dhodk, whieh must then adjust if to the new condos. © o ” fn 1 Deachdshck wae (6) Des hac wd thay ‘hile ve snl Se hy (Sancho i ih andl me nthe cat ofa Blunt-noed body (Fig. 414) the shock wave detached stall Mach numbers and is similar to the one deseribed above. Conversely, ‘wedge of hal-angle > Oa isa “blont-nosed” bay sofara the oncoming flow is concerned “Examples of ow over a wedge with afterbudy are shown in igs 4h, 645, and 11-1 For glven wedge angle the sequeace of events with dee ‘eating Mach mamber flows.” (1) When Bf high enough the shock travels attached tothe noe; the straight portion & independent of the Shoulder and altesbody (cf. Fig 459). “As Mr decreases, the shock angle Increases. (2) Wit fertber decrease of Mc number «vale is reaches for hich conditions aftr the shock are subsonic, The shoulder now has an ttlect on the whole shock, which may become curved, even though sil tached. These conditions corespond to the region between the lines My = Vand 0 = tage 00 Fig. 42. (3) At the Mach nubercoresponding 10 fou the shack wave saris to detach, Theis called the detachment ‘Mach number.” (8) With further decreas of Mi, the detache shock moves ‘opetream ofthe nse. ‘Asal sequence of events ovr in lowe over a cane with eyindial WAVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW 105 seerbody. The detachment Mach numbers, which are lower than for ‘wedge, maybe found i Fig. 47a, "The shock shape and detachment distance cannot, at present, be theo reticly predicted, Figure +15 shows rome measurements of shock wave coe a = + crete fot Schwein pean pte, See ‘Siti oe eb Won ol Gander Hed Teh ite 280, 5 Ri, ign Se Japon 18195), Maal rdsnce a, copied ata Caen Tenth of Teta, masons tepid dia (Ape, Mtg, Keb, ‘oe ace Daa ori, cman pba. detachment distance on two-dimensional and asl symmetric bes with flat noses and cca (or apherial) poss. The curves forthe Bat-nse lite and forthe Satnosed body of vevoltion also define the lining sitions for detached shock waves on wedges and cones respectively. That [Bra detached shock wave on a wedge or cone, with afterbody, has prac-06 sueueirs oF GasDYWAMICS tially the sme potion a if the orb (wedge or cone) were not there The reason i tat the shock position controlled malay bythe pasion of the sn ie, which for these case sed at the shoal vd 0.416) Machebce, (Seen potngaph ta Machen. My Lat; ‘Sig ange ht spun fie deat pe i [le prt ented othe Wana yer dome ofthe elect 415 Mach Reflection “The complications due t the appearance of sxbeonic regions inthe dw are agin encountered in sock ratio, when they ae to ston to give WAVES 18 SUPERSONIC FLOW wo the simple reflections of Article 418, ‘That i if fs after the incident shock ‘slower than the detachment Mack number for 8, then no soliton with simple oblique waves is posible. Here th conlgurations sre similar to thote shows in Fig 416. They are called Mack refetns, A normal, or realy normal, shock that appears near the wall forme with the incident And “rected shocks a tsp Intersection point at. De to the dif fence in entropy on streamlines above and below the til point, the steam line which extends downstream fom the tiple point i a slipstean Tes isle in the photogeaph (ig. £16). "The subsonic region, behind the nae normal lex, makes i imposible to pve a prey loa! description ofthe configuration, Attempts ats local Alserption of the triple point would appear to be frites sine the only ‘xed parameter, in a given problem, isthe lacident sock,” ‘The strengths fof the reflected shock the nearly natal leg, and te aligeteam are all arbitrary. They may’ be arranged in an fine umber of may al come patie locally at 2. The Uiglepolat solution which actually occurs in & particular problem aswell asthe position ofthe tl pint, ae determined by the downstream conditions, which nfvence the subsonic part ofthe ow 416 Shock-Expansion Theory ‘The obliqae shock wave and the simple entropic wave farish the bldg blocks for eomstesting (or analysing) many prcblers in two ‘dimensional, supersonic fow by simply “patching” together appropriate ‘combinations of the two solitons. Some examples of fow over two Slmensionalalefoll sections ate shown in Fig. 17, together with the ome ‘ponding peesure statins Consider the diamoné-section aio in Fig. 44Te. The nose shock ‘ompreses the ow to the preture fa, the centered exjunson at the Shoulder expands i to the preare fy and the tailing edge shock recom presses it to(peary) the eestream value, f.There isa dragon te aia ‘de tothe overpessire on the forward face and unlerpressre on the ret. ward face, Por nits, i De (pp (420) ‘where fs the thcknes of the scion atthe shoulder. ‘The values of Sn py are eal found fom shock charts and tables ofthe Prantl Meyer function» ‘This incroduces the phenomenon of supersonic wave dog. Tn supersole flow, dagerste even in the elie, nonvierous Huid. Itisfundametally Aierent from the fictional drag and separation dg that are asia with boundary yer ina viscous did. (OF cours, the wave dig is it mately dissipated” through the actan of vceity, within the shock waves,08 BLEMENTS OF GASDYWAMICS Buti docs not depend on the actual vale ofthe vse coetiient. This fn another statement ofthe fat thatthe entropy change acros aahock is Independent of the deal vonequiibriam process side the shock.) ‘The second example in Fig 4178 i curved aol rection, which bas continuous expansion slong the surface. For the shcks tobe stacked, it Isnecesary that nse and tile wedge-shaped, with alangle less than nw "The thd example in Fig. +17 shows Mat plate at angle of attack an ‘The streamline ahead of the leading edge is straight, since there i 0 up stream inflvenee an the portion of Sow over the upper ad lowe secs fe indepenent.‘Thas the Row on the upperside turned rough a : oe " a " J 0 ® ° ‘Settee fo) Spmmetr nmond actin (lene etn (ng ope expansion angle ag Ly means of «centered wave atthe nose, whereas that ‘on the lower side i turned though a compression angle ay by means of a ‘oblique shock. From the uniform prewures on the two aids, the Lif and rag are computed very simpy. They are L= Ga pecoson (425) D= ('e~ pesinan where ¢ isthe chord. ‘The increase in entropy for fw along the upper furlace sot the seas for fow along the ler surface because the shock waves occur at eiferent Mach numbers on the tro ses, Contequenty, {he streamline fom the tealing edge isa slipstream, inclined ata small langle relative to he re steam ‘So fara mention has been made, in these examples, of the intretion tetween the shocks ad expansion waves. For thsi neessary to examine {larger portion of the flow fl, sin Fig, 418, which shows smslersale ‘erdons of two of the previous eramples ‘The expansion fans atenuate WAVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW we ‘he oblique shocks, making them weak and carved. At large ditances they approach aeympttiely the fe steam Mach lines “The reeled waves were ot shown in the previous figure (417), fora shockexpaston theory they are negectod, ‘Tei fect aml but ina fact analysis it wold have to be considered. Fors amos sll and {nave ste for ng at ts GR aves se rey wee) a iting Aut pat, however, the ected waves do nt intercept the asl {call and hence do not afoct the shock-exparsion result forthe presure Aistebation. "The wave system exten to very lng distances fom the body, and 5 sch ae ultimately co duce all distrbances to vaisbing stent, 417 Thin Airfoil Theory The shock-expansion theory af the preedng article gives Simple and ened method for computiog Lt and drag, applicable as lng as the Socks ae attached. However, the reels cannot be expres in concise, ‘vaya form, and the theory ie many wed for abtaining numeral folstions Ifthe il sth and ata sal angle of attack, tht, if Il ow inclinations are smal, then the shockcexpansion Choy may’ be ‘opeonimated by using the approximate relations for weak shocks and fxpansions This asta simple analytical expressions fr thei and drag. "The basic approximate expression (Eq. 418) for calculating pessre ae, ae ° ViS Since, with the weak wave approximation, the pressure p wl never be realy diferent from p, nor A greatly diferent rom My, we ay make the40 LEMENTS OF GaSb¥Wautles further approvimation, correct to frst oder, Finally, if we sefer all presure changes to the reesteam pressure (fs), and all direction changes tothe feesteam direction (ero), we have ‘where @ i the inciaton relative tothe freesteam direction, The sign {£0 ll be lea in each application ‘The pesur coeficient, which is dfned by Eq, 240, c= teh then becomes i326) "This the basic relation for thin afl theory. I states thatthe pressare ofc is proporonl lo thecal fe iciation ‘With the above result it sa simple matter to obtain the lift and drag ‘ficients for varios sification. Ths forthe aloe (Pig 4170) ft a small angle of attack onthe pressure coefficients on the upper and lower aurfacea ae Get am ‘he it and drag cooficents ate (ou polecosen ce a Cp = Bea pelesinas 6.) sin ae ae Since coisa, me may use cs 9 1, sin ag ap. ‘Thus with Eq. 427, sre have for the lift and rag coeficents of «ting Bat plat, dees) WAVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW m The aerodynamic center I a mldchard, The ratio D/E? = 3VIEF=T independent of on ‘As second example, consider the dismond section airfoil of nose ange 2eat zero angle of attack, ax shown n Fig 17a. The pressure coeicents ‘om the fron and rear faces are 2 eval and so the pressure dierene is dea) bie = xe ” 0 oe Ages ets: cote ‘The form ofthe it and drag cueicentsin these two examples typical ‘A general result, applicable to an abiteary thin atoll, may be obtained as follows. Figure 419 shows an air that has thickness, camber, and angle of attack, ‘The pressure eoecients onthe upper and lower sutfacs are oe et we Via oe (430) aos on ea) they dye epee tle. The pte my ered ios Sromeel sice dota Wa mod's he tae dein ELEMENTS OF GASDYWAMICS ‘thickness (2). Ths dete th, és ata ean de fe they te eae nherea(2) = ao + ae) the lca angle of attack ofthe camber line ‘The lit and dag are given by wa Cede owed fet) +e) Putting Eqs. 430 and 4:3 nto these expressions, we obtain Laie Lane wea LEY +E vs Ll ‘The integrals may be replaced by average value, denoted by a ba, for ant Laine Since by definition 3, = 0, we have etal mt Ro Sinitaty, a Weta = wR tom Bm oP + F “Te ift and drag coeficents, L/qe amd Diy, may then be wetten bees) WAVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW 1 ‘Thee ate the general expressions forthe Hit and drag coeficients of thin Siri in supersonic om. Tn thal theory the drag splits into thre pare a “drag due to ‘hicknes,” a "drag due to lif” and a “drag doe to camber.” The it Coeficent depends only on the mes angle of stack “Thseplitingnt it ad drag problems is typical of “smal peetarbaton”™ problems in supersonic How; tis an expresion ofthe fact at the governing ‘Urea equation are For, as wil be een in Chapters Band 9. How ‘ver, the condition of smal perteratins, eg. small fow defections, is not sufient tn ence linearity, as we shall se in the ease of transac ow (Chapter 12), and hypersonic ow (Article 82). Tn tho eases, even the smal perturbation equations ae nonlinear, and the eects of thickness nd ange of attack cannot be obtained by sie superposition. ally, one may note that in computing the ft we didnot ned to Impose the Kuta contin expiily, a is necesary in subsonic ow. The Kutt condition distinguistes between leading and tain edge, and thus ‘stables «dente diretion for increasing time. In this sensei i satis Fed alo inthe superoni ae, the deci of increasing time being estab lished by the choie of & drcton (downstream) for the waves (c Arte 45). 4418 Fat Lifting Wings 1 il not be pone in this ook to go ito the extensive aubjet of supertnie wings. Te need ooly be rematked that most ofthe theory is Tet oa a linearized equation, on the asumption of small ow inna tions, so that problem may always be spl Jato a thickness ease and 3 Ting ease. ‘Da to the limited regions of inuence in superionic ow, the two Almersionaleesults may ten be applied dell. Fora single eample, onsider the Bat, rectanglar wing of Fig. 42, at an angle of attack ow The fac tat the span i ite felt only within the tip rein, se the Mach cone frm each tip, ‘The inner part, between the is, behaves as if IR were part ofan infinite wing, tht i, the How there is tv-dimensonl tnd the pressure ceficient has the tmo-dimesionl value Cro, given Bq. 42. ‘Thos the inner pat of the wing cates two-dimensional i. Ta the tip exon, the Ut fas of, to aero atthe ie edge, where the presares must equsise, Two typical spanwise pressure cstriutions, "Hong the tang ege andthe midehor, respectively, are shown in Fig. {E@, Other spanwise datsibutans ae sii, for in fet, the pressures tre constant long “rays” fom the tp ofthe leading eg (comment i [Arle 421). Te te ip region, the aerogepresae count i 4, a8 may be seen from the symmetry of the pressaredistiution there. ‘Thus the lift coticient ofthe whole wing le than the two-dimensional valeuM ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS Cun by an amount = Kalb de) Hn _ ic Pet o iid ~ Wedeid) AVMs coe buco tt? VIRETTerel KL Fo. 420 i of St recente wing “The terms in the denominator are Bem m = aspect rato [d= coty= VEE A Subatitting these inthe above expresion forthe lilt decency give the [it ceficon ofthe rectangular wing tere o the two-dnerlonal value a 1 cars anVMe=1 healt ‘This & pleted in Fig. 420e The expression is valid for values of NV/Hfg ~ 1s smal a6 1, conesponding tothe ase shown in Fig. 420, in which the tip Mach Lines are just heponing to intersect the opposite Sie cge.For lower values the expresion is ifleent, but tends Yo aero ‘shown by the braken line “Thus the elect of tis, that inte spect ratio sto reduce the i just asin subeonic ow, but with a rather diferent fet om the presire “isubution. Tt may’ be seen fom Fg, 433 that there i alo an elect af ‘the Mach number. The ects of aspect ratio and Mach number may be WAVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW us ‘combine in terms of an efeise apa ratio aye AV HT “Thismay aso be shown from general similarity considerations (Chapter 10) Fora wing of fxed dimensions the elective axpect ratio increses ith increas Mach number. Tis of course, is due tthe fact thatthe Up Mach cones Boome narrower. Asse ve ” o ea 421 Pmt datas on sectangae wing tpn () Sable fe (een ee ‘Two more examples of fa iting wings are given in Fig. 421, only the tip regions tung shown, ‘The sie edge n Fig 421 (and in Fig, 42), which ie downrream of the tip Mach cone, sale a subsonic ge, whereas the ee in Fig. 4210, ahead of the Mach cone is called a supersonic edge [Ata supenonic edge the pressure need not be equalized since the upper ‘sd lower surfaces ae independent of eachother and thee = 0 lua al Tit due to “leakage.” Although there is redistribution of presse, as shown, the lft coefcient of the wing wit supersonic ees isthe two dimensional value Cunt ‘The subsonic edge, on the other hand, has the typical lending ee sgularityof subsonic tira theory 419% Drag Reduction Article 417 introduced the pleaomenon of woe dro in supersonic om. For twodimensona airs wave drag may be separated into drag de 1 thickest and camber, and canbe dace nly by reducing each one teparstely. However, on thredinensinal wings and’ on combinations fac as biplanes and wing body combinations, iis posible to areange the 1P.A.Lagntio a M, D. Van Dyk, "Gee Consents aout Pans at ‘do Phnu ag Syomn ep 1362 90), Dg ie C=a BLEMENTS OP Gasb¥Wauties slements in cach a way that there e Benes inleerence between them, eltng in redction of drag. ‘A famous example Is the Busemowe Sila which depends on mtu conealtion of waves between the two planes. ‘The principle of wave en felation justrted in Fig. 4222 "The upper ptt shows the oedinary ses (0108 enti. reflston of shack, discussed in Ace £12; the lower past shows how the reflected shok may be “canceled,” by turing the wall parallel to the ‘low diction behind the ncdent shock. “One might say tha the reected shock is canceled by an expansion atthe commer. ‘The Busemann biplane at ver it is ilusested ig Fig. $228, Pat of the expansion wave at the shoulder canoe the eomprenion wave fom the leading eg uf the opposite pane and produces the symmadrial pr ‘sure distribution shown inthe gue. The wave drag s zero, [Av Mach numbers ofthe design value there i pata cancelation of drag, ae strated in Fig. 4226 ‘The disappearance of deg eotesponds othe fact hat there ae no waves ‘atsde the system, the contribution from those inside bing neil in the festonder theory. Ifthe Mack number ie diferent fom the design value, waves “escape” fom the system and the drag is no longer zero However there wil abo be complete cancellation at certain other Mach ‘numbers, namely, tho fr which the lading edge compresion wave inter: eo Bead | 38. jo i Ee PA es i TTT mals = ‘0 mani ah = be ® yess | sere] DP ae | (me eter 428 supe pages Cony o (0) BJ Br Noto he Vinton Drag with teh None Danan Dilan Rep. S. 877, Doh Co) KM Lich, "psiuan Teo Dimer Multan in Sep ‘psa 0 og ree Coue ELEMENTS OF GaSDYNAMICS ‘eps one ofthe shoulders This estate la Fig. 428, which shows ‘ro drag at cancellation Mach numbers, and faite values atotber intr ‘mediate Mach numbers. For valet of Vif —1G/e> 1, the leading cle mave completely “misses” the opposite aro, here is no nteserence, fed the fall "monoplane" dag is obtained Ifthe Baseman biplane i liting, dag due to lift produced. Tit, ‘hickoes, and camber ects are no looper separable asin the monoplane (or planar" system. They may, however, be combined to produce bene ea Intererence ‘igure 423 gives some examples for which the ratio D/L? may be optimized. Tn this cae the best values occur when the effective gap is large enough so that there isn interference. For analler gape, the vale of ‘D/L? inzese, bat abe improved by oxing camber rte, a shows, (nm thre dimensional planar wings, i alo possible to obtain bene inteferene by suitable dstbution of thickness, camber, and twist, and to find optimem configurations forgiven fixed parameter, eg, content It "Wingody combinations may alto be optimized, aclsion of the ‘effects of boundary layer ftom and separation extends the sope of the problem even further. The whole problem of dag reduction is very Important one, 420 The Hodograph Plane ‘A coordinate system whichis often very utfal in fui mechanic prob lems that ofthe hedgraph ple in Which the saci component ae the coordinates, of independent variable This plane is seul in the fist. place, simply for the presentation of data or solutions and for graphical (ector) analysis. But a uch deeper reson frit importance that certain problems that ae montnear in the physical plane become fncor ‘when refarmulate inthe hodograph ple, tht i, with the velo com Povents as independent varabies, The latter application fe biey ‘sed in Chapter I, in connection withthe transonic equation, ‘The representation of the flow though an clique shock wave i shown in Fig. 424. The plyscal plane i ehown in (a nd the hodoraph plane {in @). A point inthe phylal panei oeated inthe hodrgrph plane by loting its velocity components (w,2). ‘Thos a vector in the hodograph plane, drawn fom the orgin to the point in question, f the conesponding ‘eocty vector Ta this example, the whole fre ld wotream of the shock lots into the single polnt 4, wheres the fow eld dowstzear plas into B. ‘They are the only two velocities in this example. The mapping from the Dlysial plane tothe bodograph plan, or vce vers, is smetines sat Singular Furthermore, the mapping i ot unique. Tn the physical plane, many diferent flows may be obtained frm the eliqu shock solution by. WAVES 18 SUPERSONIC FLOW w ‘making various choices for the boundaries, compatible wth the streamlines. Tn he hodogreph plane, these wil all be represented by the two points, And B. Fora given ypstram velocity Uj, or Mach number Af, theresa whole family of slution, with # a a parameter That sa 2 changes, with the pat B traces oot a certain lows, which i ealled's shack paar. This loca ie shown in ig. 2c, where de veloctes are pote in temis of the velocity ratio (w/e, n/a). It wil be not that fora given defection (oP eme ep ee i 426 Repratton f ge tock neti in he dopa pa angle 9, there are two solution, shown by B and B'. For the latter, the downstream flow is subsonic, as may’be sen from the peition ofthe sonic Cirle, Tis other strong “auton” has been dicused in Arie 414 ‘Aso shown sth ocutrece of x maximum value of 8, beyond which there is no oblique shock sation Flow trough a uormal shock srepresented by the two pnts 4 and 4” For each vale ofthe nits! Mach number, pont, there ln new hock polar. ‘They all have the same gener shape, and each one encloses the ‘nes for lower vaso "Nev we conser the single isentropic expansions and compression of Article 10, which may aleo be plotted in the hodograph plan. Consider {he Prandtl Meyer expansion shown n Fig. 4252. Ta the hedogrph plane (0) it is represented hy the care 4B, 0n which each point represents one ofthe velocities ona given stcamline. ll the steamines map into AB. This agin a sioglar mapping—AB may representa whale family of flows inthe piysicel plane. The revere How BA i the map of the com pression shown in (0 ‘The Prandt-Meyer function (Artie 410) fr all supersonic Mach numbers may be represented as shown in Fg. 425d by the fl ines, which fepresent expansions from M1 to M=', The lower carve is for 8 Increasing, and the upper one for # decreasing, The equation of this curve, an epic, may be obtain’ directly from the Prandt-Meyer10 ELEMENTS OF GASDYWAMICS function (as. $21 and 42). Tein FEB aes T= gun ay — tt set tn Eta fT ae =) = tn Vi where fy ay be etn in terms of y/o, For diferent nial ree San, the carve fe sinpy spaced through the angle; is hes = ‘whole fay of ests) epg One ofthe wn by the broken Une, Indds the segment AB tte fw in 0 Bp comin (A) Pat be dng 0.425 erento f Pad Meyer exon ia th gah pe ‘Both the examples ilstated in that, tht, ow trough oblique shocks and simple isentropic lows, have singslar mappings onto the ha raph pane. In gene the fow in the physical pane wl map onto ‘tho region inthe bodogaph plane, bt singular points and curves, hike those in the above examples, may appear. The proiem of ftng piven pysieal boundary condtions to a hodograph snktion may be aint ‘lsc one 421 Cone in Supersonic Flow The fow fed fora cone is not so simple at for a wedge. In the later ‘ase one can it the oblique shock solution dict, since the fow in the region between the shock andthe wedge is wiform I the thre-dinen- slomal cave of the cone, homever, a uniform flow downstenm of the shock {snot prsibl, fort would not say the equation of continu. WAVES 1 SUPERSONIC PLOW a However, the dow posteses another property that every help ia the analysis. Because ofthe imited paca niece itis auicient to assume that the cone is semi-infinite (Fig 426). Since there is en ao character ‘tie length in the problem, in relation to which eters may be compared, the only pole aration of fow properties is with respect tothe angle ‘That i, cndilions are constant ow each ray” fom the series, Such alow felis called con} Due to the axl symmety, we need conser only the rays in any meridian plane, as shown in Fig 426." Between the shock and the cone, the conditions vary from ove ray to another, and Uns along the streamlines which cos them. “The slation, Birt given by Baseman and ina dierent form by Taylor and Maccoll, cones of ting an nentropie conical flow to a conial shock. Forthe sentopi pat of helo, the three-dimensonal equations (Chapter 7) are rewritten in tems of the single conical variable w, resulting in an ordinary, nonlinear diferent equation, which has to be solved numer: ally} At the shock, the conditions are given dlrcly by the “jump” ‘eatoa forthe simple oblique shock (Arties $2 and 43), since his sola tion almays applies Toaly to any shock sudace. ‘The flow behind the soundest int tact = ini ya ea Repl Tle of Sepsis Cone, AT, 1ac a sot ie Bo 30494030 78890 a es. 42%) Cone a suena dow. Sch ane vers Mach mutt Sor ations (eagle Corny of] We Mac "Tox Coe Shock Weve Ferme by 4 re Morn at High Spe" Pro Roy. Se 1S (9ST 4 ® 1,470). Premr cot vert Mach mnie for soca np. Couey 1) We Macy "The Cn Shoe We armed ya Cane vig th Spe” Prt Rey Say PCT pA. WAVES 1N SUPERSONIC FLOW B shock has to match the Beatopc, conical fel, and this condition deter ‘nines the elution, ‘Atypical esl for My = 2 and cone of half angle 10°, is shown in Fig 426, "he presare dstsibuton shown isang line patllel tothe cone ‘vis Part ofthe compres acute trough the shock, but thee is ade tonal, entropic compression up tothe surface pressure p-"The streamlines ste curved Also shown for compacion isthe presue dstbution fo wedge ofthe sme angle. Due tothe theedimensional ect, the compres- son by a con i mach wether than by © wedge, ae shown by the lower ‘arfacepeesure and smaller shock wave ange. Another difernce that ‘etachatent occurs at w mich loner Mack number Plots of wave angle and srLace pressure, as functions of Mach number sad cone angle are given in Fig. 427CHAPTER § Flow in Duets and Wind Tunnels 1 Introduction inthis chapter the one-dimensional How theory ofthe preceding chapters, together with the oblique shack results, is used to describe some practical fxamples of compressible flow, Specific example of fw in noc an Wiad tunzels serve to state some of the base ow relations, ad the rmethods of appving them. "These are quite general and tay easly be ‘extended to ahr cats, some of which ste ince fa the Exercises 162 Flow in Channel of Varying Area ‘The conveepng-verging chanel isthe basic acroyamic element in most methods of obtaining presto Hows, We shall so later ow it Se Incorporated ia wind tunnels nnd otber aerodynamic systems, For the A “ oe yee oon i Tv Preeti ssuficent study the splot configuration, showa in ig 4, In which the channels supplied with Haid at high prscre po atthe inlet land exhausts into a lower pressure atthe outlet. This i elle 3 Lael ‘nzle. Thenzale may be attached atthe alt to high peur eeroir And alowed to discharge ino the atmosphere altemately, it may be at tached, tthe outlet toa vacuum tank and allowed to dam ts apply fom the atmosphere. To obtain very high pressure ratios ie may be convenient {use high prasure at che it as wll a socio at the out, “To investigate the variation of flow paramater slong the nol, we shall ‘make the approximation thatthe fw i ve dimonsonl; tha conditions sos each section are ulm. We ae interested in the elton af thee 1 FLOW IN DUCTS AND WIND TUNNELS Bs ‘entions to the section area. ‘The degree to which the flow i actualy one ‘imensional depends onthe Bow inclinations. ‘Thus, ina long, “slender” fnzele the conditions are very nearly one dimensional necting viscous ‘Hecs), Ta any ce, the recat wilalvays apply enacly to section where the fiom actually is niform (le example, the est ston) and to “average” Conditions at other sections, ‘Tae methods fr exact analyse of the none ‘form sections wl be given ater, n Chapter 12 "The qualitative features of compresuble flowin te chanel of Fig. $4, already dscused in Article 29, may be reviewed brie. f the fw ic ‘beni throughout, the maximum velocity oars at the action of min ‘mae clled the toot Tn sobenie wind tne hiss heel sein Tefueher follows tht at two equal sects, and, upstream and down= stream ofthe throat the veloetis ste equal. ‘The dow ie symmetrical” sith respect to the trout. On the other hand the dow becomes supet= onic it must be “unsymmetrical,” with subonie conditions upstream and ‘apesonie conditions downstream ofthe cheat. The that itself mst then besone "These simple facts have some remarkable consequences. At subsonic speeds a decese of the downrtream presure (fs) iacreases the velocity 2 the thtont (and correspondingly at other sections), ut, once the speed tthe throat becomes Soni, i ean increase no farther, for smi cmditions Con eit only lhe tiraat. A further decent ofp cannot change te speed {the throat nora the spstream porn ofthe ozale This ies amas {um value onthe emount of ld that canbe forced through the nozle by ‘ecreasing the ext pressure ‘What, then, actually occurs i pr decreased blow the value eee to attain sonic dow atthe throat?" To answer this question it snecesay ist to investigate the posible presure distributions along the nozl 53 Aven Relations ‘To relate conditions at any two sections in steady Row me may start with the one-dimensional cotinulty equation: umd = pats Te convenient toute sonic cniitions as reference thas, pad = pata ca) 1 the ow is sabeonc throughout, then A isa fettous throat area that doesnot actualy ccc inthe fom. -On the other hand, if onic and supe Sonic conditions ae attained, then A* =, where isthe area ofthe ctl threatns BLEMENTS OF GasprNamtcs UE we remember that u* = 2, Ea. $1 may be rewsten ‘The ratios on the rght-Sand side are given in Chapter 2, in Eqs. 2358, 2232, and 234, as functions of the Mach number. Alter some rection, ‘he aea-Mach number relation i foond to be (einen on ‘Tis result is ald only for iouropic fw, since the elation used fr an/e isthe isentropic one. The ration between area and any other flow para ‘ter is now easily obtained through the Mach number, For example, by ting Eq. 231, the relation between area and presi may be rewritten 77 toe Bquatoas $2 and 55 are potted in Fig. $2 53) FLOW IN DUCTS AND WIND TUNNELS a 4 Noztle Flow ‘Using the area relations, we may now plot the dtebutions of Mach umber and presae alo a given norte. The carve ia Fig. $2 is double “aled, with e sabsonic and «supersonic breach. The dow stars out along Fie, S3. Elo of rasta om in a alm. the subsonic branch from r,t the ow is subsonic throughout, then the throat area i ese than 4; che flow reaches only the point fan then returns slong the sme Branch. On the other hand, ifthe throat becomes nig then se ~ he flow in the throat sat the branch point, and the flow inthe dowastzcam section les on the supersonic branch, up to some point Typical caves ate vena Fig. 3, which shows the form ofthe theoretic presuedistitions and te wave configurations fr several exit pressures. For the upper carves, a, 8, which be entirely onthe sobsonie branch, the exit pressure controls the flow throughout the channel, On curve e the ‘throat has ust become soni, andso the pressure atthe throat, nd upstreama LBMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS Pais ehh heeoetiey Repohcel Iw t, Hoth ed) Maten Saja cf, can decree no futher, There now anther pone atop Sotto, onthe siperoie branch, which terminates aj. Bu or ti flow tocs, heen pesare mast py oss lowe han What Gf te press that le teen these value? For them, de re lentils, Poe ecole coder ana pr 0 sate pe somorbat lover than fo Tt Could berated by tse fow, 0 Stown by the broken line along ch the premreratip/pr een the area weston (Eq, 83), provided that poe Beles thy Terai se that 2 monsouopic proces ecear—] semevbere slang ew, ‘Thee are many ponsierthe snp a option itd vce feds, that te laren fo trop cote at ingle, coral soc. The locaton othe shed at mas teat the Mach aor at il give st the right for to seach pot For cach poston # of the ack ang the soponede atch Des 2 caeponding eat presure at : say tered Me he eit prose & decd 7777 | theta wd Sormam, aly _ MAMA Teaching the eat when the peesure 65S. Ohne prmreton ib all there teachs ava py, Wi farther seg Sy ar mon at erase of et press the How in Pm, Fon Ace ie the the nozzle is no longer affected, the e presue ajstmet ing made through ystems of que waves ashown Urth sketches in Fig andthe photographs of Fg 3 ewe $8 giva an capi ol dered peste dats along sae wal for cue a wich the sock ls ae te noi, tat fr Pe Viki = const. VFu ACA*/A) Gute) ‘Thus, fora given gus, Vo depends onthe stagnation temperature, the tet section zea and te test section Mach number. “The ration between the compressor intake Sow and the sappy eecton flow, easily obtained from Bs 810 and S11, 8 ae eee Vo" ea Po Te Since T'p= To, A is the presute ratio at which the wind tunne is actully operating, 4 oy A= pib'o Te cannot be smaller than the minimam pressure ratio, which wil permit operation atthe desed Mach number (Fig. $8). Thais, iis meter that aan ‘The relation between the operating pressure ratio andthe compressor Intake volume may now be reviten, from Ea, $2, in the form (ir (Op the A-V’s plot} this isa straight lie, through the origin, with slope 1/Vo a8 shown in Fig. S11e.-This ithe wind tonel characteristic for ued values of Ts, A, abd Mf Operation i posible only above the point which cotresponds to the minimum pressure ratio. Also shown in Fig. Sle is typical compressor characterise, The Tis etiod of ploing ws commas tthe ath by De P. Wee FLOW IN DUCTS AND WIND TUNNELS a ‘es 11 Wind eel ed compe chants.) Macht wad anal and tome Sst (om tat mn oie: m ck py math pit ‘ri buy te pi nae oprtig prem ratin” (Opti er Tango Mac amar ng ange compte tunnel will operate at the match pit x, sR a hit Mach munber the opertion nats higher pesrerato than tema. The Oo ‘jun ia to this higher pes rat, foreapl bya dowastream it ofthe sock waves the due, This ino icency is unavoidable it ded to opeate ve range of Mach number or pemure,ce hewe ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS compressor characteristics ually do not match the minimum wind tunel requirements over a range of Mach sumer a presures itis dese to operate at lover pres ratio but the sme Mach num: be, say atthe plat dn Fig. $1, then come ofthe ow (a quantity V5) may be shortcveuted by means ofa by-pass with metering valve, The ‘volume fw dough the compresses then increased but the compression ‘ils decreased. Whether thi result in an increase or decease of power ‘The angular defection ofthe ray after i traverses the Bow is wf he hat been along he ed) mg They de tion usually o smal chat the density along the curved ray is nasty the same aloog the nearby path, y= j,. Thos fe Sh fC8) « ow ec the tet sion with, Tis the fda to fo of smal dons gen, sch ta withers eto o men ket tafe ow ite fe oth oes te he sane ney, the inet esi ZL (a) _ Lain non) 28), a “This elation shows that for plane Sow the detection ofthe emerging ay is proportional othe density erode, ‘Thsmay ote testa waren METHODS OF MEASUREMENT wr For tnee-dimensonafow the fnl defection wil bean integrate eect dependent om al he density gradients encountered 610. Sclren System ‘The sien of the mcieren spate is hat fr fhe defects intecepted bore it reaches the vewing screen photographic plat, 0 thatthe parte of the Bel which bas travered appear darker} The tetas ony bat be explained by reference tothe be ate shown ia Fie 68 "A beam of parallel, monochromatic ight fs abuingd by paning the light rom sure tough less Ly, (The muri shown eg ie. Teal cont a rctangla stot peed a the focus of lap Xen combination as shown inthe out) he prt of ow Bel tat {pear inthe fal pitre eat whch stave by the bea. "Alter passing thagh fhe tt section, the Bam i ose by cond dens. Haseena in the foal plane of La, 28 age ofthe orce ‘obtained there. Oterwse te ight pases though this pane to an Chjetive lens fy mich det to seven photographic ate lected She image ple of thee ren “Tonerand te focsng, fe ust be remember hat there are fo focal planes, ne forthe source and one forthe test section. Considerable Ccnfision tay be avoided by covldecng pvc of light, rather than Indiv ay, For instance ot fn the source eit pen be which fuses on aa ihe sourceinage ple. Other points ae foesd snl, to frm the image ofthe cour TU vl be noted Da eck of thee pels com: ‘ely filth et ect, Thur ech point i he sore image receives Tet ro evry portion ofthe test stn. ‘Now cnsider testo aspect. ‘The ght reaching a pint i he est sect contained thin te peeled Tis treme within fhe poncl e's, whic focused at 00 the viewing son. This penal passes trough the source image ind comply is Other pn rom the tet section, such at Mae focse at Thi nage pnts on the Seen andthe lage ofthe fen sction formed tere (Only ae plane OF the tnt eton can be foened prev, tat if there is saint foal Sept the other stone area sient sharp.) Til be noted tht he bul oe passing through the test ton are not sty parallel, owing tothe ete Hae af the source, bat thatthe done are pra. of doug Teale ge tn eel Eyecam 3c