Peditric GI Handbook

NASPGHAN
Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook
Introduction
This first Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook a compendium from the
NASPGHAN Fellows Committee, was conceived as a handy, problem-based, reference tool for the fellows intraining; but it grew from there into the handbook you now hold in your hands. It was designed to provide
the most useful clinical information in a concise and convenient format. There are two versions of the
handbook on the CD-ROM enclosed in this packet. One is organized in a problem-based outline format to be
downloaded and used within a PDA platform. The second is designed for use on desktop or laptop computers
(Windows or Mac-OS). It contains the entire text content, with tables and flow-charts in textbook quality
print, for use as handouts or as teaching aids for rounds, talks, consults, etc.
The authors were recruited from among the fellows training in North American programs and the information
contained within the handbook was compiled from a variety of sources. Every effort has been made to verify
the accuracy of the information here presented. This reference, however, is intended to be used as a
handbook and therefore does not include a comprehensive review of these topics. Specific terms, such as
medications, are cross-linked within the chapters as indicated and flowcharts and tables are arranged to be
user-friendly and maximize viewable screen space. The chapters represent, what we felt, were the most
common clinical concerns presented to the practicing pediatric gastroenterologist, but are by no means
comprehensive. With each passing year it is our hope that the Handbook will be expanded and refined to
enhance its value to the entire NASPGHAN membership.
We would like to thank all the people who gave us their time and effort in crafting these fine chapters and
without whom, this first handbook would not have been possible. Thank you for your faith in this enterprise.
We would also like to thank the NASPGHAN leadership, specifically Dr. Richard Colletti and Dr. Harland
Winter for their support and sage advice. To Margaret Stallings and the staff at NASPGHAN we give our
thanks for their invaluable help. The efforts of Dr. William Berquist and the members of the Professional
Education Committee in revising the final chapters are also greatly appreciated. Finally, this project would
not have been possible without the generous support of SHS North America and we would like to thank them
as well. We sincerely hope you find the material here covered to be truly helpful and easy to use. As always,
we will welcome your comments and will keep on working to make each subsequent edition better.
Sincerely,
Robert E. Kramer, MD
J. Antonio Quiros, MD
Co-Editors
Page 1
NASPGHAN
Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition

Handbook
Author List
Bradley Barth M.D. M.P.H.
Clinical Fellow, Pediatric Gastroenterology
Childrens Hospital
Harvard University School of Medicine
Boston, MA
Upper GI Bleeding
Robert E. Kramer
Assistant Professor of Pediatrics
Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology
University of Miami School of Medicine
Miami, FL
Obesity
Mirna Chehade M.D.

Instructor in Pediatrics
Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology
Mount Sinai School of Medicine
New York, NY
Cholestasis
Mohamad Miqdady M.D.

King Hussein Childrens Hospital
Amman, Jordan
Constipation
Denesh Chitkara M.D.

Advanced Fellow, Enteric-Neurosciences
Mayo Medical Center
Rochester, MN
Vomiting
Dyspepsia
J. Antonio Quiros M.D.

Assistant Professor of Clinical Pediatrics
UC Davis School of Medicine
Sacramento, CA
Dyspepsia
Carolyn Daigneau RN CPNP

Texas Childrens Hospital
Baylor University School of Medicine
Houston, TX
Constipation
Leonel Rodriguez M.D.

Advanced Fellow in Gastrointestinal Motility
Montefiore Medical Center
Albert Einstein University School of Medicine
Bronx, NY
Vomiting
Jose J. Derdoy M.D.

Assistant Professor of Clinical Pediatrics
Childrens Hospital of Los Angeles
University Southern California School of Medicine
Los Angeles, CA
Obesity
James Rick M.D. (Capt. USAF)

Keesler Medical Center
Biloxi, MS
Ascites
Rima Fawaz M.D.

Advanced Fellow, Pediatric Hepatology
Mount Sinai School of Medicine
New York, NY
Lower GI Bleeding
Maria-Stella Serrano M.D.

Louisiana State University School of Medicine
New Orleans, LA
Neonatal Cholestasis
Ana Ma. Guilhon de Araujo SantAnna M.D.

St. Justine Hospital
University of Montreal
Montreal, CA
Chronic Diarrhea
Steven Steiner M.D.

James Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children
University of Indiana
Indianapolis, IN
Acute Diarrhea
Rula Harb M.D.

Childrens Hospital Los Angeles
University Southern California School of Medicine
Los Angeles, CA
Abnormal Liver Tests
Pushpa Sathya MD
Fellow, Pediatric Gastroenterology
Mc Master University
Hamilton, ON
Cholestasis in Children and Adolescents
Page 2
NASPGHAN
Index
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
Vomiting.......................................................................................................................................... 4
Dysphagia........................................................................................................................................ 6
Functional Constipation & Encopresis ................................................................................................... 8
Dyspepsia ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Acute Diarrhea ............................................................................................................................... 13
Chronic Diarrhea............................................................................................................................. 17
Obesity.......................................................................................................................................... 20
Upper GI Bleeding........................................................................................................................... 23
Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding ........................................................................................................ 26
Ascites .......................................................................................................................................... 28
Neonatal Cholestasis ....................................................................................................................... 32
Cholestasis in Children and Adolescents.............................................................................................. 37
Biochemical Tests of the Liver ........................................................................................................... 42
Parental Nutrition Guidelines............................................................................................................. 44
Drug Formulary .............................................................................................................................. 49
Page 3
NASPGHAN
I. Vomiting
A.
Definition
Vomiting is a physical act that results in the gastric contents forcefully brought up to and out of the mouth, aided by a sustained contraction
of the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm at a time when the cardia of the stomach is raised and the pylorus is contracted.
B.
Pathophysiology
1.
Vomiting Center (VC): is located in the dorsal portion of the medulla and that vomiting can be induced with electrical stimulation of
this area. Afferent neural inputs to the VC are transmitted via the vagus and the sympathetic nerves.
2.
Chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ): located in the area postrema of the medulla in the fourth ventricle.
3.
Emetic stimuli can induce vomiting by two ways: Stimulating VC directly or indirectly by stimulating CTZ, which in turn activates
the VC. VC can be stimulated directly by afferent stimuli from GI tract (chemical), pharynx, vestibular system, heart, peritoneum,
thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebral cortex.. CTZ can be stimulated by drugs (opiates, digitalis, ergot derivatives, chemotherapy
agents, ipecac, dopamine agonists), uremia, hypoxia, DKA, radiation and motion sickness.
4.
Effector pathways: events leading to vomiting are the same. The emetic reflex begins with transient nausea and autonomic
excitation, followed by nonperistaltic small bowel contractions and gallbladder contractions, then by intensive retrograde peristaltic
wave that forces small bowel contents into the stomach suppressing gastric activity. The inspiratory muscles contract against a closed
glottis (retching) resulting in esophageal dilation, then the abdominal muscles contract pushing gastric contents into the esophagus.
C.
Associated Phenomena
1.
Hypersalivation
2.
Cardiac Rhythm disturbances
3.
Pupilary dilatation
4.
Defecation
D.
Differential Diagnosis
1.
Nonbilious
a)
Infectious: Most common cause of vomiting in children.
(1) Viral: Most common viral agent is rotavirus
(2) Bacterial: Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, E. Coli, H. pylori
(3) UTI, pyelonephritis, chronic sinusitis, otitis media, pharyngitis, pneumonia, peritonitis, hepatitis and meningitis
(4) Parasites: Giardia
b) Inflammatory: IBD, pancreatitis, appendicitis, cholecystitis, esophagitis,
c)
Gastritis, food allergy, cows milk protein allergy, celiac disease
d) Metabolic
(1) Inborn errors of metabolism: like MCAD deficiency, OTC deficiency,
(2) Usually present in early infancy, associated
with neurological symptoms, and metabolic acidosis,
hyperammonemia, hypoglycemia and/or ketosis
(3) Acute intermittent porphyrias
(4) Uremia
e)
Endocrine
(1) Diabetes mellitus (DKA), adrenal insufficiency (Addisons),
(2) Carcinoid syndrome, ZE syndrome
f)
Neurologic:
(1) Increased ICP: hydrocephalus, intracranial tumors, intracranial
(2) Hemorrhage
g) Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome: recurring attacks of severe vomiting,
(1) sporadic and unpredictable in some and cyclic and predictable in others, usually in AM, with strong family
history of migraine, diagnosed by clinical presentation and exclusion of other organic disorders
(2) Abdominal migraine and migraine headaches
h) Motion sickness
i)
Psychogenic: self-induced to seek attention, rumination, bulimia, anorexia nervosa, depression
2.
Mechanical
a)
Newborn: Esophageal atresia, pyloric stenosis, gastric atresia, duodenal atresia, esophageal stenosis, duodenal web,
intestinal duplication, annular pancreas, strictures due to NEC, Hirschprungs, midgut volvulus with malrotation, meconium
ileus
b) Children and adolescents: intussusception, malrotation, strictures due to inflammation, gastric volvulus, gastric outlet
obstruction, inguinal hernia, SMA syndrome, UPJ obstruction, foreign body, bezoar, duodenal hematoma, surgical adhesions
c)
Functional: achalasia, GERD, gastroparesis, scleroderma, pseudo-obstruction,
Ileus, familial dysautonomia
d) Toxic: Drugs, poisonings (lead, staph toxin)
e)
Other: Overfeeding, Reye Syndrome, pregnancy
f)
Bilious
(1) Mainly anatomic conditions causing obstruction distal to the lig of Treitz.
3.
Consequences of Vomiting
a)
Metabolic:
(1) Potassium deficiency
(2) Alkalosis
(3) Sodium depletion
b) Nutritional
c)
Mechanical injuries to esophagus and stomach:
(1) Mallory-Weiss
(2) Boerhaaves syndrome
(3) Tears of the short gastric arteries resulting in shock and hemopritoneum
Page 4
NASPGHAN

d)
e)
E.
Dental: erosions and caries

Purpura
Treatment
Name
Mild Antiemetic Activity
Indication
Mechanism
Antihistamines:diphenhydramine,
hydroxyzine, promethazine, meclizine
Motion sickness and

mild chemotherapy induced
vomiting
Prophylaxis of motion sickness
Chemotherapy induced vomiting
Probable Labyrinthine suppression and H1

block in CNS
Chemotherapy and Cyclic Vomiting

Syndrome
D2 receptor antagonist at CTZ
Cyclic vomiting syndrome,

postoperative, chemotherapy.
Domperidone for motility disorders.
D2 receptor antagonist at CTZ
Anticholinergics: Hyoscyamine
Benzodiazepines:
Lorazepam, midazolam, diazepam
Moderate Antiemetic Activity
Phenotiazines:
Prochlorperazine, perphenazine
chlorpromazine, promethazine
Buthyrophenone:
Droperidol, haloperidole, domperidone
Corticosteroids: Dexamethasone
Cannabinoids: Dronabinol, nabilone
Mild chemotherapy vomiting,

emesis from increased ICP
Chemotherapy
Antimuscarinic effect in labyrinth or CNS

GABA inhibition
D2 receptor block at enteric nervous

system
Unknown
Unknown
Potent Antiemetic Activity

Metoclopramide
Chemotherapy, motility disorders,

GERD
Normal dose: D2 receptor blockade at CTZ

and enteric nervous system
High dose: 5-HT3 activity enterically
Trimethobenzamide
Often for acute gastroenteritis and

to abort CVS
D2 receptor blockade
Cisapride
Motility disorders, GERD.

Discontinued because of cardiac
effects
Chemotherapy and postoperative
vomiting
Enteric acetylcholine release
5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists:

Ondansentron, granisetron
5-HT3 receptor blockade mainly in enteric

nervous system
F.
Authors
Leonel Rodriguez MD
G.
References
Brown J, Li B. Recurrent Vomiting in Children. Clinical Perspectives in Gastroenterology. 2002; 5: 35-39
Fleisher DR. Functional vomiting disorders in infancy: innocent vomiting, nervous vomiting and infant rumination syndrome J Pediatr.
1994;125:S84-94
Forbes D. Differential diagnosis of cyclic vomiting syndrome. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1995;21:S11-14.
Lee M. Vomiting. In: Sleisinger & Fordtrans Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease. WB Saunders Co. 7th edition. 2002.
Li B, Sferra T. Vomiting. In: Wyllie R, Hyams J, eds. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease. WB Saunders Co. 2nd edition. 1999:14-31
Murray K, Christie D. Vomiting. Pediatrics in Review. 1998; 19:337-341
Sondheimer JM. Vomiting. In: Walker WA, Durie PR, Hamilton HR, Walker- Smith LA, Watkins JB, eds. Pediatric Gastrointestinal
Disease, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. BC Decker. 3rd edition. 2000:97-102
Page 5
NASPGHAN
II. Dysphagia
A.
Definition:
From the Greek "difficult to swallow." In the pediatric patients, swallowing disorders are rarely isolated. In contrast to adults, growth and
development of the swallowing apparatus, oromotor reflexes and maturation of feeding behavior should be considered in the pediatric population.
B.
C.
Clinical manifestations and complications of impaired deglutition:

1.
Cough
2.
Pain on swallowing
3.
Food impaction
4.
Halitosis
5.
Respiratory: apnea and bradycardia, choking episodes, chronic noisy breathing, reactive airway disease, chronic or recurrent
pneumonia, bronchitis, otitis media and atelectasis.
6.
Malnutrition
7.
Sialorrhea
8.
Chest Pain
9.
Regurgitation
10. Weight loss
11. Globus pallidus-sensation of lump or tightness in throat
Differential diagnosis:
1.
Oral Phase:
a)
Nasopharyngeal: choanal atresia and stenosis, infections, tumors, trauma
b) Oral cavity and oropharynx: cleft lip/palate, hypopharyngeal webs/stenosis, craniofacial syndromes, trauma,
adenoid/tonsil hypertrophy, pharyngitis
c)
Larynx: stenosis, webs, paralysis, laryngomalacia, laryngotracheoesophageal cleft, trauma, post-intubation
2.
Pharyngeal Phase:
a)
Anatomical defects: stenosis, webs, intubation, endoscopy, trauma
b) Oropharyngeal incoordination and motility disorders: cricopharyngeal dysfunction-cricopharyngeal hypertension,
hypotension, incoordination
c)
Neurologic defects
(1) CNS: Head trauma, hypoxic brain damage, cortical atrophy, microcephaly, anencephaly, myelomeningocele,
chiari malformation, dysautonomy, infections
(2) Peripheral nervous system: trauma, congenital
(3) Neuromuscular: myotonic muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis, guillian-barre syndrome, poliomyelitis
d) Esophageal Phase:
(1) Anatomic defects: strictures, stenosis, webs, diverticulae, tracheoesophageal fistula, trauma, aberrant
cervical thymus
(2) Vascular abnormalities: aberrant right subclavian artery, double aortic arch, right aortic arch with left
ligamentum
(3) Mucosal lesion: esophagitis (caused by GERD, infections like candida, CMV, HSV, TB and HIV, caustic
ingestion, burns, radiation and also eosinophilic esophagitis, cows milk protein and food allergy, arretts
esophagus, malignancy and food impaction, drugs that cause direct esophageal mucosal damage like tetracycline,
potassium chloride, quinidine, aspirin and NSAIDs
(4) Esophageal motility disorder:
(a) Primary esophageal motility disorders: Idiopathic achalasia, diffuse esophageal spasm, nutcracker
esophagus, nonspecific esophageal motility disorder, esophageal paralysis (atony).
(b) Secondary esophageal motility disorders: GERD, eosinophilic esophagitis, chronic intestinal pseudoobstruction, dermatomyositis, systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, diabetes, thyroid disorders,
chagas disease, medications, depression, bulimia, anorexia, Graft-versus-host disease, mitochondrial
disorders, neurologic, paraneoplastic syndrome.
(5) Drug Effect: associated with reduced LES tone and reflux like theophylline, calcium channel blockers, nitrates,
alcohol, fat and chocolate)
Page 6
NASPGHAN
D.

Algorithm for evaluation and management of Dysphagia in Children
Algorithm for Evaluation and Management of Dysphagia in Children
Medical and Feeding History

Physical examination
Observational feeding trial
Oral Phase:
drooling, choking,
respiratory distress
Pharyngeal Phase:
Dysphagia while
swallowing
Exclude anatomical
defects, motility
disorders and
oropharyngeal
incoordination
Exclude
nasopharyngeal, oral
cavity, laryngeal and
oropharyngeal defects
Videofluoroscopy
(modified barium
swallow and/or UGI
series)
Consider ENT
consultation
(+) Aspiration
Consider direct
laryngoscopy and
enteral tube feeds
Exclude
neurological
disorders
Consider
Neurology
consultation
Esophageal Phase:
Dysphagia after
swallowing, +/- pain
Dysphagia to
solids only:
Anatomic/
mucosal lesion
UGI series Upper

endoscopy Con.
Eso. Manametry
consider chest CT
Dysphagia to
solids liquids:
exclude motility
disorder
Eso. Manometry UGI

series upper
endoscopy
(-) Aspiration
Speech and swallow

consultation to optimize
safe feeds
E.
Management of Cricopharyngeal/ Esophageal Motility Disorders

1.
CP Hypertension: consider CP Myotomy
2.
CP Hypotension Incoordination: Aspiration control/Nutrition
3.
Diffuse esophageal spasm, nutcracker esophagus, non-specific esophageal motility disorder-aggressive PPI treatment and
prokinetics (GERD/esophagitis is the most common reason). Reports of TCA alleviating symptoms of globus pallidus, and chest pain.
4.
Idiopathic Achalasia: Hellar myotomypartial fundoplication (Thal) vs. Botox of LES
F.
Authors
Leonel Rodriguez M.D.
Denesh K. Chitkara, M.D.
G.
References:
Castell, D. Approach to the patient with dysphagia. In: Yamada, T. Textbook of Gastroenterology. 2nd edition. 1995.
Castell, D. et al. Esophageal Manometry. In: Schuster, M. et al. Schuster Atlas of Gastrointestinal Motility. 2nd. Edition. 2002:69-85.
Clouse RE, et al. Functional esophageal disorders. Gut 1999 (45) Supp II: II31-II36.
Del Rosario, F. and Di Lorenzo, C. Achalasia and other motor disorders. In: Wyllie, R. and Hyams J. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease.
2nd. Edition. 1999:189-1197.
Habib, F. et al. Oropharyngeal dysphagia in neurological patients. In: Corazziari, E. Chronic Gastrointestinal Disorders. 1999:387-398.
Hirano, I. Achalasia. Clinical perspectives in Gastroenterology. 2002;(5): 165-172.
Nurko S. Other Motility Disorders. In. Walker, W et al. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease. 3rd. edition. 2000.
Ravich, W. Pharyngeal manometry. In: Schuster, M. et al. Schuster Atlas of Gastrointestinal Motility. 2nd. Edition. 2002: 59-68.
Spiecker, M. Evaluating Dysphagia. American Family Physician 2000; 61(12): 3639-43.
Tack, J. Chest Pain of oesophageal origin. In: Corazziari, E. Chronic Gastrointestinal Disorders. 1999:153-169.
Tuchman, D. Disorders of Deglutition. In: Walker, W. et al. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease. 3rd. edition. 2000: 277-288.
Page 7
NASPGHAN
III. Functional Constipation & Encopresis

A.
Definitions:
1.
Constipation: delay or difficulty with defecation, present for two or more weeks. Note: To achieve a normal defecation a child
should have a normal rectum and puborectalis muscle, normal internal and external anal sphincters, and normal innervation of these
structures through both the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.
2.
Encopresis: involuntary fecal soiling or incontinence secondary to chronic constipation. Physiologic encopresis is most common and
is manifested as overflow incontinence that occurs as a result of severe constipation, fecal impaction and a dilated rectum. Related
behavioral components including active stool withholding, fear, and embarrassment that may resolve with adequate treatment.
3.
Normal defecation: frequency of defecation and the consistency of stool are related to age and diet. Some infants have a bowel
movement after each feed due to an active gastrocolic reflex and others, particularly breast fed infants, can have normal stools every
2-3 days. Frequency declines to a mean average of 1.7 stools per day at 2 years of age and 1.2 stools per day at 4 years of age. After 4
years, the frequency remains unchanged.
4.
Idiopathic constipation: (functional constipation or fecal retention) is commonly due to a painful defecation event such as an anal
fissure, bad toilet-training experience, changes in routine or diet, stressful events, intercurrent illness, unavailability of toilets, or
postponing defecation because the child is too busy. On the urge to defecate, he/she contracts his external anal sphincter to avoid
pain or discomfort resulting in stool withholding. Chronic retention results in abdominal cramps, abdominal distension, irritability, and
decreased oral intake. Chronic rectal dilatation results in decreased sensory capability, and weakened propulsive peristaltic activity.
Eventually, the constipation becomes self-perpetuating.
B.
Physiology of Defecation:
Stool movement into the rectum stimulates the rectal wall, sends signals via the intrinsic nervous system resulting in the relaxation of the internal
anal sphincter developing the sense of urgency associated with defecation. If defecation is convenient, the external sphincter will relax and stool
is propelled by colonic peristalsis and a secondary reflex, via the somatic nervous system, is activated resulting in contraction of the abdominal
musculature emptying the distal colon. If defecation is inconvenient, contraction of the external sphincter is initiated, first by reflex and then
intentionally. Stool retention is assisted by contraction of the puborectalis muscle, which constrict and angulates the anal canal. If sustained, the
reflex to the internal sphincter wanes and the urge to defecate disappears.
C. Background:
Chronic constipation is common, 3% of primary care physician office visits and 20-25% of the referrals to a pediatric gastroenterologist. It is
important to distinguish functional constipation (i.e. without evidence of a pathological cause) from constipation with an organic cause. Beyond
the neonatal period, the most common cause of constipation is functional or idiopathic constipation.
D.
History
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
E.
Red Flags
1.
Fever, Vomiting, Bloody Diarrhea
2.
Failure to thrive
3.
Tight, empty rectum with presence of palpable abdominal fecal mass
4.
Abnormal neurological exam
F.
Physical exam:
1.
In addition to a thorough physical exam including vital signs and growth parameters, make sure you check the following:
a)
Abdomen: Distention, fecal masses, tenderness, and bowel sounds
b) Back: signs of spinal abnormalities e.g. spinal dimpling, tuft of hair
c)
Rectal exam: during the first visit
(1) Position of anus?
(2) Anal wink?
(3) Anal fissures, skin tags?
(4) Soiling in the underwear or around the anus?
(5) Anal stenosis?
(6) Anal sphincter tone (nut-cracker sphincter)?
(7) Rectal vault dilatation?
(8) Stool in rectum consistency, fecal impaction explosive stool upon withdrawal of finger?
(9) Hemoccult test
d) Neurological exam: is essential
(1) Lower extremity tone and strength
(2) Cremasteric reflex
(3) Deep tendon reflexes
Delay in passing first meconium?

Hx of any period of normal stooling?
Duration of constipation?
Caliber (small in Hirschsprungs, large in functional)
Frequency and consistency of stools?
How long does it take to pass stool?
Blood with stool?
Fecal soiling? (Sometimes may be mistaken for diarrhea by some parents)
Stool withholding behavior?
Change in formula, diet, and travel?
Problems with toilet training?
Associated symptoms such as fever, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea? (Consider Hirschsprungs enterocolitis)
What studies and/or medications have been used?
What other things have the parents been doing to manage the problem?
Are there other physical conditions/diagnoses e.g. UTI s, genetic syndromes, surgeries?
Does the child take any other medications regularly?
Is there any family history of constipation, colon problems?
Page 8
NASPGHAN
G.
Laboratory Studies:
1.
These tests would be advisable for children who remain constipated in spite of medical therapy:
2.
T4/TSH
3.
Celiac Panel
4.
Serum Calcium
5.
Serum Lead level
6.
Sweat test (if clinically indicated)
H.
Radiologic studies:
1.
Abdominal X-ray (KUB):
a)
Helpful in the child who is obese with incomplete abdominal exam, refuses a rectal exam, or in whom there are other
psychological factors (sexual abuse).
b) Might be helpful if no stool in rectum to evaluate for obstruction.
2.
Unprepped barium enema
a)
To evaluate for possible Hirschsprungs disease.
b) Unprepped means no clean out (no enemas, no suppositories) and no rectal exam 48-72 hours prior to the study.
I.
Management:
1.
Goals:
a)
b)
c)
Pass 1-2 soft stools daily (painless stools help to overcome fear and withholding
Allow the rectal vault to approach a normal size (on average this may take 6-12 months or longer
Establish an adequate diet and fluid intake, a regular toilet routine and eliminate fear of defectaion.
(1) Diet: It is important to encourage balanced diet that includes whole grains, fruits and vegetables as part of the
treatment for constipation in children, elimination of certain foods e.g. milk, and cheese is not necessary and
therefore not recommended.
Fiber supplements are not recommended in children with dilated rectum since they are bulking agents.
(2) Fecal Impaction
If the impaction is significant, suppositories are not likely to be an effective way to evacuate the stool. Both oral and rectal therapy (enemas)
might be needed.
Mineral oil (rectal) may be used to soften hard stool in preparation for a stimulating enema or oral laxative.
J.
Treatment
1.
Stool Softeners: act to soften stool but do not create the urge to defecate. Not a good choice for long-term use.
Mineral oil: oral or reactal, not recommended in a child less than one year of age because of the risk of aspiration and
a)
lipoid pneumonia.May be mixed with orange juice or try a Popsicle/freezer pop crushed and pour oil over top and feed with
spoon.
b) Docusate sodium (Colace) not effective for long-term management but may be helpful for the child that continues to
have hard stools after laxative therapy completed.
2.
Stimulants: Act by stimulating the colon to contract.

Bisacodyl: Oral or suppository
a)
b) Glycerine: suppositories are often prescribed but rarely helpful for removing hard impactions
Senna (Senokot): Available in pills or liquid (chocolate flavored) and in Ex-Lax chocolate squares and granules.
c)
Needs to be used with a stool softener.
3.
Osmotic: The first three laxatives listed below are fermented in the colon to create the osmotic effect.
a)
Malt extract (Maltsupex) Safe and can be added to infant formula.
b) Dark corn syrup: The glycoproteins that give the dark corn syrup its brown color are unabsorbed and pass into the
colon. Works best in infants. Light corn syrup is ineffective.
Lactulose (liquid or powder, Kristalose): Safe. Side effects: increased gas as a byproduct of its fermentation, and
c)
tolerance to lactulose may develop as a result of change in the fermentation capacity of the colon.
d) Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of Magnesia) (also has some stimulant action). Given once a day, better at night. May be
flavored with syrups e.g. chocolate, strawberry. Starts working in 6-10 hours. Comes in concentrated formulation that
permits the child to take the volume of the regular dose
(1) Overdose could result in hypermagnesimia, hypophosphatemia, and secondary hypocalcemia
Polyethylene Glycol Electrolyte Solution & Powder: (Miralax)
e)
(1) A non-absorbable electrolyte solution that can be taken orally or by nasogastric tube if used for disimpaction
or cleaning before colonoscopy
(2) Powdered form that dissolves in 4-8 oz water or flavored beverage is also available. Also given once a day
(3) Side effects include nausea, vomiting, bloating, and abdominal cramps. Aspiration pneumonia is a potential
risk with nasogastric tube administration. Safety of long- term maintenance is not well established
Enemas
a)
In cases of impaction it may be helpful to soften the stool in the rectal vault with mineral oil (oral or enema) or liquid
glycerin (Baby Lax) before starting oral laxatives.
b) Generally, no more than two enemas should be given in a single day.
c)
A large-volume enema (e.g. saline or soapsuds) usually is more effective than a small-volume enema (e.g. sodium
phosphate) in significant constipation.
d) There is a risk of mechanical trauma to rectal wall, abdominal distention, vomiting.
e)
Phosphate enemas: (Fleet Enema) it is an osmotic laxative, avoided in children less than 1 year of age because of
renal immaturity
f)
Frequent use or large volume may cause severe and lethal episodes of hyperphosphatemia, hypocalcemia, with tetany.
Use with caution in patients with renal impairment.
(1) Soap suds enema: is prepared by adding 1 tsp of dish washing detergent (for hand use) to 1000 mls of
water. Normal dose is 20 ml/kg (max 1 L), Soap suds enemas are not intended to be used for routine management
of constipation. They are useful primarily for removing impacted stool. The routine use of soapsuds enemas can
result in a detergent proctitis.
(2) Saline enema: may be helpful if the child is not severely impacted. They can be prepared at home by mixing 1
tsp of table salt in 1000 mls of water; normal dose is 20 ml/kg (max 1 L). Saline enemas can be used in enema
programs for children with anorectal malformations and spina bifida.
4.
Page 9
NASPGHAN

(3) Tween 80/Gastrografin: This enema consists of a detergent (Tween 80) and water-soluble contrast
(Gastrografin) given under fluoroscopic control to assure filling of the colon and promote evacuation. Given in
radiology department allowing imaging of colon.
(4) Pulsated Intermittent Evacuation Enema (PIEE)
(a) Is a newly developed device that works by mechanically destroying hard stool using pulsated water
in varying volumes. It is generally given without sedation. The patient must weigh a minimum of 15 kg.
5.
6.
Stopping the Laxative:

a)
When the goals of treatment are met (the average treatment time is 6-12 months) taper the laxative slowly, usually
by tsp increments with 2 weeks between decreases. The next decrease is not made unless the child has been doing well
on the previous lowered dose.
b) Keep a daily record of the stools passed during the taper and for a minimum of 3 months after stopping laxative
treatment.
Behavioral therapy:
a)
Remember children withhold to avoid pain. Stool withholding behaviors are often eliminated or at least decreased when
the pain is eliminated by the laxative program that produces painless bowel movements.
b) Be supportive and encourage children to relax with bowel movements.
c)
DO NOT PUNISH!
d) Simple rewards like using a calendar or chart with stickers provide positive support to reinforce the childs progress.
(e.g. Smiley Faces)
e)
Most children do not want to soil but frequently have developed tolerance to soiling and are not concerned about soiled
clothing. It therefore may require more effort to get them to use the bathroom. Children with attention deficit and
hyperactivity, tend to have more problems because they may be easily distracted.
f)
For some children, it may be helpful to enlist the help of a behavioral psychologist to support the medical treatment
plan.|
K.
Authors
Carolyn Daigneau RN, CPNP
Mohamad Miqdady MD
L.
References:
Altemeier WA, Hemme, C. A pediatricians view: the importance of successful Passage. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 276-278, May 1999.
Baker SS, Liptak GS, et. al. Constipation in infants and children: evaluation and Treatment. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and
Nutrition. 29: 612-626, November 1999.
Bishop PR, Nowicki JM. Defecation disorders in the neurologically impaired Child. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 322-329, May 1999.
Blum NJ, Taubman, B, Osborne ML. Behavioral characteristic of children with Toileting refusal. Pediatrics. 99 (5) 50-53, January 1997.
Buttross S. Encopresis in the child a behavioral disorder: when the initial Treatment does not work. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 317-321,
May 1999.
Dautenhahn LW, Blumenthal BI. Functional constipation: a radiologists Perspective. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 304-306, May 1999.
Guerrero RA, Cavender CP. Constipation: physical and psychological sequelae. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 312-316, May 1999.
Klish W.J, Functional constipation & Encopresis, Oskis Pediatrics. Third edition, 1637-1639, 1999
Lewis LG, Rudolph CD Practical approach to defecation disorders in children. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 260-268, May 1999.
Loening-Baucke, V. Functional constipation. Seminars in Pediatric Surgery.4 (1_ 26-34, February 1995.
Lowe JR, Parks BR. Movers and shakers: a clinicians guide to laxatives. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 307-310, May 1999.
Murphy MS, Clayden, G. Constipation. Walker WA and others, editors: Pediatric gastrointestinal disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis,
Management, Ed 3rd ed., St. Louis, 2000 Mosby.
North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition medical position statement Constipation in Infants and Children:
Evaluation and Treatment.
Nowicki MJ, Bishop PR. Organic causes of constipation in infants and children. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 293-300), May 1999.
Parker PH. To do or not to do? that is the question. Pediatric Annals. 28 (5) 283-290, May 1999.
Page 10
NASPGHAN
IV. Dyspepsia
A.
Definition: Elegant but inadequate term derived from the Greek bad to digest. chronic or recurrent pain or discomfort centered in the
upper abdomen (epigastrium) most widely accepted definition1
B.
Prevalence: 20% of adolescents in the community report upper abdominal pain, with 5-10% experiencing nausea2, 3.
C.
Clinical Manifestations1, 4:
1.
Retching
2.
Vomiting
3.
Fullness
4.
Belching
5.
Queasiness
6.
Nausea
7.
Bloating
8.
Early Satiety
9.
Upper Abdominal Pain
D.
Differential Diagnosis:
1.
Functional Disorders
a)
Functional Dyspepsia-Pediatric Rome II criteria-In children mature enough to provide an accurate pain history, at least
12 weeks, which need not be consecutive, within the preceding 12 months of:
(1) Persistent or recurrent pain or discomfort centered in the upper abdomen; and
(2) No evidence (including at upper endoscopy) that organic disease is likely to explain the symptoms; and
(3) No evidence that dyspepsia is exclusively relieved by defection or associated with the onset of a change in
stool frequency or stool form.
b) GERD1-Predominant symptom is "heartburn"-see chapter on GERD
c)
Rumination Syndrome-6 weeks in the previous 12 months of recurrent regurgitation of recently ingested food which:
(1) Begins within 30 minutes of meal ingestion
(2) Is associated with either re-swallowing or expulsion of food
(3) Is not associated with mechanical obstruction
(4) Does not respond to treatment for GERD
(5) Is not associated with nocturnal symptoms
d) Post-viral Gastroparesis6- Symptoms following a viral illness
e)
Abdominal migraine: In 12 months time, 3 or more paroxysmal episodes of mid-line abdominal pain associated with
headache, photophobia or an aura-warning period and a family history of migraines. In the absence of a documented
metabolic, GI, CNS or biochemical abnormality
2.
Inflammatory/ Mucosal Disease
a)
H. pylori infection
b) NSAID use
c)
Inflammatory Bowel Disease
d) Eosinophilic-Allergic Gastroenteritis
e)
Peptic disease
f)
Menetriers disease
g) Parasites
h) Varioloform gastritis
i)
Celiac Disease
j)
Schoenlein-Henoch Purpura
k)
Lactose/Carbohydrate mal-absorption or intolerance
3.
Anatomic Disorder
a)
Malrotation
b) Duodenal web
4.
Other:
a)
Chronic Pancreatitis
b) Chronic cholecystitis
c)
Uretero-pelvic Obstruction Abdominal Epilepsy:
d) Psycogenic vomiting
e)
Anorexia Nervosa
E.
Diagnostic Evaluation:
1.
General
a)
Physical Exam
b) Basic laboratory tests: CBC, ESR, Albumin, Urinalysis, Liver tests, Amylase/Lipase, Stool for Occult blood, Giardia Ag
(O+P).
2.
Radiology
a)
Ultrasound-useful to screen biliary-hepatic-pancreatic system, diagnosis of UPJ obstruction
b) UGI-useful to evaluate anatomic obstruction/malrotation of the upper gastrointestinal tract
c)
Scintigraphy-useful to evaluate rate of gastric emptying, and may guide prokinetic therapy.
3.
Endoscopic Evaluation
a)
Indications:
(1) Suspicion of reflux esophagitis
(2) Removal of foreign object
(3) Unexplained abdominal or chest pain
(4) Unexplained vomiting
(5) Stricture dilatation
Page 11
NASPGHAN

4.
5.
Esophageal pH monitoring
a)
Indications-useful to detect extra-esophageal manifestations of GERD, and unrecognized GERD.
Esophageal Manometry
a)
Indications-symptoms of dysphagia- with or without evidence of achalasia on UGI
F.
Therapy
1.
General Principles
a)
Anti-reflux measures
b) Trigger avoidance
2.
Diet
a)
Timing of meals
b) Small-frequent feedings
c)
Liquid diet-may facilitate delayed gastric emptying
3.
Alternative
a)
Hypnotherapy
4.
Pharmacotherapy
a)
Anti-acid medication:
(1) H2 Blockers:
(a) Cimetidine
(b) Famotidine
(c) Ranitdine
(2) Proton Pump Inhibitors:
(a) Omeprazole
(b) Esomeprazole
(c) Lanzoprazole
(d) Pantoprazole
b) Pro-kinetic medications
(1) Metoclopramide
(2) Domperidone
(3) Cisapride
(4) Tegaserod11
c)
Visceral Sensitivity
(1) Tri-cyclic antidepressant
d) Impaired Gastric Accomodation
(1) Sumatriptin
5.
Surgical Therapy
a)
Nutritional supplementation-Gastrostomy or Jejunostomy
b) GERD-consider fundoplication-may exacerbate symptoms
G.
Authors
Denesh K. Chitkara MD
Antonio Quiros MD
H.
References
Bytzer P. H(2) receptor antagonists and prokinetics in dyspepsia: a critical review. Gut 2002; 50 Suppl 4:iv58-62.
Calvert EL, Houghton LA, Cooper P, Morris J, Whorwell PJ. Long-term mprovement in functional dyspepsia using hypnotherapy.
Gastroenterology 2002; 123:1778-85.
Chial H, Camilleri, M, Williams, DE, Litzinger, K, Perrault, J. Rumination syndrome in children and adolescents: diagnosis, treatment and
prognosis. Pediatrics 2003; 111:158-162.
Cucchiara S, Bortolotti M, Colombo C, et al. Abnormalities of gastrointestinal motility in children with nonulcer dyspepsia and in children
with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Digestive Diseases & Sciences 1991; 36:1066-73.
Hyams JS, Burke G, Davis PM, Rzepski B, Andrulonis PA. Abdominal pain and irritable bowel syndrome in adolescents: a communitybased study. J Pediatr 1996; 129:220-6.
Hyams JS, Davis P, Sylvester FA, Zeiter DK, Justinich CJ, Lerer T. Dyspepsia in children and adolescents: a prospective
study.[comment]. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition 2000; 30:413-8.
Mertz H, Fass R, Kodner A, Yan-Go F, Fullerton S, Mayer EA. Effect of amitriptyline on symptoms, sleep, and visceral perception in
patients with functional dyspepsia. American Journal of Gastroenterology 1998; 93:160-5.
Muller-Lissner SA, Fumagalli I, Bardhan KD, et al. Tegaserod, a 5-HT(4) receptor partial agonist, relieves symptoms in irritable bowel
syndrome patients with abdominal pain, bloating and constipation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001; 15:1655-66.
Rasquin-Weber A, Hyman PE, Cucchiara S, et al. Childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders. Gut 1999; 45 Suppl 2:II60-8.
Sigurdsson L, Flores A, Putnam PE, Hyman PE, Di Lorenzo C. Postviral gastroparesis: presentation, treatment, and outcome. Journal of
Pediatrics 1997; 131:751-4.
Tack J, Piessevaux H, Coulie B, Caenepeel P, Janssens J. Role of impaired gastric accommodation to a meal in functional dyspepsia.
Gastroenterology 1998; 115:1346-52.
Talley NJ, Lauritsen K. The potential role of acid suppression in functional dyspepsia: the BOND, OPERA, PILOT, and ENCORE studies.
Gut 2002; 50 Suppl 4:iv36-41.
Talley NJ. Dyspepsia: management guidelines for the millennium. Gut 2002; 50 Suppl 4:iv72-8; discussion iv79.
Page 12
NASPGHAN
V. Acute Diarrhea
A.
Definition
1.
Abrupt onset of increased fluid content of the stools, usually with an augmentation in the frequency of the number of stools
2.
Duration < 2 weeks
3.
Excess water content of the stools from an alteration in the function of the small and large intestinal processes involved in the
absorption of organic substrates and water
B.
Epidemiology
1.
In developing countries, acute diarrhea is still one of the major causes of death in the children under 5 years of age.
a)
Children in these regions may have between 3 and 8 episodes of diarrhea per year.
b) The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 3 million of children die per year due to diarrhea.
2.
In developed countries it is still an extremely common problem.
a)
In the United States estimated that 1-2 episodes per child per year occur in children below 5 years of age
b) Accounts for 10% of hospital admissions for children in this age range and about 400 deaths/year
c)
In England the hospitalization rate is approximately 7% below 5 years of age.
C.
Etiology
1.
Infectious: most common cause of acute diarrhea in children
a)
Pathogens and relative frequencies (developed countries)
(1) Viruses
(a) Rotavirus: 25-40%
(b) Calicivirus: 1-20%
(c) Astrovirus: 4-9%
(d) Enteric-type adenovirus: 2-4%
(e) Norwalk-like virus:?
(2) Bacteria
(a) Campylobacter jejuni: 4-8%
(b) Salmonella: 3-7%
(c) Escherichia col: 2-5%
(d) Shigella: 1-3%
(e) Yersinia enterocolitica: 1-2%
(f) Aeromonas hydrophilia: 0-2%
(g) Clostridium difficile: 0-2%
(3) Parasites
(a) Giardia Lamblia: 1-3%
(b) Cryptosporidium: 1-3%
2.
Allergic/ Adverse Food Reaction
a)
Allergy
b) Toxin Mediated
(1) Staph aureus
(2) Scombroid
c)
Adverse Reaction
(1) Fruits/juices
3.
Drug Induced
a)
Antibiotics
b) Laxatives
c)
Motility agents
(1) Metoclopramide
(2) Erythromycin
(3) Cisapride
(4) Tegaserod
d) Miscellaneous
(1) Caffeine
(2) Alcohol
(3) Histamine
4.
Travelers diarrhea
a)
At least 80% of diarrhea in travelers from developed countries to developing countries is caused by bacterial
pathogens20
b) Most common illness acquired by visitors to developing countries, affecting 20-50% of the 35 million people who travel
from industrialized countries each year21.
c)
No pathogen is identified in half of the cases
(1) Most common pathogens found in the adult population are Escherichia coli, Shigella, Salmonella,
Campylobacter, Vibrio parahaemolyticus (in Asia), rotavirus (in Latin America), and Giardia lamblia
(2) If a bacterial infection suspected, empirical antibiotics are suggested, with nalidixic acid, TMP-SMX,
furazolidone and erythromycin (if campylobacter infection is a possibility)21.
Page 13
NASPGHAN

5.
Others
a)
b)
c)
Systemic infection
Urinary Tract Infection
Acute appendicitis
D.
Pathogenesis:
1.
Normal Physiology
a)
Normal small intestine absorbs large amounts of sodium, chloride and bicarbonate, and secretes H+ ions, bicarbonate
and chloride.
b) Water passively follows the transport of solutes.
c)
Absorption takes place in the mature epithelial cells lining the middle and upper part of the small intestinal villi
d) Secretion occurs predominantly in the crypts (undifferentiated cells).
e)
Absorptive capacity normally exceeds the secretory activity, resulting in net absorption of water and electrolytes.
2.
Sodium: Most important ion in this process has three main mechanisms of absorption
a)
Sodium absorption coupled to nutrients
(1) Remains intact during most of the acute diarrheal disorders
(a) Is considered the pathophysiological basis for the utilization of orally administered hydration
solutions in children with diarrhea
(b) Specific carrier (SGLT-1) which is involved in coupling the entry of glucose across the brush border
to that of Na
(c) Some carriers for different categories of amino acids also couple their entry into the enterocyte with
the downhill transport of Na.
b) Electrogenic, amiloride-sensitive sodium absorption
(1) Sodium can enter the cell down its electrochemical gradient, through selective channels uncoupled to other
substrates in the ileum and throughout the colon
c)
Neutral NaCl absorption
(1) Predominates in the ileum
(2) Mediated by two coupled antiports; one exchanges Na+/H+ (cation exchanger) and the other exchanges Cl/HCO3- (anion exchanger).
(3) Transport process most responsible for intestinal Na and water absorption in the absence of intraluminal
nutrients.
3.
Chloride and bicarbonate
a)
The major anions being actively secreted into the crypts of the gut lumen
b) Electrogenic, as a result, passive diffusion of Na (cation) and water follows.
c)
Regulatory agents responsible for the homeostasis of the absorption and secretion of water and electrolytes are
hormone peptides, active amines, arachidonic acid metabolites, and nitric oxide.
4.
Diarrhea: When the system is altered, diarrhea ensues and can be a result of an osmotic force in the lumen (ex: lactose in lactose
malabsorbers) or an increased secretory state (enterotoxin-induced diarrhea).
a)
Osmotic diarrhea
(1) Moderately increased stool output
(2) Stops with fasting
(3) Stool osmolality normal to increased
(4) Stool sodium usually < 50 mEq/L
(5) Large stool osmolality gap (Osmolality - (2[Na + K] ) 100 mOsm
(a) Large gap due to increased amount of organic acids produced by fermentation of malabsorbed
carbohydrates, less from secreted ions
(6) Secretory diarrhea
(a) Very large stool output
(b) No change with fasting
(c) Normal stool osmolarity
(d) Stool Na usually > 70 mEq/L
(e) Low stool osmolality gap (Osmolality - (2[Na + K] ) < 50 mOsm
(f) The majority of the measured stool osmolality is accounted for by secreted ions, little or none due to
organic acids
b) Mixed Diarrhea
(1) Combination of osmotic and secretory diarrhea
(2) Stool osmolality gap (Osmolality - (2[Na + K] ) = 50-100 mOsm
c)
Viruses causing enteritis invade mature intestinal epithelial cells, multiply, cause cell lysis, and then re-invade cells
further down the small intestine.
d) Consequence is a malabsorptive or osmotic diarrhea.
5.
Diarrhea caused by bacterial infection is most frequently secretory
a)
Due to changes in epithelial cell ion transport
b) May adhere to or invade the epithelium, producing either enterotoxin or cytotoxins.
E.
Clinical Presentation
1.
Benign self-limited condition, resolving in a few days in developed countries.
a)
Clinical presentation and course of illness are dependent on the host and on the infecting organism.
(1) Usually, the younger the child, the higher is the risk of acute dehydration as a result of high body water
turnover and limited renal compensatory capacity of very young children.
b) Depending on the infecting organism, the clinical pattern of the acute episode of diarrhea differs :
2.
Direct cytopathic effect
a)
Location: proximal small intestine
b) Etiologies
(1) Virus
(a) Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)
(2) Giardia
Page 14
NASPGHAN
3.
4.
5.
6.
F.
c)
Presentation: copious watery diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration (frequent); often with lactose intolerance; no blood in the
stools.
Enterotoxin
a)
Location: small intestine
b) Etiologies
(1) Enterotoxigenic E. coli
(2) Vibrio cholerae
c)
Presentation: watery diarrhea, can be copious, no blood in the stools.
Invasion
a)
Location: distal ileum and colon
b) Etiologies
(1) Salmonella
(2) Shigella
(3) Yersinia
(4) Campylobacter
(5) Enteroinvasive E.coli
c)
Presentation: dysentery, cramps, fever.
Cytotoxicity
a)
Location: colon
b) Etiologies
(1) Clostridium difficile
(2) Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)
(3) Shigella
c)
Presentation: Dysentery, cramps, fever
(1) EHEC (O157: H7) or Shigella may be followed by hemolytic-uremic syndrome.
(a) If EHEC (O157: H7) is detected in a stool sample, child is often hospitalized for surveillance of the
renal function
(2) C. difficile infection may range in severity from mild antibiotic associated diarrhea to pseudomembranous
colitis with toxic megacolon
Post-enteritis diarrhea (PED)
a)
Complicates 10% of the cases of acute diarrhea
b) Defined by the WHO as an episode of acute diarrhea which lasts for at least 14 days
(1) In developing countries, PED is inversely correlated with age.
c)
Risk factors are malnutrition and immunodeficiency.
d) PED causes 30-40% of all diarrheal deaths in underdeveloped countries.
(1) Can develop due to persistent bacterial colonization, lactose intolerance and protein sensitization
(2) Protein sensitization is the most common among children from developed countries, in whom PED is very
unusual
Management
1.
Rehydration
a)
Main goal of the initial therapy of acute diarrhea.
b) Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) by the WHO
(1) Developed 30 years ago.
(2) Based on maintenance of glucose/Na absorption during acute diarrheal episodes, permitting the PO route for
rehydration instead of IV
(3) Effective even when the damage to the epithelium is diffuse and severe, with infections such as Rotavirus
c)
Debate about the ideal concentration of the components of the oral solution indicated for children from developed
countries.
(1) WHO solution, indicated mainly for the children from underdeveloped countries in whom diarrheal losses are
higher, contains more sodium, glucose and is more osmolar (osmolarity= 90 mMol/L) than the solution indicated
for developed countries (45-60 mMol/L).
(a) Recent systematic review of the literature concerning lower osmolarity ORS showed reduced need
for unscheduled intravenous infusions, lower stool volume, and less vomiting, compared with standard
WHO rehydration solution.
(2) In developing countries, some rice based preparations were shown to be effective, possibly reducing the
number of days with diarrhea.
d) The volume of ORS to be prescribed is between 50-100 ml/kg to be administered during 3-4 hours, per os
(1) May be administered by NGT if vomiting
e)
Glucose-based ORS most safe, effective, physiologic and effective way to rehydrate, and maintain hydration in children
with acute diarrhea worldwide, as recommended by WHO, American Academy of Pediatrics and ESPGHAN.
2.
Refeeding
a)
Breast-fed infants should continue to take breast milk during an episode of acute diarrhea, even if the infant is
dehydrated
(1) Must receive the breast-milk and the ORS
(2) Formula-fed infants more controversial
(3) ESPGHAN & WHO, recommend ORS for mild or moderately dehydrated children over 3-4 hours and then with
a rapid re-introduction of normal feeding.
(4) Not necessary to change the quality of food after a period of acute diarrhea, although often still prescribed,
with no benefit for the child.
3.
Antibiotics
a)
Occasionally bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, but they are not useful in the majority of cases of acute
diarrhea
b) Consensus statement recommended antibiotic treatment for V. cholerae, Shigella, Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba
histolytica
(1) Cholera: tetracycline is indicated in children over 8 years of age and trimethoprim/ sulfamethoxazole (TMPSMX) in younger children.
(2) Shigella: ampicillin is used in sensitive strains and TMP-SMX in resistant strains.
(3) Giardiasis and amebiasis: metronidazole.
(4) Special situations
Page 15
NASPGHAN
4.
5.
6.
7.
(a) Enteropathogenic E. coli when the course is prolonged

(b) Enteroinvasive E. coli & Yersinia in patients with sickle cell disease or other immun- suppressed
states
(c) Salmonella in very young infants, if febrile or with positive blood culture
Clostridium difficile
a)
Stop all other antibiotics if possible
b) If serious infection the treat with Metronidazole PO or Vancomycin PO, ? if efficacy equal with IV Tx
Micronutrients
a)
Zinc deficiency is common in malnourished children with diarrhea
(1) Trial in Bangladesh showed that zinc supplementation (20mg/day) during the acute episode of diarrhea
reduced the duration of diarrhea, diminished stool output and resulted in better weight gain, and normalized
serum zinc concentrations.
Probiotics
a)
Bacteria, derived from healthy, live microflora
(1) Yeasts and even helminths have also been used
b) Long been used to treat human diseases
c)
Lactobacillus GG is the most investigated and was proven effective for the prevention and/or treatment of acute
diarrhea in children and adults, particularly in rotaviral gastroenteritis.
Antidiarrheal : There is no place for antidiarrheal agents (ex: loperamide) in the treatment of acute diarrhea.
G.
Authors
Ana Maria Guilhon de Araujo SantAnna
H.
References
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Glass RI, Lew JF, Gangarosa RE, LeBaron CW, Ho MS. Estimates of morbidity and mortality rates for diarrheal diseases in American
children. J Pediatr 1991; 118:S27-S33.
Goodgame RW. Viral causes of diarrhea. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2001; 30: 779-795.
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Lima AA. Tropical diarrhoea: new development in travelers diarrhoea. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2001; 14: 547-52.
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Provisional Committee on Quality Improvement Subcommittee on Acute Gastroenteritis: Practice parameter: the management of acute
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Gastroenterol Nutr 1992; 14: 113-115.
Roy SK, Tomkins AM, Akramuzzaman SM, Behrens RH, et al. Randomised controlled trial of zinc supplementation in malnourished
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review of published randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials.
Victora CG, Huttly SR, Fuchs SC, Nobre LC, Barros FC. Death due to dysentery, acute and persistent diarrhea among Brazilian infants.
Acta Paediatr 1992; S381: 7-11.
Walker-Smith JA, Sandhu BK, Isolauri E, Banchini G, et al. Guidelines prepared by the ESPGAN Working Group on Acute Diarrhoea.
Recommendations for feeding in childhood gastroenteritis. European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr
Gastroenterol Nutr 1997; 24: 619-620.
Worl Health Organization: Persistent diarrhea in children, Geneva, 1985, WHO- Diarrheal Disease Control.
World Health Organization: The state of the worlds children 1988-1997. Geneva: WHO, 1997.
Wright E, Hirsch J, Loo D, Zampighi G. Regulation of Na+/glucose cotransporters. J Exp Bio 1997; 200: 287-293.
Page 16
NASPGHAN
VI. Chronic Diarrhea

A.
Definition An increase in frequency, fluidity, or volume (>10 g/kg/day in children) of stool persisting for one month or longer, relative to
the usual stool habits of an individual.
B.
Pathophysiology
1.
Secretory
a)
Fluid secretion accompanies active ion secretion by the intestine
b) The gap between the measured stool osmolality and two times the sum of the stool sodium and potassium is typically <
40, and stool sodium concentration is frequently greater than 90 meq/L
c)
Diarrhea persists despite fasting by the individual
d) Causes
(1) Enterotoxin-producing bacterial pathogens (Vibrio cholera or enterotoxigenic E. Coli)
(2) Enterotropic-hormone-secreting tumors (carcinoid, VIPoma, gastrinoma, neural crest tumors, medullary
carcinoma of thyroid)
(3) Ingestion of laxatives (cascara, senna, phenolphthalein)
(4) Congenital ultrastructural and metabolic abnormalities of enterocytes
2.
Osmotic (Malabsorptive)
a)
Accumulation of nonabsorbable solutes in intestinal lumen results in an increase in intraluminal osmotic pressure,
retarding water and electrolyte absorption
b) The gap between the measured stool osmolality and two times the sum of the stool sodium and potassium
concentrations is typically > 80
c)
Diarrhea resolves with fasting
d) Causes
(1) Excessive ingestion of nonabsorbable solutes (i.e. sorbitol)
(2) Consumption of laxatives containing poorly absorbed ions (magnesium)
(3) Carbohydrate malabsorption (disaccharidase deficiency, celiac disease)
(4) Pancreatic insufficiency (cystic fibrosis)
(5) Overfeeding.
3.
Abnormal intestinal motility
a)
Increased intestinal motility results in decreased mucosal contact time
(1) Causes of increased motility
(a) Extensive bowel resection (short gut syndrome)
(b) Inflammation (inflammatory bowel disease)
(c) Hyperthyroidism
(d) Hypocalcemia
(e) Toddlers Diarrhea
(i) May represent a variant of irritable bowel syndrome, characterized by rapid transit
through the colon
(ii) May be associated with excess carbohydrate (i.e. fruit juice) consumption
(iii) Growth usually normal unless diet overly restrictive
b) Decreased intestinal motility may result in stasis and bacterial overgrowth
(1) Bacterial overgrowth and ileal resection lead to disruption of the bile salt enterohepatic cycle
(a) Bacterial deconjugation of bile salts to dihydroxy bile acids, and the resultant metabolism of
unabsorbed fatty acids to hydroxy fatty acids, may lead to colonic secretory diarrhea
(2) Causes of decreased motility
(a) Malnutrition
(b) Intestinal pseudo-obstruction
(c) Scleroderma
(d) Endocrinopathies
(i) Hypothyroidism
(ii) Hypercalcemia
(iii) Diabetes mellitus
4.
Mucosal damage
a)
Reduction of mucosal surface area and/or damage to the mucosal surface impairs water and electrolyte uptake
b) Causes
(1) Inflammatory bowel disease
(2) Infectious enteritis
(3) Allergic gastroenteropathy
(4) Celiac disease
(5) Radiation enteritis
5.
Protracted Diarrhea of Infancy
a)
Defined as chronic diarrhea of more than two weeks duration beginning before 6 months of age and associated with
malabsorption and malnutrition
b) Causes
(1) Cows milk/ soy protein intolerance
(a) Most common cause
(b) May present with vomiting, irritability, bloody stools, poor feeding and/or diarrhea
(c) Stool pH may be low and test + for reducing substances, but with WBCs consistent with colitis
(d) High rate of cross-reactivity between cows milk and soy protein allergy (up to 50%)
(2) Protracted infectious enteritis
(a) Enterocyte injury may induce or unmask milk or soy protein sensitivity by altering permeability of
mucosal membrane
(b) Villous injury may result in secondary lactase/ disaccharidase deficiency
(3) Microvillus inclusion disease
(a) Rare congenital abnormality in microvillus membrane resulting in characteristic inclusions of
microvilli on electron microscopy of small bowel
(b) Presents shortly after birth and usually fatal without small bowel transplant
(4) Tufting Enteropathy
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NASPGHAN
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(a) Similar to microvillus inclusion disease but with abnormal attachment of microvilli to mucosal
surface, resulting in alteration of normal enterocyte architecture (tufting)
Autoimmune enteropathy
(a) Presence of antibodies directed at small bowel epithelium (Anti-enterocyte antibodies) causing upper
tract inflammation and malabsorption
Congenital Chloridorrhea
(a) Congenital transport defect in which chloride-bicarbonate exchange transporter in ileum and colon is
reversed, resulting in chloride and water secretion
(b) Stool chloride > sodium and potassium combined
Hirschsprungs Disease
(a) May present with chronic diarrhea and enterocolitis in small but significant minority of patients
Congenital sucrose-isomaltase deficiency
(a) Does not present until sucrose introduced into diet
(b) Stools may be negative for reducing substances since sucrose non-reducing sugar, but pH low
C.
Evaluation
1.
History
a)
Stool history should include frequency, consistency, appearance, presence of fecal incontinence, and the presence of
mucus or blood
b) Presence of nocturnal symptoms and the duration of symptoms should also be elucidated
c)
Accurate diet history, including ingestion of fruit juices and dairy products
d) Age of onset, ethnicity, medications, and travel and family histories
2.
Physical examination
a)
Growth parameters, including height, weight, OFC, and weight-height ratio (or BMI), should be plotted
b) Vital signs may confirm a suspicion of dehydration or endocrinopathy
c)
Look for evidence of weight loss or muscle wasting
d) Abdominal examination may reveal distention, organomegaly, thickened bowel loops, bowel sounds, bruits, or masses
e)
Anorectal examination is essential, allowing for instant inspection of stool, occult blood status, presence of impaction,
and active perianal disease
f)
Extraabdominal examination may reveal skin, joint, lymph, eye or thyroid gland abnormalities.
3.
Stool
a)
Qualitative or quantitative fecal fat analysis, fecal alpha-1 antitrypsin, and fecal pH and reducing substances are used to
define fat, protein, and carbohydrate malabsorption, respectively
b) Fecal gram stain may demonstrate leukocytes, suggesting inflammatory or infectious diarrhea
c)
Stool culture for enteric pathogens and Clostridium difficile, and stool analysis for ova and parasites and Giardia antigen
are less likely to be positive in chronic diarrhea
d) Fecal elastase measurement is a screening tool for pancreatic insufficiency
e)
Simultaneous stool osmolality and stool electrolytes allows for calculation of stool osmotic gap and differentiation
between secretory and osmotic diarrhea
f)
An elevated stool magnesium level suggests laxative abuse.
4.
Blood
a)
Complete blood count screens for anemia, and white blood cell count is often elevated in inflammatory bowel disease
b) Inflammatory markers, such as sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, and platelet count, are often elevated in
inflammatory bowel disease
c)
Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency can be assessed by serum carotene, prothrombin time, and vitamin A, D, and E levels
d) Decreased total protein and albumin levels in combination with elevated fecal alpha-1 antitrypsin suggest protein-losing
enteropathy
e)
Measurement of gastrointestinal hormones, including gastrin and VIP, is used to screen for neuroendocrine tumors
f)
Consider screening for Celiac disease with anti-endomysial antibody and/or tissue transglutaminase IgA, coupled with
quantitative IgA to rule out false negatives from IgA deficiency
5.
Endoscopy
a)
Individuals with prolonged bloody diarrhea should undergo endoscopic examination with biopsies
(1) Profuse diarrhea following antibiotic use dictates laboratory and/or endoscopic evaluation for Clostridium
difficile
(2) Melanosis coli (dark staining of colonic mucosa) may be present with laxative abuse
b) Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy allows for the collection of duodenal fluid for culture in cases of suspected bacterial
overgrowth, and for the collection of small intestinal biopsies for histologic and electron microscopic analyses.
6.
Other
a)
Contrast radiographic studies allow for evaluation of inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal obstruction, blind loops,
Hirschsprungs and fistulas
b) Abdominal/endoscopic ultrasound or CT is used for suspicion of neurogenic tumors or gastrinoma
c)
Lactose-hydrogen breath test for suspected lactose intolerance
D.
Therapy: appropriate therapy rests on identifying and treating the underlying cause
1.
Diet
a)
The resumption of a regular diet for age is necessary, especially when physical examination is normal
b) Limitation of fruit juice or lactose-containing products may be indicated, depending on history
c)
High fat, low carbohydrate diet may be helpful in toddlers diarrhea
d) Gluten-free diet indicated for Celiac disease
e)
Avoidance of suspected food allergens may be indicated by presentation, family history and results of medical evaluation
(1) Protein hydrolysate formula for infants with suspected milk/soy protein allergy (i.e. Alimentum, Nutramigen,
Pregestimil) however a small percentage may require elemental formula (i.e. Neocate, Elecare, Vivonex)
Page 18
NASPGHAN

2.
3.
Empiric therapy with anticholinergics, pancreatic enzymes, antibiotics, or bile salt sequestering agents is not recommended.
Therapy follows proper diagnosis
a)
Octreotide may be used in chronic secretory diarrhea due to neuroendocrine tumors
b) Antibiotics indicated for enteric infections, bacterial overgrowth
c)
Appropriate immunomodulator treatment for Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Autoimmune enteropathy
d) Surgical evaluation for Hirschsprungs, transplant in microvillus inclusion disease and other congenital disorders
E.
Authors
Steven J. Steiner, MD
F.
References
Fitzgerald, JF and Clark, JH. Chronic Diarrhea (pp. 43-57). In: Manual of Pediatric Gastroenterology, New York, NY. Churchill
Livingstone, 1988.
Tealey, AR and Reichelderfer M: Chronic Diarrhea. Lippincotts Primary Care Practice 1998,2:410-6.
Vanderhoof JA: Diarrhea (pp.32-42). In: Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease, Second Edition, Philadelphia, PA. WB Saunders, 1999.
Page 19
NASPGHAN
VII.
Obesity
A.
Definition: Obesity is defined as excess body fat.

1.
Since BMI is an excellent estimate of excess adiposity, the body mass index (weight/height2) is widely used in adult populations as
the sole criterion for classifying patients as either overweight (BMI, 25-29.9 kg/m2 ) or obese (BMI, > 30 kg/m2).
a)
Adult BMI >35 with identified comorbidity considered morbidly obese
b) Adult BMI > 40 (even without identified comorbidity) considered morbidly obese
2.
Body mass index in childhood changes substantially with age
a)
In the United States, the 85th and 95th centiles of body mass index for age and sex based on nationally representative
survey data have been recommended as cut off points to identify overweight and obesity
(1) Generally BMI > 85%ile but < 95%ile for age considered overweight
(2) BMI > 95%ile for age considered obese
(3) BMI > 97%ile for age considered morbidly obese
(4) Cutoffs may overestimate adiposity in athletic youths with large muscle mass
B.
Epidemiology
1.
Adults
a)
Overweight: In 1999 34% of Americans met the criteria for overweight, the highest percentage ever observed.
b) Obese: In 1999, almost 27% of the American population had BMIs of greater than 30 kg/m2.
2.
Children: The prevalence of child and adolescent obesity has increased dramatically over the last 30 years.
a)
For all race and ethnic groups combined, the prevalence of overweight and obesity was 22% and 10.9%, respectively
b) The highest prevalence of overweight is found among 6 to 11 years old African-American girls (31%) and MexicanAmerican boys of similar age (33%).8
3.
Risk Factors
a)
The two most important risk factors are parental obesity and ethnic background
(1) Investigators noted that if both parents were obese, 80% of the children developed obesity
(2) If one parent was obese, about 50% of the children developed obesity
(3) If neither parent was obese, only 10% of the children became obese.
b) Obese children are at risk for becoming obese adults. The risk of remaining obese increases with age and the degree of
obesity.
c)
Children in the USA spend 75% of their waking hours being inactive, compared with remarkably little time in vigorous
physical activity; estimated at only 12 min per day.
d) The epidemic increase in childhood overweight is the most common health problem facing US children
C.
Causes
1.
Obesity is a direct consequence of the first law of thermodynamics. Energy that is not consumed must be stored. Obese persons
become obese because of cumulative excess in energy intake that exceeds their energy requirements.
2.
Although the combination of increased energy intake and decreased physical activity is responsible for most child and adolescent
obesity, a strong body of evidence suggests that genetic factors contribute greatly to the severity of symptoms resulting from this
obesigenic environment.
3.
Obese children tend to consume diets higher in fat which have higher caloric density.
4.
Decreased resting metabolic rate may also be another factor involved in the development of obesity.
D.
1.
Primary Obesity
a)
For most obese children, the cause is primary obesity and is not associated with a specific clinical, metabolic or genetic
syndrome.
(1) Primary obesity is associated with increased height, advanced bone age, and early puberty.
b) Fewer than 5% of all cases are due to an underlying medical disorder.
2.
Endocrine Disorders
a)
Cushing syndrome
b) Hypothyroidism
c)
Pseudohypothyroidism type I
d) Hyperinsulinemia
e)
Growth hormone deficiency
f)
Panhypopituitarism
g) Stein-Leventhal syndrome (polycystic ovary syndrome)
3.
Congenital Disorders
a)
Muscular dystrophy
b) Myelodysplasia
4.
Chromosomal Disorders
a)
Prader- Willi syndrome
b) Down syndrome
c)
Turner syndrome
d) Klinefelter syndrome
e)
Laurence-Moon-Biedl synd
f)
Alstrom-Hallgren syndrome
g) Carpenters syndrome
h) Cohens syndrome
5.
Medications: certain drugs associated with increased weight gain
a)
Diabetes drugs: insulin, sulfonylurea, thiazolinediones
b) Psychiatric/ Neurologic drugs: tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, MAOIs, lithium, clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone,
valproic acid, carbamazepine, gabapentin
c)
Hormones: corticosteroids, hormonal contraceptives, progestational steroids
d) Miscellaneous agents: antihistamines, -blockers, -blockers
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NASPGHAN
E.
Medical Complications
1.
Cardiovascular: Hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, increased VLDL, hypercholesterolemia, increased LDL, decreased HDL,
myocardial hypertrophy
2.
Psychiatric: psychosocial dysfunction, low self-esteem, poor body image, depression, and learning disorders.
3.
Endocrine: Early puberty, diabetes mellitus type II (adolescents)/ insulin resistance, sodium retention, polycystic ovary syndrome
4.
Dermatologic: Acanthosis nigricans, varicose veins, striae/ stretch marks, skin irritation, maceration, hidradenitis suppurativa
5.
Neurologic: Pseudotumor cerebri
6.
Pulmonary: Obstructive sleep apnea, Pickwickian syndrome
7.
Musculoskeletal: Blounts disease (tibia vara), slipped capital femoral epiphysis, osteoarthritis, forearm fracture, flat feet
8.
Immunologic: Impaired cell-mediated immunity, reversed CD4-CD8 ratio
9.
Gastrointestinal Complications:
a)
Reflux Esophagitis - Hiatal hernia, increased intra-abdominal pressure
b) Esophageal Carcinoma
c)
Gallstones- Gallbladder cancer: More prevalent in women (increased cholesterol saturation index)
d) Liver Disease Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) or nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) which may progress to
cirrhosis (15% to 20% patients after approximately one decade) or liver failure and increase risk for hepatocellular carcinoma
e)
Pancreatitis: Obese persons are at higher risk for pancreatitis due to gallstones, hypertriglyceridemia, and
hypertriglyceridemia associated with diabetes.
f)
Colonic Polyps and Cancer of the colon
F.
Physical
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
G.
Laboratory and Imaging

1.
Thyroid status: TSH, T4 (specially if height is less than 50th percentile)
2.
Lipoprotein profile, fasting (total cholesterol, HDL, LDL,Triglycerides)
3.
Fasting glucose and insulin levels (for those with acanthosis nigricans).
4.
ALT, AST, GGT (NAFLD, cholelithiasis)
5.
Bone age
6.
CRP- may reflect cardiovascular risk status
H.
Prognosis
1.
Poor for long-term maintenance of weight loss (with current regimens)
2.
Obesity cannot be cured but can be modified by consistent changes in eating behaviors and physical activity.
I.
Treatment
1.
Conventional
a)
Most efforts to reduce obesity in children have used either family-based or school-based approaches.
b) Although a few family-based studies produced significant long-term weight loss in motivated individuals, the overall
success has been disappointing, leading some specialists to conclude that treatment of obese children is unrealistically
optimistic.
c)
Treatment in childhood, however, has the advantage of having fewer years of obesigenic behavior to overcome and
continued vertical growth. It therefore may offer the best window of opportunity for treatment of this chronic condition.
d) The major components of all obesity programs are education, calorie restriction, increased physical activity, and
behavioral changes (limitation of television watching).
e)
A common sense approach to prevention and treatment of childhood obesity should include family participation in the
care plan, long-term follow-up as a chronic condition and a realistic weight goal for weight loss and maintenance.
2.
Diets
a)
Although numerous fad diets are continuously proposed, there are few that are supported by rigorous clinical trials in
adults, much less children
b) Ketogenic diets, such as Atkins and Protein sparing modified fast diets are being studied (in both adults and adolescents)
and have been shown in short term studies to result in greater weight loss and improvement in lipid profiles, compared to
traditional low fat, low calorie diets
(1) Most subjects seem to regain the weight after coming off the diet and long-term maintenance of ketosis is not
usually recommended
(2) Most successful studies were performed under strict dietary supervision, and would be quite difficult to
maintain off protocol, especially for adolescents
(3) Inadequate adherence to ketogenic diets may result in significant weight gain from increased caloric density of
diet
(4) Gallstones, arrhythmias, constipation, electrolyte disturbances have all been described on ketogenic diets
3.
Medications: There are currently no weight-loss medications approved for use in children, although multicenter trials using
sibutramine and orlistat have been performed in adolescents with short-term success
a)
Orlistat is a pancreatic lipase inhibitor which decreases dietary fat absorption to about 30%
(1) In adults it decreases body weight by 5-10% and weight is generally regained with discontinuation of the drug
(2) Side effects of steatorrhea and flatulence with dietary fat intake may limit compliance
b) Sibutramine is a mixed serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor which acts in the CNS to decrease
appetite
(1) In adults it may reduce body-weight by 5-10%, and this is generally regained with discontinuation of the drug
(2) Generally well-tolerated
Examination
Anthropometric measurements: height, weight, BMI, skinfold thickness (triceps), mid-arm circumference and waist circumference.
Fat distribution pattern (central or gynecoid).
Tonsillar hypertrophy
Thyromegally, thyroid nodules
Hepatomegaly (fatty liver).
Hyperpigmented skin in the axilla, neck and groin (acanthosis nigricans).
Skin lesions in inguinal area and perineum (hydradenitis suppurativa)
Tanner staging
Blood pressure
Page 21
NASPGHAN

c)
Metformin is a well-established medication for treatment of type 2 diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome. It may be
useful for treatment of insulin resistance in obese children and result in weight-loss as well.
d) Bupropion is an antidepressant medication that has been found in placebo-controlled studies to result in improved
weight-loss in both depressed and non-depressed adults participating in weight-loss programs.
e)
Other: More than 75 weight-loss drugs are in various stages of the FDA approval process before being approved for use
in adults.
4.
Surgery: Bariatric surgery creates an anatomic barrier preventing over-consumption and accumulation of excess calories either by
restricting the gastric reservoir or by inducing malabsorption.
a)
Types
(1) Gastric bypass (the most common performed today)
(2) Gastric restriction
(3) Jejunoileal bypass
(4) Biliopancreatic bypass
b) Although surgical treatment remains, by far, the most effective form of obesity therapy, there is a very high rate of
morbidity (70% of patients who undergo gastric bypass experience dumping) and mortality in obese adults.
c)
The limited experience in children and adolescents seems to confirm a similar rate of complications.
d) The use of bariatric surgery is only indicated in morbidly obese patients who have been properly screened and who have
failed maximal medical management. Use in morbidly obese adolescents remains controversial.
J.
Prevention
1.
Prevention and treatment of obesity ultimately involves eating less and being more physically active.
2.
Appropriate screening measures should be in place to identify children at-risk for development of obesity and intervene as early as
possible with simple dietary and behavioral changes
a)
Limit excess intake of high-calorie beverages such as whole milk, fruit juices and soft drinks.
b) Educate families on the risks of fast food intake and teach children to make healthier choices when eating out.
K.
Conclusion
1.
Given the profound consequences of childhood inactivity, poor nutrition, and obesity throughout the lifespan, urgency is warranted
in responding to this epidemic.
2.
Childhood obesity remains a very serious problem, with 25% to 50% of obese children ultimately becoming obese adults.
3.
Fifty-year follow-up studies of obese adolescents have demonstrated increased morbidity and mortality, even independent of
ultimate adult body weight status.
L.
Authors
Jose J. Derdoy MD
Robert E. Kramer, MD
M.
References
Dietz W, Robison T: Assessment and Treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatr Rev 1993; 14:337-344.
Epstein L: Family-based behavioral intervention for obese children. Int J Obes 1996; 20(suppl 1): 514-521.
Rosenbaum M, Leibel R, Hirsh J. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:396-407.
Dietz W. Health Consequences of Obesity in Youth: Childhood Predictors of Adult Disease. Pediatrics. 1998;101:518-525.
Troiano R., Flegal K. Overweight Children and Adolescents: Description, Epidemiology, and Demographics. Pediatrics.1998;101:497504.
Antonson D, Madison J. Eating Disorders and Obesity. In: Wyllie/Hyams. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis,
Management. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1999:73-87.
Graham K. Obesity. In: Schwartz M. The 5 minute Pediatric Consult. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Second Edition,
2000:580-581.
Strauss R, Pollack H. Epidemic increase in childhood overweight, 1986-1998. JAMA. 2001; 286:2845-48.
Denke M. Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Obesity. In: Sleisenger & Fordtrans. Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease:
Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. Philadelphia: Saunders, 7th Edition, 2002: 321-336.
Tershakovec A, Stallongs V, Hiralall A. Obesity. In: Lifschitz C. Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition in Clinical Practice. New York:
Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002: 249-274.
Ebbeling C, Pawlak D , Ludwing D. Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure. Lancet. 2002; 360: 473-82
Strauss R, Rodzilsky D, Burack G. Psychosocial correlates of physical activity in healthy children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001;
155:897-902.
Cole T, Bellizzi M, Dietz W. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. BMJ
2000;320:1240-3
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NASPGHAN
VIII.
Upper GI Bleeding
A.
Etiology
1.
Birth to 1 month
a)
Gastritis (peptic or allergic)
b) Gastric or duodenal ulcer
c)
Esophagitis
d) Coagulopathy (DIC, hemorrhagic disease)
e)
Vascular anomaly
f)
Necrotizing enterocolitis
g) Factitious (swallowed maternal blood, epistaxis, hemoptysis)
2.
Childhood (1 month - 18 years)
a)
Gastric or duodenal ulcer 25-75 %
b) Gastritis 15-25 %
(1) Peptic
(2) Allergic
(3) H. pylori
(4) Medication related
(5) Mechanical trauma (foreign body, NG or G-tube)
(6) Zollinger Ellison syndrome
c)
Esophagitis 10-25 %
(1) Peptic
(2) Allergic
(3) Infectious etiologies (CMV, HSV, Fungal) in immunocompromised
d) Varices secondary to liver disease or portal vein obstruction ( 0-15 %)
e)
Mallory-Weiss tear
f)
Gastrointestinal duplication
g) Vascular anomaly
h) Dieulafoy lesion
(1) Rupture of small mucosal artery into gastric lumen, presenting with massive UGI bleeding
(2) Usually in proximal third of stomach, associated with the lesser curve
(3) Rare in children
i)
Coagulopathy
j)
Hemobilia
k)
G-tube or NG-tube trauma
l)
Factitious (epistaxis, hemoptysis, red food or drinks, red meat, iron supplementation. If melena, may be secondary to
bismuth subsalicylate)
B.
Presentation
1.
Hematemesis (or bloody NG output) (69%)
2.
Melena (53%)
3.
Hematochezia (if rapid transport through GI tract, h/o of bowel resection) (16%)
4.
Anemia
5.
Abdominal pain
6.
Shock
7.
Syncope
C.
Evaluation
1.
History: Recent vomiting, feeding refusal, pain, stress, h/o liver disease, cystic fibrosis, coagulopathy, vitamin K given after
delivery, possibility of foreign body, caustic ingestion or H. pylori infection, breast feeding, h/o recent dental work, oral surgery or GI
procedures
2.
Exam: HR, BP, orthostatics, pallor, jaundice, cutaneous evidence of chronic liver disease or cutaneous vascular malformations,
evidence of nasal or oropharyngeal source, abdominal distention or rigidity, hepatosplenomegaly, capillary refill, perfusion
3.
Laboratory:
a)
TYPE AND CROSS,
b) HCT/Hg, Platelets
c)
PT/PTT
d) Liver enzymes, Albumin
4.
NG lavage
a)
Assists with location and determination of degree of active bleeding.
b) Use room temperature normal saline, NOT ice cold water (risk of hypothermia, does not help with hemostasis)
c)
Can have false negative if bleeding site is distal to pylorus, or if volume of saline used is too small
d) Tube poses small risk of exacerbating bleeding
5.
Gastroccult emesis or NG aspirate, Hemoccult stool
6.
Apt-Downey test to differentiate swallowed maternal blood
a)
Mix 1:5 bloody stool or emesis:water (should have at least 1-2 cc of sample)
b) Centrifuge at 2000 rpm for 2 minutes
c)
Decant supernatant and use for remainder of evaluation, may discard cellular debris
d) Mix 1 cc of 0.25N NaOH to 5 cc supernatant
e)
Observe for color change after 2 minutes
(1) Fetal hemoglobin remains pink
(2) Adult hemoglobin turns yellow-brown as it is denatured
7.
Imaging (often low yield, but interventional radiology can be helpful in diagnosis and establishment of hemostasis)
a)
Abdominal plain film and upright for FB, perforation, NEC
b) Ultrasound with doppler if liver disease suspected
c)
Tagged red cell scan (need 0.1 cc/ minute rate of bleeding,)
(1) Tc-99m labeled RBCs re-injected into peripheral bloodstream to look for active bleeding
(2) Can obtain delayed view at 24 hours if initially negative, and this may detect intraluminal pools of blood as
small as 5 cc (Location of pool may not accurately correlate with site of bleeding).
Page 23
NASPGHAN

d)
8.
D.
Angiography (need > .5 cc/ minute rate of active bleeding)

(1) Indicated for actively bleeding lesions or chronic bleeding not identified by other tests
(2) Femoral artery approach, catheter guided through mesenteric arteries and contrast medium injected
(3) Interventional techniques can be therapeutic
e)
Barium studies are insensitive and may delay therapy
Endoscopy (sensitive, specific, can be therapeutic)
a)
If endoscopic therapy likely to be necessary, consider general endotracheal anesthesia
Therapy
1.
General/
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
2.
Medical
a)
3.
Supportive
Oxygen as needed
Ensure good IV access at all times
Volume resuscitation as needed
Monitor vital signs frequently, follow serial Hgb/HCT as needed to assess persistence and severity of bleeding
Type and screen for PRBCs, transfuse as indicated for rapidly decreasing HCT, vital sign instability
Optimize coagulation (Vitamin K, FFP) as needed
IV/PO H2 blocker (acid reduction)

(1) Ranitidine
(2) Famotidine
(3) Nizatidine
(4) Cimetidine
b) IV/PO PPI (acid reduction)
(1) Omeprazole
(2) Lansoprazole
(3) Rabeprazole
(4) Pantoprazole
c)
IV Octreotide (vasoconstriction) for ongoing upper GI bleeding
(1) Limited pediatric data
(2) May decrease transfusion requirements by slowing variceal and non-variceal upper GI bleeding)
d) PO/PG Sucralfate (cytoprotective)
e)
PO/PG Misoprostol (cytoprotective)
f)
Therapy for H. pylori infection (antimicrobial) if indicated
Endoscopic (After medical therapy fails to control continued bleeding)
a)
Variceal bleeding
(1) Band ligation
(a) Advantages
(i) Has been shown to be at least as effective as sclerotherapy in eradicating varices in adults
and children
(ii) Lower rate of all forms of complications
(b) Disadvantages
(i) Decreased visualization when variceal band ligator attached
(ii) Requires at least two esophageal intubations
(iii) May be more difficult than sclerotherapy in treatment of actively bleeding lesions
(iv) Use limited in smaller children due to size of apparatus (currently minimum 9mm
endoscope, adapter has outer diameter range of 12-13 mm)
(c) Complications
(i) Rebleeding
(ii) Esophageal ulcers
(iii) Esophageal perforation
(iv) Food impaction at banded site
(v) Predisposition to bacteremia
(d) Technique
(i) Identify varices using standard upper endoscopy
(ii) Attach variceal band ligator to tip of endoscope (use of multi-band attachments decreases
need for repetitive esophageal intubation)
(iii) Advance endoscope until most distal target varix identified and deflect tip toward varix
(iv) Apply suction until varix causes red-out, then trigger band placement
(v) Repeat as needed, moving proximally
(2) Sclerotherapy
(a) Advantages
(i) Only one esophageal intubation
(ii) Smaller equipment may be used, thus smaller children may be treated
(iii) Better visualization
(iv) May be easier in treatment of actively bleeding lesions
(b) Disadvantages: More frequent and severe complications than band ligation
(c) Complications
(i) Chest pain, acute dysphagia, fever are common
(ii) Tissue necrosis and ulceration, possibly leading to fistulization into adjacent organs
(iii) Stricturing
(iv) Rebleeding
(v) Esophageal perforation
(vi) Predisposition to bacteremia
(d) Technique
(i) Identify varices using standard upper endoscopy
(ii) Via endoscope channel, using 23 or 25 gauge, 4 or 6 mm needle, inject sclerosing agent
into varix
(iii) Recommended to only sclerose varices in the distal 5-6 cm of the esophagus to avoid
complications
Page 24
NASPGHAN
b)
c)
d)
(iv) Sclerosing agents include Sodium Morrhuate, ethanolamine oleate, poliodocanol, sodium
tetradecyl sulfate alone or mixed with ethanol. All have been used with comparable success.
(3) Non-variceal Upper GI bleeding (most published pediatric experience limited to case reports)
(a) Sclerotherapy for gastroduodenal ulcers as in adults
(b) Laser therapy has been used to treat diffuse bleeding in adults, but rarely in children. Can be
performed using 1.5 mm catheter via pediatric endoscope
(c) Hemostatic clips may be applied endoscopically to halt focal arterial or venous bleeding, but can be
cumbersome
Sengstaken-Blakemore tube
(1) Indicated in acute, uncontrollable esophageal hemorrhage, or for use as a temporizing measure until an
appropriate therapeutic center can be reached.
(2) Esophageal balloon is used to tamponade bleeding sites. Should be decompressed after 12-24 hours
(incidence of mucosal damage increases with duration of use)
(3) Serious complications in up to 20% of patients (upper airway obstruction due to balloon migration, esophageal
ulceration or perforation due to excessive pressure
TIPS (Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt)
(1) Indicated in recurrent variceal bleeding and refractory ascites, and provides effective therapy for the
complications of portal hypertension
(2) A temporizing measure to serve as bridge to transplantation
(3) Technique
(a) Via right internal jugular vein, needle advanced through liver parenchyma, bridging the hepatic vein
and portal system
(b) Tract is dilated and expandable stent placed
Surgery: Important to involve surgical team early in case adverse or unexpected events occur
E.
Authors
Brad Barth, MD, MPH
F.
Reference
Fabion W, Perrault J. Gastrointestinal bleeding, W Walker, ed, B.C. Decker, Hamilton, Ontario, 2000; 164-178
Fox V. Pediatric endoscopy. Gastroenterological endoscopy, C Lightdale, ed, Thieme, New York, 2002; 720-752
Fox V. Gastrointestinal bleeding in infancy and childhood. Gastro Clinics North Am, 2000; 29(1):37-66
Heikenen J, Pohl J, Werlin S, Bucuvalas J. Octreotide in pediatric patients. J Ped Gastro Nut, 2002; 35:600-609
Helmy A, Hayes P. Review article: current endoscopic therapeutic options in the management of variceal bleeding. Aliment Pharmacol
Ther, 2001; 15:575-594
Lewis B. Small intestinal bleeding. Gastro Clinics North Am, 2000; 29(1):67-95
McKiernan P, Beath S, Davison S. A prospective study of endoscopic esophageal variceal ligation using a multiband ligator. J Ped
Gastro Nut, 2002; 34:207-211
Page 25
NASPGHAN
IX. Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding

A.
Definitions
1.
Hematemesis is the passage of vomited blood that has a coffee ground or bright red color. This usually implies hemorrhage
proximal to the ligament of Treitz.
2.
Hematochezia is the passage of bright or dark red blood per rectum, usually indicating a lower GI source, although this may also
be due to a fast intestinal transit time or a massive upper GI bleed.
3.
Melena is the passage of black, tarry stools associated with bleeding proximal to the ileocecal valve or, less commonly, in the
ascending colon if the colonic transit is sufficiently slow to allow bacteria to denature the hemoglobin.
4.
Occult bleeding is the presence of blood in stool that is not grossly detectable.
B.
Physician Assessment
1.
History taking should include the source, magnitude, duration of the bleeding, as well as any associated gastrointestinal and
systemic symptoms.
2.
Review of systems and family history should include GI disorders, liver disease, bleeding diatheses and medication use .
3.
Physician should establish that blood is indeed present in the stool as food and medication can change the color of the stool. Table
1
4.
Physical exam should initially be aimed at recognizing the signs and symptoms of shock.
a)
Later on, a careful examination of the skin, abdomen, perineum and rectum should be done looking for rashes, vascular
malformations, stigmata of liver disease, presence of abdominal masses, tenderness, peritoneal irritation, skin tags, fistulas,
anal fissures and hemorrhoids. A stool guaiac test is essential to confirm the presence of blood, however some substances
can interfere with guaiac tests. Table 2
C.
Table 1.Substances that Commonly Color Stools
Red
Black
Commercial Dyes #2 & #3
Bismuth
Ampicillin
Activated charcoal
Beets
Iron
Laxatives
Spinach
Phenytoin
Blueberries
Licorice, Lead, Dirt,
Rifampin
Dark chocolate
Table 2- Substances that interfere with Guaiac Tests for Fecal Occult Blood
False-positive Results
False-negative Results
Meat
Vitamin C
Ferrous Sulfate (stool pH <6.0)
Storage of specimen >4days
Tomatoes, bean sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli,
(Hemoglobin degradation)
horseradish, turnips, fresh red cherries,
Outdated reagent or card
cantaloupes, grapes
C. Lower GI Bleeding Chart
C. Lower GI Bleeding
(UGI bleeding ruled out)
Healthy Appearing
Ill Appearing
Signs of Systamic
or liver
CBC, stoll for

O&P, culture and
C. diff, air enema
if intussusception
suspected
Massive
and/or
paroxysmal
Inactive or
intermittent
Signs of Systamic
or liver
Infant:
APT Downey
test, consider
change of
formula
CBC, ESR, PT, PTT,

LFTs, GGT, blood typing
and crossmatch, BUN
and Cr, UA, stool for
culture, O&P and C diff.
Page 26
Child:
CBC
CBC, blood
typing and
crossmatch
Meckel scan
bleeding scan
NASPGHAN
Table 3-Causes of Lower Intestinal Bleeding

Common
Infants
Anal Fissure
Cows milk protein allergy
NEC
Swallowed maternal blood
Children
Anal fissure
Intussussception
Infectious enterocolitits
(Salmonella, Shigella,
Campylobacter, E. Coli
0157, Yersinia, C. Diff)
(>4 years old)
Meckels diverticulum
Perianal streptococcal cellulites
Juvenile/inflammatory polyp
Uncommon
Vascular lesions
Hirschsprungs enterocolitis
Meckel diverticulum
Intestinal duplication
Intussussception
(<4 years old)
Vascular malformations
Intestinal duplication
Henoch-Schonlein Purpura
Hemolytic-Uremic Syndrome
Cecitis
Infectious Diarrhea (CMV, amebiasis)
Hemorrohids
Hemorrhoids
Colonic or rectal varices
Ulcer at surgical anastomosis
Solitary ulcer of the rectum
Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia
Sexual abuse
Rectal Trauma
Foreign Body Injury
Table 4-Conditions Associated with Intestinal Bleeding

Condition
Intestinal Lesion
Turner Syndrome
Epidermolysis Bullosa
Down Syndrome
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome
Blue rubber bleb nevus Syndrome
Osler-Weber-Rendu Syndrome
Venous ectasia, Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Esophageal lesion, Anal fissure, colonic stricture
Hirschsprungs Disease, Meckels diverticulum, Pyloric
Stenosis
Fragile vascular walls
Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome
Vascular malformations, epistaxis
Klippel-Trenaunay Syndrome
Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum
Glycogen storage disease type 1b
Fragile vascular walls
Inflammatory Bowel aseDise
D.
Authors
Rima Fawaz M.D.
E.
References
Faubion WA, Perrault J: Gastrointestinal Bleeding. In: Pediatric Gastrointestinal
Disease. Walker WA et al. BC Decker. 3rd edition. 2000: 164-178.
Squires RH: Gastrointestinal bleeding. Pediatr Rev.01-Mar-1999; 20(3):95-101.
Heitlinger LA, McClung HJ. Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage. In: Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease. Wyllie R, Hyams J. W.B. Saunders Co.
2nd edition. 1999:64-72
Fox, V. Gastrointestinal bleeding in infancy and childhood. Gastroenterology Clin North Am. 2000; 29(1): 37-66
Lawrence WW. Causes of Rectal Bleeding in Children. Pediatr Rev.01-Nov-2001; 22(11):394-395
Page 27
NASPGHAN
X. Ascites
A.
Background
1.
Term ascites is derived from the Greek word askos meaning bag or sack
2.
Defined as the pathological accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity
3.
May be congenital or acquired
4.
Typically results from hepatic or urinary tract disease in children
5.
Management depends on the causative factors
B.
Etiology: Most common etiologies vary by age of patient

1.
Hepatobiliary
a)
Cirrhosis : ascites results from portal hypertension
b) Portal dysplasia
c)
Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis
d) Hepatitis: viral and alcoholic
e)
Budd-Chiari syndrome
f)
Liver metastasis
g) Biliary atresia with cirrhosis
h) Common bile duct perforation
i)
Gallbladder rupture
j)
Portal vein thrombosis
2.
Cardiovascular
a)
Congestive heart failure/ arrhythmia
b) Hydrops
3.
Genitourinary
a)
Hydronephrosis
b) Multi-cystic kidney
c)
Nephrotic syndrome
d) Peritoneal dialysis
e)
Obstructive uropathy
f)
Bladder rupture/injury
g) Kidney rupture
h) Ovarian cyst
4.
Gastrointestinal
a)
Malrotation with bowel compromise/ perforation
b) Perforation
c)
Acute appendicitis
d) Jejunal atresia
e)
Meconium peritonitis
f)
Pyloric duplication
g) Protein-losing enteropathy/ intestinal lymphangiectasia
5.
Infectious
a)
Cytomegalovirus
b) Tularemia
c)
Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
d) Tuberculous peritonitis
e)
Parvovirus with hydrops
f)
Syphillus
g) Chronic granulomatous disease
6.
Metabolic with associated cirrhosis
a)
Niemann-Pick type C
b) Neonatal hemochromatosis
c)
Lysosomal storage disease
d) Wolmans disease
e)
Cystic Fibrosis
f)
Galactosemia
g) -1 anti-trypsin disease
7.
Other
a)
Pancreatic
b) Chylous
c)
Trisomy
d) Turners syndrome
e)
Ventriculo-peritoneal shunt
f)
Neoplasm
g) Serositis
h) Post-liver transplantation
i)
Peritoneal carcinomatosis
j)
Idiopathic
k)
Pseudo-ascites
(1) Celiac disease
(2) Cystic mesothelioma
(3) Omental cyst
Page 28
NASPGHAN

l)
m)
n)
o)
Hemolytic anemia
IVC Hyperalimentation
Protein-calorie malnutrition
Letterer-Siwe Disease
C.
Pathophysiology
1.
Cirrhotic ascites
a)
Distortion and obstruction of the sinusoidal vessels from hepatic venous outflow blockage caused by regenerative
nodules and fibrosis
b) Widespread changes in circulation also important
c)
Hypoalbuminemia in decompensated cirrhosis exacerbates the ascites by decreasing oncotic pressure
d) Hypotheses
(1) Underfill theory: contracted blood volume with secondary sodium and water retention
(2) Overflow theory: unknown hepatorenal mechanism causes sodium and water retention
(3) Vasodilation of the periphery
2.
Non-cirrhotic ascites: a wide variety of mechanisms result in peritoneal fluid accumulation
a)
In low and high output heart failure as well as in nephrotic syndrome, decreased arterial blood volume leads to sodium
and water retention
b) Infectious and malignant peritoneal disorders cause peritoneal inflammation and exudation
c)
Chylous ascites results from congenital or acquired lymphatic obstruction or damage
d) Leakage from a viscus in biliary, pancreatic and urinary ascites
e)
Underlying portal hypertension as well as another cause for ascites may coexist- mixed ascites accounts for about 5%
f)
Hepatic venous outflow obstruction in Budd Chiari leads to massive ascites
D.
1.
Increasingly diagnosed in the fetus by prenatal ultrasound
a)
Anatomic, metabolic, hemolytic and chylous etiologies must be evaluated in newborns with ascites of unclear etiology
2.
May develop acutely or insidiously
3.
Older children may present with weight gain, edema, increasing abdominal girth, and bulging flanks
4.
Hernias (femoral, inguinal and umbilical) and an inverted umbilicus are seen in advanced ascites
5.
Quantification of ascites maybe done on this simple scale
a)
Grade 1: detectable by careful exam
b) Grade 2: small volume and easily detected
c)
Grade 3: obvious but not tense
d) Grade 4: tense ascites
6.
Physical Exam findings
a)
In those with cirrhotic ascites evidence of chronic liver disease like jaundice, spider angiomas, umbilical, abdominal wall
or gastrostomy collateral veins, prominent clubbing, and palmar erythema may be present
b) Splenomegaly and prominent abdominal wall veins often denotes portal hypertension
c)
Evaluation should also attempt to identify:
(1) Cardiac disease (murmur, jugular vein distention, pericardial friction rub)
(2) Renal disorder
(3) Peritonitis (diffuse abdominal pain, rebound tenderness)
(4) Pancreatitis (abdominal pain radiating to the back)
(5) Lymphatic obstruction (lymphedema)
(6) Hypoalbuminemia (edema)
(7) Hemolysis
(8) Nutritional disorders
E.
Diagnosis
1.
Physical Exam
a)
Shifting dullness
(1) The most sensitive clinical sign of ascites
(2) Sensitivity of 60-88% and a specificity of 56-97%
b) Fluid wave
c)
Bulging flanks
d) Percussion: distinguishes ascites from obesity or an abdominal mass
2.
Radiographic
a)
Abdominal radiographs
(1) Centralization of bowel gas pattern
(2) Flank strip sign
(3) Diffuse haziness
(4) Medial displacement of the liver edge
b) Ultrasound
(1) Most sensitive technique and can detect as little as 100 cc of free abdominal fluid in the adult
(2) May detect intra-peritoneal fluid and debris in infants with abdominal distention
(3) May identify potential intra-abdominal masses, vascular anomalies, and provide information about the size
and echotexture of the liver and spleen.
c)
CT scan/ MRI
3.
Paracentesis
a)
Procedure of choice for the evaluation of ascites with unclear etiology
b) Also recommended to detect infectious peritonitis, when patients are hospitalized, and when there is clinical
deterioration
c)
Few Contraindications and can be usually be performed despite prolonged prothrombin time, except in the setting of DIC
or active fibrinolysis
d) Complications
(1) Bleeding
(2) Abdominal wall hematoma
(3) Infection
(4) Bowel perforation
Page 29
NASPGHAN
e)
f)
F.
(5) Sudden labial or scrotal edema

(6) Persistent leak at the puncture site
(7) These can be limited by using a Z track, sterile technique, and avoiding scars
Technique
(1) Site
(a) Traditional approach is a midline site caudad to the umbilicus
(b) An alternative location is the flank, 2 cm superior and medial to the anterior superior iliac spine
(2) Positioning: most procedures can be done with the patient supine, slight elevation of the head of bed to pull
ascites to lower abdomen.
(3) Ultrasound guidance maybe used in selected situations (obesity, multiple scars)
(4) Percussion is used to pick the best flank if a midline approach is not utilized
(5) Catheter:
(a) A narrow bore catheter or metal needle (16 or 18 gauge angiocath or spinal needle) is sufficient to
withdraw the necessary 10 to 20 cc of fluid needed for a diagnostic procedure
(b) For larger volumes consider catheters specifically designed for paracentesis (ie 15 gauge Caldwell
needle)
Fluid Analysis
(1) The fluid is inspected grossly and sent for analysis
(a) Routine: cell count, gram stain, albumin, total protein and culture (in blood Cx bottle)
(i) Bedside inoculation of culture bottles with adequate volume of fluid (10 cc) increases the
yield of these cultures.
(b) Optional: glucose, triglycerides, amylase, LDH, bilirubin
(c) Unusual: TB culture/AFB stain, cytology/Cytospin, pH, lactate, peritoneal biopsy
(2) Additional tests can be ordered based on clinical findings and gross appearance of the ascitic fluid
(a) Turbid and cloudy: infectious
(b) Hemorrhagic: pancreatic, malignant, or tuberculosis
(c) Milky: chylous
(d) Straw colored; cirrhosis, renal, cardiac, or nutritional.
(3) Serum-ascites albumin gradient (SAAG) = serum albumin ascites albumin
(a) High gradient ascites (SAAG > 1.1 gm/dl)
(i) -Cirrhosis
(a) Ascitic fluid from patients with liver disease and no secondary complications is
generally straw colored, protein count is < 2.5 gm/dl, SAAG > 1.1 gm/dl, cell count
is < 250 cells/mm3 with mostly lymphocytes, and the glucose and LDH are similar to
serum values.
(ii) Alcoholic hepatitis
(iii) Cardiac ascites
(iv) Liver metastases
(v) Fulminant hepatic failure
(vi) Budd-Chiari syndrome
(vii) Portal Vein thrombosis
(viii) Veno-occlusive disease
(ix) Acute fatty liver of pregnancy
(x) Mixed ascites
(b) Low gradient ascites (SAAG < 1.1 gm/dl)
(i) Peritoneal carcinomatosis
(ii) Tuberculosis
(iii) Pancreatic ascites
(iv) Biliary ascites
(v) Nephrotic syndrome
(vi) Connective tissue disease
(vii) Bowel obstruction
(viii) Bowel infarction
(c) If portal hypertension is present, the SAAG is greater than 1.1 gm/dl with 97% accuracy
Management: Successful treatment of ascites depends on addressing the primary underlying cause
1.
Cirrhosis
a)
Treatment has not been shown to improve survival or liver function
b) Can improve quality of life and prevent complications of ascites
c)
Medical therapy for cirrhotic ascites includes dietary sodium restriction, fluid restriction, and diuretics
d) Therapeutic large volume (LV) paracentesis with or without albumin infusion is effective for diuretic-refractory tense
ascites
e)
Additional measures for those who remain refractory may involve transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS),
peritoneovenous shunt (PN shunt), or orthotopic liver transplantation (OLTx)
2.
Cardiac ascites: uncommon, but occurs in both high and low output failure
a)
Similar ascitic fluid analysis to cirrhosis
b) Treatment with sodium restriction, diuretics
c)
Medical therapy to improve cardiac output and to reverse underlying etiology (arrhythmia, anemia, congestive heart
failure)
3.
Biliary ascites: uncommon, seen with common bile duct perforation in infants, trauma and gallbladder rupture
a)
Ascitic fluid is bilious and total bilirubin value is > serum value (this may also be seen in bowel perforation)
b) Treatment is surgical
4.
Pancreatic ascites: Rare, complication of acute pancreatitis, pancreatic duct leakage or rupture from a pseudocyst
a)
May have underlying infection
b) Ascitic fluid may be hemorrhagic with elevated amylase
5.
Chylous ascites: Uncommon, seen in congenital abnormalities and acquired obstruction of lymphatics, post-surgical, trauma (child
abuse), and abdominal processes (Tb, malignancy, mesenteric adenitis)
a)
Ascitic fluid is milky and triglycerides are > serum value (usually >1000 mg/dl)
b) Treatment involves long chain fatty acid restriction, MCT added to diet, TPN, and recently octreotide
6.
Uroascites: Uncommon, occurs in newborns from urinary tract obstruction/disruption, anomalies, trauma or iatrogenic
Page 30
NASPGHAN

a)
Ascitic fluid is similar to that seen with cirrhosis although is the result of urine accumulation.
b) Treatment is surgical
7.
Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP): Infection of ascitic fluid without evidence of abdominal source
a)
Occurs mainly in pre-existing cirrhotic ascites and presents with abdominal distention, pain, fever, diffuse tenderness
and worsening jaundice. Although, maybe asymptomatic
b) Ascitic fluid has predominance of polymorphonuclear cells and leukocyte > 250 cells/mm3
c)
Treatment is with a broad spectrum antibiotic with gram-negative coverage (cefotaxime) as well as adequate coverage
for S. pneumoniae
8.
Bacterial peritonitis: Must be differentiated from SBP. Occurs in setting of intestinal perforation, intra-abdominal abscess.
a)
Ascitic fluid shows >10,000 PMNs/mm3, low glucose (< 50mg/dl), elevated LDH (225 mU/ml), elevated total protein
(> 1 gm/dl) and multiple organisms are cultured
b) Treatment is surgical and antibiotics
9.
Tuberculous peritonitis: Rare in children and if seen usually in setting of immunodeficiency or alcoholic cirrhosis
a)
Tubercles stud the peritoneum causing exudation of fluid
b) Mononuclear cells predominate in the ascitic fluid
c)
AFB smears lack sensitivity and culture requires large volume to be positive, so peritonoscopy is critical if suspected
d) Treatment is with anti-tuberculous drugs
10. General Treatment Modalities
a)
Sodium restriction
(1) Technique: achieve negative Na balance
(2) RESTRICTION: 2 meq/kg or 1-2 gm/day for adults
(3) Disadvantages: works poorly alone, negative impact on appetite and nutrition
b) Fluid restriction
(1) Technique: Not until Na <125
(2) Disadvantage: Most pts are not hyponatremic
Spironolactone
c)
(1) Dose: 2-3 mg/kg, up to 4-6 mg/kg, 400 mg maximum
(2) Disadvantages: Hyperkalemic metabolic acidosis
d) Furosemide
(1) Dose: 1 mg/kg, up to 2-4 mg/kg, 160 mg maximum
(2) Disadvantages: Hypokalemic alkalosis
e)
LV paracentesis
(1) Technique: Up to 100 ml/Kg, max of 5 liters
(2) Specifics: Safe, rapid, symptomatic relief. Most give albumin. Use needle designed for paracentesis if
possible (15 g Caldwell) or 16 /18 g IV catheter
(3) Disadvantages: Reaccumulation
f)
TIPS
(1) Technique: Non-surgical, hepatic-portal fistula
(2) Specifics: Lowers portal pressure, prevents rebleeding, alleviates cirrhotic ascites
(3) Disadvantages: encephalopathy, high rate of shunt occlusion, long term efficacy?
g) Peritoneovenous shunt
(1) Technique: Surgical
(2) Specifics: LeVeen, Denver shunts
(3) Disadvantages: High morbidity/mortality
G.
Authors
James Rick M.D.
H.
References
Colletti RB, Krawitt EL. Ascites. Wyllie R, Hyams, JS eds. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Saunders, 1999: 104-115.
Machin GA. Diseases causing fetal and neonatal ascites. Pediatric Pathology 4:195-211;1985
Reif S, Blendis L. Portal Hypertension and Ascites. Walker WA, Durie PR, Hamilton JR, Walker-Smith JA and Watkins JB eds. Pediatric
Gastrointestinal Disease: B.C. Decker, 2000: 233-246.
Reynolds, TB. Ascites. Clinics in Liver Disease 4(1);151-166.2000.
Runyon BA. Approach to the Patient with Ascites. Yamada eds. Textbook of Gastroenterology, 1999:966-991.
Wyllie R, Arasu TS. Ascites : Pathophysiology and Management. J of Pediatri 97(2): 167-176
Yu AS, Ke-Qin H. Management of Ascites. Clinics in Liver Disease 5(2);2001
Page 31
NASPGHAN
XI. Neonatal Cholestasis

A.
Definitions
1.
Cholestasis is defined physiologically as a reduction in bile flow
a)
Impaired bile flow is characterized by an accumulation in the liver and serum of substances that normally are secreted in
the bile, such as bilirubin, bile acids and cholesterol.
2.
Conjugated hyperbilirubinemia is the most recognizable laboratory manifestation of cholestasis, and its finding is always
pathologic.
3.
Clinical features of cholestasis include:
a)
Jaundice
b) Pruritus
c)
Acholic stools
d) Dark urine
4.
These features result from:
a)
Functional defect in bile formation, mainly related to intrahepatic disorders (Hepatocellular cholestasis)
b) Impairment in bile secretion and flow in relation to extrahepatic disorders (Ductular/Ductal cholestasis)
5.
Lab findings include:
a)
Conjugated bilirubin 2 mg% or 20% of total bilirubin
b) Increased ALP (more than 3-fold normal values)
c)
Increased GGT more than 5 fold
d) AST/ALT increased no more than 5-8 fold.
e)
Increased bile acids (>50 umol/l) and cholesterol
f)
ALT:ALP ratio <2
6.
Histopathology: Intralobular bilirubinostasis, hepatocellular necrosis and inflammatory infiltrates.
B.
Significance of cholestatic jaundice

1.
Neonatal cholestasis is present in 1/2500-5000 infants
2.
Many of the underlying pathologies related to it can be life-threatening at some point
a)
Must identify specific entities that are treatable medically or surgically
b) Early appropriate therapy may minimize further liver damage and optimize the infants growth and development.
C.
Diagnosis
1.
Clinical presentations of many of the disorders capable of producing cholestasis in infancy are similar (jaundice, dark urine, acholic
stools, and varying degrees of hepatomegaly)
a)
Degree of impairment of hepatocellular synthetic function and hepatocellular necrosis among these conditions is quite
variable
b) In 70-80% of infants who have cholestasis, extensive evaluation leads to a diagnosis of either idiopathic neonatal
hepatitis or extrahepatic biliary atresia
2.
Careful history and physical examination are mandatory and examination of the stools is essential.
3.
In the history consider:
a)
Timing and type of onset of clinical picture
b) Consanguinity
c)
Ethnicity
d) Family history of cystic fibrosis
e)
Infectious contacts including investigation on TORCHES
f)
Medications that may be hepatotoxic
g) Prematurity
4.
Physical exam
a)
General appearance (i.e. toxic appearance may suggest sepsis, galactosemia; well appearance may suggest biliary
atresia)
b) Facies (trisomies, Alagilles)
c)
Heart murmur (hypoperfusion, Alagilles)
d) Cataracts (galactosemia)
e)
Rash/purpura (TORCH, sepsis)
f)
Hepato/splenomegaly
5.
Labs
a)
Serum bilirubin, which should always be fractionated
b) AST, ALT, GGT, ALP
(1) Increased ALT/AST=Implies some hepatocellular damage
(2) Increased ALK P/5 nucleotidase=Suggests hepatobiliary disease
c)
Positive bilirubin/urobilinogen in urine
d) Hematologic
(1) CBC, smear
(2) Coombs (for unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia, or for rare cases of Coombs associated autoimmune hepatitis
in infants)
(a) Reticulocyte count
(b) PT/PTT (Prolonged PT=May be due to impaired hepatic synthesis or fat malabsorption as well as
malabsorption of vit. K)
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6.
7.
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
Imaging
a)
Elevated serum bile acids, cholesterol and triglycerides

Positive reducing substances in urine (Related to galactosemia)
TORCH titers (Toxoplasma IgG, IgM/ Rubella IgG, IgM / Cytomegalovirus IgM / Herpes Simplex Virus culture, PCR, titer)
Bacterial cultures (urine and blood, especially if toxic-appearing)
Hepatitis screen (IgM in mother and neonate)
Thyroid studies
Galactose-1-PUT
-fetoprotein (may be elevated in newborns, but is extremely elevated in tyrosinemia)
Sweat test
Serum AA screen and urine organic acids
-1-antitrypsin levels; protease inhibitor phenotype (MM, ZZ)
Urine succinylacetone (for tyrosinemia)
Ultrasound of liver, gallbladder and spleen

(1) Provides useful information
(2) No radiation exposure
(3) May detect choledochal cysts, an abdominal mass that compresses the biliary tract, biliary stones, absent
gallbladder (found in 90% of biliary atresia patients), triangular cord sign (sensitivity 83-100%) or ascites
(a) Provides information regarding portal flow, if Doppler ultrasound is requested.
b) Hepatobiliary scintigraphy (HIDA, DISIDA)
(1) May differentiate extrahepatic from intrahepatic causes of obstruction
(2) Helpful in excluding EHBA
(3) Not very specific and patients with paucity of bile ducts may have false (+) results
(4) Priming with phenobarbital (3-5 mg/kg/day for 48-72 hrs) may enhance biliary excretion and increases the
specificity
(a) Result is considered positive when there is good uptake of the radionuclide by the liver and but no
excretion to the gut within 24 hrs.
c)
Skull, long bones, spine X rays looking for bony abnormalities (that could be related to syndromes).
d) Intraoperative cholangiogram may need to be performed since none of the above are 100% sensitive or specific.
Liver Biopsy
a)
The most reliable means for determining the diagnosis in a neonate who has cholestasis
(1) Early in the course of some disorders, such as biliary atresia and -1-antitrypsin deficiency, characteristic
histologic changes may not be evident
b) Important histologic features to examine include:
(1) Hepatocytes (giant cells, inclusions, PAS+/diastase material, necrosis)
(2) Portal areas (degree of inflammation, number and character of bile ducts)
(3) Central veins (presence of congestion)
(4) Degree of fibrosis, presence of cirrhosis
(5) Intralobular bilirubinostasis
D.
Factors predisposing neonates to cholestasis

1.
The neonate experiences a period of relative cholestasis (physiologic cholestasis) in relation to the following:
a)
Decreased bile acid secretory rate which is affected by caloric and fluid intake
b) Elevated basal serum bile acid levels which are qualitatively abnormal
c)
Decreased ileal reabsorption
d) Inefficient hepatocyte uptake and transport of bile acids
e)
Decreased conjugation, sulfation and glucoronidation
2.
Non-specific insults in this age group result in cholestatic effects including hepatocyte giant cell transformation, cholestasis,
inflammation, hepatocellular necrosis, extramedullary erythropoiesis and fibrosis.
E.
1.
Intrahepatic Disorders
a)
Idiopathic neonatal hepatitis(Also known as Giant Cell Hepatitis)
(1) The extrahepatic biliary tracts are patent
(2) Histologic findings include portal inflammation, giant cell transformation, increased extramedullary
erythropoiesis, and bile stasis.
(3) Acholic stools are infrequent
(a) Jaundice develops during the 1st week of life in >50% of patients
(b) Hepatosplenomegaly is a regular finding
(c) These findings usually resolve, but approximately 20% of these patients could have a fulminant
course or develop progressive fibrosis.
b) Infectious (TORCHES and miscellaneous)
(1) Infectious agents may damage the liver directly by invasion of hepatocytes or indirectly by production of
hepatotoxins.
(2) Sepsis
(a) Can cause cholestasis through liver injury related to endotoxins and/or effector substances
inflammatory cytokines- acting directly on the liver
(i) There is evidence showing that pro-inflammatory cytokines are potent inhibitors of
hepatobiliary transporter gene expression, explaining impaired transport function that leads to
hyperbilirubinemia and cholestasis
(b) Sepsis can also be related to cholestasis through the effects of ischemia/hypoperfusion septic
shock-, medications/antibiotic side effects and parenteral nutrition.
(3) TORCHES Infections
(a) Often have low birth weight, and have associated hepatosplenomegaly, rashes, thrombocytopenia
and ocular abnormalities
(b) The appropriate use of viral cultures, serologic titers, imaging and ophthalmologic examinations lead
to the diagnosis in the majority of these babies
(c) These infections include:
(i) Toxoplasmosis
(ii) Other
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(iii) Rubella, Reovirus (controversial )
(iv) CMV, Coxsackie virus
(v) Herpes, Hepatitis B/C, HIV
(vi) Echovirus
(vii) Syphilis
c)
Genetic/Metabolic: Disorders of carbohydrates, amino acid and lipid metabolism may result in cholestasis and frequently
present with vomiting, lethargy, poor feeding, irritability and jaundice.
(1) Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism
(a) Galactosemia
(i) An autosomal recessive disorder results from a deficiency of galactose-1-Puridyltransferase
(ii) Accumulation of galatose-1-P results in jaundice, hepatomegaly, vomiting, failure to
thrive, cataracts, hypoglycemia and aminoaciduria
(iii) Non-glucose reducing substances may be found in the urine, but the definitive diagnosis
relies on the finding of a decrease in the concentration of galactose-1-p-uridyltransferase
within red blood cells.
(b) Fructose intolerance: Clinical syndrome similar to galactosemia.
(c) Glycogen storage disease type IV (rarely presents as neonatal cholestasis): Glycogen filled
hepatocytes, enzyme analysis of liver tissue
(2) Disorders of amino acid metabolism
(a) Tyrosinemia: Elevated urine succinylacetone, increased AFP and coagulopathy disproportionate to
other biochemical findings
(3) Disorders of lipid metabolism
(a) Nieman-Pick disease
(b) Cholesterol ester storage disease
(c) Wolmans disease
(d) Gauchers disease (rarely presents with cholestasis)
(4) Disorders of bile acid metabolism
(a) 3-Hydroxy-C27-steroid dehydrogenase/isomerase deficiency
(i) Second step in primary bile acid synthesis
(ii) Identified in Saudi Arabian lineage
(iii) Characterized by normal GGT and serum bile acid levels, despite level of cholestasis and
elevated aminotransferases
(iv) Diagnosis made by FAB-MS analysis of urine with absence of normal glyco and tauro
conjugates of primary bile acids
(b) 4-3-Oxosteroid 5-reductase deficiency
(i) Fourth step in bile acid synthesis
(ii) GGT generally elevated
(iii) Diagnosis made by FAB-MS
(5) Chromosomal disorders
(a) Trisomies 17, 18, 21
(b) Donahues syndrome
(6) Miscellaneous
(a) -1- antitrypsin deficiency
(i) Transmitted in an autosomal recessive fashion
(ii) Variants of -1-Antitrypsin deficiency are classified according to protease inhibitory (Pi)
phenotype system
(iii) More than 80 variants have been reported
(iv) The Z allele is the deficient variant most commonly associated with clinical disease
(v) Children who have clinical liver disease often display the phenotype ZZ
(vi) Affected infants typically develop jaundice in the first 2-4 mo of life
(vii) In most cases, the jaundice resolves by 7 months, although fulminant hepatic failure and
death occasionally occur. Cirrhosis may present later in life. Most individuals with ZZ manifest
no liver disease.
(viii) Dx is made by determining serum -1-antitrypsin concentration and Pi phenotyping
(ix) Hepatic transplantation is currently the only effective management for end stage liver
disease.
(b) Cystic fibrosis
(c) Neonatal iron storage disease
(d) Zellwegers syndrome: Cerebrohepatorenal syndrome
(i) Cholestatic jaundice, severe mental retardation, hypotonia, renal cortical cysts
(ii) Abnormal facies characterized by epicanthal folds, hypertelorism and a prominent
forehead.
d) Endocrine
(1) Hypothyroidism
(2) Neonatal hypopituitarism (often with septo-optic dysplasia)
(3) Congenital adrenal hypoplasia
e)
Cardiac
(1) Any pathology that causes hypoperfusion could cause direct liver injury
(a) Congestive heart failure
(b) Hypoplastic left heart syndrome. This type of presentation is associated with striking increase in
transaminases (2000s-3000s) and creatine phosphokinase levels followed in 1-2 days by jaundice that
may persist for one month or more
f)
Other
(1) Persistent intrahepatic cholestasis comprises a heterogeneous group of poorly delineated syndromes
(2) Common features include constant/episodic cholestasis, manifested by pruritus, jaundice, malabsorption,
hypercholesterolemia and FTT
(3) In some of these conditions (paucity of bile ducts) pruritus often becomes the primary clinical feature in the
first year of life, with subsequent development of widespread xanthomas
(4) Conditions presenting with these features include:
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NASPGHAN
2.
(a) Alagilles syndrome: The liver disease in Alagille syndrome progresses quite slowly; survival into
adulthood is common.
(i) Hypoplasia of intrahepatic ducts
(ii) Characteristic facies (small pointed chin, broad forehead, straight nose, and
hypertelorism)
(iii) Vertebral defects (hemi vertebrae, butterfly vertebrae)
(iv) CV anomalies (peripheral pulmonary stenosis, coarctation of the aorta, tetralogy of Fallot)
(v) Ocular abnormalities (posterior embryotoxon, exotropia, band keratopathy, and choloidal
folds)
(vi) Growth retardation
(b) Progressive Familial Intrahepatic Cholestasis (PFIC) Syndromes
(i) PFIC type 1 (Bylers syndrome)
(a) Severe form of familial intrahepatic cholestasis that leads to the development of
cirrhosis.
(b) Notable for absence of hypercholesterolemia and low to normal GGT;
transmitted in autosomal recessive fashion
(c) Due to mutation in FIC1 transporter gene, speculated to play a role in
enterohepatic circulation of bile salts
(d) Treatment: biliary diversion, liver transplantation
(ii) Benign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis (BRIC)
(a) Also due to mutation in FIC1 gene, but less severe than PFIC type 1, due to
some residual FIC1 activity
(b) Syndrome consisting of recurrent attacks of jaundice, pruritus, anorexia, and
weight loss
(c) Asymptomatic between attacks
(iii) PFIC type 2
(a) Phenotypically similar to PFIC type 1 but more severe
(b) Due to mutation in BSEP gene, thought to be the main bile salt transporter in
the canalicular membrane
(c) Also characterized by low GGT
(d) Liver transplantation is the only therapy
(iv) PFIC type 3
(a) The only form of PFIC with elevated GGT
(b) Later onset and more severe course than PFIC 1 or 2
(c) Due to defect in MDR3 gene, responsible for translocation of
phosphatidylcholine into bile, therefore more susceptible to bile duct epithelial injury
from bile salt detergent effects
(c) North American Indian cirrhosis
(d) TPN related cholestasis
(i) Has become the most the most common cause of conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the
NICU, with a variable range of severity.
(ii) 30-50% of infants who receive TPN for more than 2 weeks develop cholestasis and the
percentage increases to 80% in premature babies that have received it for more than 30 days
(iii) The etiology is likely multifactorial, involving functional immaturity of neonatal bile
secretion, lack of enteral feedings, sepsis, infection, glucose and lipid overload, quantity and
quality of AA, lack of specific AA (such as Taurine) and toxic components of TPN infusates.
(iv) Most of the patients liver function abnormalities resolve within 4-6 months after
discontinuing TPN
(v) TPN associated cholestasis is a diagnosis based on clinical findings and the absence of
other known cholestatic disorders
(vi) The main preventive measure is to start enteral feeds promptly, but cycling TPN may
decrease cholestasis in these babies by decreasing insulin levels. This facilitates mobilization
of fat and glycogen stores therefore decreasing the risk for fatty infiltration of the liver.
(e) Drug toxicities
(i) Drug-induced cholestasis has become an increasingly important problem caused by
metabolic or immunological idiosyncrasy to a drug, making this effect unpredictable
(ii) Some medications may be primarily cholestatic and others may result in hepatocellular
necrosis
(f) Histiocytosis X
(g) Shock (associated with hypoperfusion)
(h) Perinatal asphyxia (associated with hypoperfusion)
(i) Inspissated bile syndrome
(j) Intestinal obstruction (due to decreased ileal reabsorption)
(k) NEC
(l) Lupus
(m) Neoplasms (Hepatoblastoma, etc)
Extrahepatic Disorders
a)
Biliary atresia
(1) Incidence ranges from 1/10000 to 1/20000 live births, more frequent in females
(2) Most appear to be postnatal obliteration of the extrahepatic biliary tree, but up to 20% may be true congenital
anomalies (these usually associated with other anomalies such as duodenal atresia, malrotation, vascular
abnormalities and polysplenia)
(3) In 80% of the patients the obstruction is present at the porta hepatis
(4) Appear normal at birth, and remain healthy until 3-6 wks of age, when jaundice is more evident, and they
have acholic stools and firm hepatomegaly
(5) Typically, AST and ALT may be 2-5 times the upper limit, and conjugated bilirubin greater than 3 mg/dl; with
GGT and cholesterol higher than in other causes of cholestasis
(6) With progression biliary cirrhosis develops as well as failure to thrive
(7) Liver Bx with variable degrees of bile stasis, prominent bile duct proliferation and periportal inflammation and
fibrosis
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NASPGHAN
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
(8) Definitive diagnosis is made with exploratory laparotomy with intraoperative cholangiography
(9) If untreated, the life expectancy is 2 yrs, with death resulting from liver failure and/or portal hypertension
Choledochal cysts
(1) Dilatations of the biliary tree, most common is fusiform dilatation of the extrahepatic biliary tree
(2) More frequent in females
(3) Diagnosis is made by US and treatment is complete excision
Cholelithiasis/ Choledocholithiasis
Bile duct stenosis
Choledocho-pancreatico-ductal junction anomaly
Bile plug syndrome
(1) Complication of neonatal hemolysis, TPN, diuretic therapy and bowel dysfunction
(2) Treatment is supportive and prompt starting of enteral feedings
Extrinsic bile duct compression
F.
Therapy
1.
No specific therapy is available to reverse cholestasis and its complications; therefore, these patients require medical management
in an effort to maximize growth, prevent specific nutrient deficiencies and improve the overall quality of life.
2.
Medical treatment of cause
a)
Sepsis/ UTI
b) NEC
c)
Dietary regimens for galactosemia, fructosemia and tyrosinemia (improves renal function).
d) NTBC (Nitro-trifluoromethylbenzoyl-cyclohexanedione) treatment for tyrosinemia, diet therapy not usually effective in
progression of liver disease.
e)
Early introduction of enteral feedings and prompt discontinuation of TPN
(1) Removing Manganese and cutting copper in half in TPN (no good trials but theoretically reduces oxidant
injury).
(2) Cycling TPN
f)
Removal of hepatotoxic medications
g) Hormonal replacement
3.
Nutritional Support
A,D,E, and K vitamin supplementation and MCT predominant formula
a)
b) Calcium supplementation
c)
Other micronutrients that may be deficient include zinc and iron, sometimes requiring supplementation
4.
Medical Support
a)
Pruritus/Xanthomas
(1) Cholestyramine and cholestipol
(2) Ursodeoxycholic acid
(3) Rifampin, naloxone, hydroxyzine or diphenhydramine
b) PORTAL HTN: Management of ascites includes salt restriction and diuretics
5.
Surgical Options
a)
Kasai procedure for extrahepatic biliary atresia
b) Partial external bile diversion for pruritus
c)
Porto-venous shunt for portal HTN/ascites
d) Surgical resection of choledochal cyst or stone
e)
Correction of intestinal obstruction
6.
Liver Transplantation
a)
Indicated for patients who develop end-stage liver disease
b) Good survival rates
c)
A long-term, good quality of life is the rule rather than the exception.
d) Life-long immune suppression may cause post-surgical complications (infection, nephrotoxicity and malignancy)
G.
Authors
Maria-Stella Serrano, MD
H.
Reference:
American Academy of Pediatrics Provisional Committee for Quality Improvement and Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia.
Management of Hyperbilirubinemia in the Healthy Term Newborn. Pediatrics 1994;94(4):558-65.
Balistreri WF. Neonatal cholestasis. J Pediatr 1985;106:171-84.
Brough AJ, Bernstein J. Conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in early infancy: a reassessment of liver biopsy. Human Pathology 1974;5:507516.
Choi SO, Park WH, Lee HJ. Ultrasonographic triangular cord: the most definitive finding for noninvasive diagnosis of extrahepatic
biliary atresia. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1998;8:12-16.
Hussein M, Howard ER, Mieli-Vergani G, Mowat AP. Jaundice at 14 days of age: exclude biliary atresia. Arch Dis Child 1991;66:1177-79.
Liver Disease in Children (2nd edition) by Suchy, Sokol and Ballisteri.
Mushtaq I, Logan S, Morris M, et al. Screening of newborn infants for cholestatic hepatobiliary disease with tandem mass spectroscopy.
BMJ 1999;319:471-477.
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XII.
Cholestasis in Children and Adolescents

A.
Definition:
1.
The clinical, biochemical and histological manifestations of defective bile acid transport from the liver to the intestine.
2.
Most result from inflammatory and destructive processes affecting the intrahepatic or extrahepatic biliary tree or developmental
defects.
3.
Can progress towards cirrhosis and hepatocellular insufficiency requiring liver transplantation.
B.
Etiology:
1.
Cholangiopathies of the extrahepatic bile ducts:
a)
Biliary atresia
(1) Necroinflammatory destructive cholangitis resulting in progressive destruction and obliterating fibrosis of the
bile duct.
(2) Intrahepatic bile ducts are also subjected to this dynamic, progressive, inflammatory, destructive process1.
(3) Atresia is defined as absence of the lumen in part or the entire extrahepatic biliary tract, causing complete
obstruction of bile flow1.
(4) 15% have major abnormalities outside biliary system, such as polysplenia, malrotation, situs inversus and
congenital heart disease.
(5) Characterized by pale stools, jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly and FTT.
(6) HIDA scan may be helpful in diagnosis, showing no excretion of bile into the small intestine.
(7) Kasai portoenterostomy +/- OLT are treatment options.
b) Anatomic anomalies of extrahepatic bile ducts
(1) Agenesis of extrahepatic bile ducts
(2) Aberrant and Accessory bile ducts
(3) Bile duct duplication
(4) Congenital bronchobiliary fistula
(5) Spontaneous perforation of the CBD
(6) Bile duct hypoplasia
c)
Congenital Bile duct cysts:
(1) Choledochal cyst
(a) Congenital anomaly of the biliary tract, characterized by varying degrees of cystic dilatation at
varying segments of the biliary tract (extra or intrahepatic).
(b) Five subtypes based on nature and location of the cystic dilatation.
(c) The classic triad of intermittent abdominal pain, jaundice and right epigastric mass varies in
incidence, uncommon in children and occurs in 20%.
(d) Conjugated hyperbilirubinemia, hyperamylasemia or signs of mild chronic liver disease with
obstructive symptoms are seen.
(e) Children older than two years of age, present more commonly with pain.
(f) Diagnosis is by ultrasound, CT or cholangiography.
(g) Complete surgical excision of the cyst mucosa with jejunal Roux-en-Y loop is the treatment.
(h) Cholangitis and pancreatitis secondary to stone formation are complications.
(i) Adenocarcinoma of residual cyst tissue or gall bladder develops in 4-8% beyond age 20 yrs.
(2) Congenital dilatation of the CBD
2.
Cholangiopathies of intrahepatic bile ducts:
a)
Atretic cholangiopathies
(1) Intrahepatic bile duct atresia: Atresia is not complete, but involves a reduced ratio of the number of
interlobular ducts to the number of portal tracts.
b) Paucity of Interlobular bile ducts :
(1) Defined as ratio of the number of interlobular ducts to the number of portal tracts of less than 0.5 (Normal
being 0.9-1.8).
(2) The portal tracts devoid of bile ducts appear hypoplastic and the total number of portal tracts per unit of tissue
section is reduced compared with normal control subjects.
(3) Syndromic ( Alagilles syndrome)
(a) Associated with other extrahepatic anomalies
(i) Triangular facies
(ii) Butterfly vertebra
(iii) Peripheral pulmonic stenosis
(iv) Posterior embryotoxon on ophthalmologic exam
(b) Progressive intrahepatic bile duct destruction and hypoplastic extrahepatic bile ducts
(c) Caused by the alteration of a single gene, JAG1 (involved in cell signaling) at chromosomal location
20p12.
(d) Transmitted as an autosomal dominant gene with 94% penetrance and variable expressivity.
(e) Prognosis is variable, with some requiring OLT and others characterized by resolution of jaundice,
xanthomas and improvement in pruritis.
(f) Hepatocellular carcinoma is a complication.
(4) Non-Syndromic
(a) May be an isolated defect.
(b) Most frequent diagnosis in patients with conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the first month of life
(c) Heterogeneous group associated with
(i) Infections (CMV, rubella, syphilis, and Hepatitis B)
(ii) Alpha1 antitrypsin deficiency
(iii) Endocrine disorders (hypopituitarism)
(iv) Chromosomal anomalies (trisomy 21, Turners syndrome)
(v) Altered bile acid metabolism
(vi) Bylers disease
(vii) Norwegian cholestasis
(viii) Idiopathic causes
(d) Progressive cholangiopathy with apparently faster bile duct destruction
(e) Prognosis is variable because it is not a homogeneous group.
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c)
Combined extrahepatic bile duct atresia and paucity of interlobular bile ducts
3.
Fibrocystic Cholangiopathies: Dilatation of segments of the intrahepatic bile ducts associated with variable fibrosis. Most often
associated with cystic diseases of the kidney.
a)
Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)
b) Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis (CHF)
(1) AR disease characterized by hepatic fibrosis, portal hypertension and is usually associated with renal
abnormalities of ARPKD4.
(2) Histopathologic picture is variable
(a) Characterized in some by fibrous enlargement of the portal tracts, which contains variable numbers
of abnormally shaped bile ducts
(b) Others show bands of connective tissue of variable width linking adjacent portal tracts
(3) Typically seen in older children and adolescents with minimal renal involvement
(4) Spectrum and severity of clinical features vary
(5) Subtypes of CHF are recognized based on clinical symptoms
(a) Portal hypertensive (most common, often presenting with esophageal variceal hemorrhage)
(b) Cholangitic (characterized by cholestasis and recurrent cholangitis)
(c) Mixed and latent forms (manifests later in life or is discovered incidentally)
(6) Symptoms may appear early or late
(7) Lab values in the absence of cholangitis and portal HTN are normal (AST, ALT, Bilirubin) although mild
cholestasis may be seen
(8) Liver is normal in size and firm in consistency
(9) Diagnosis is by Ultrasound and CT of abdomen, with liver biopsy
(10) Therapy depends on type of CHF
(a) Antibiotics for cholangitis
(b) Sclerotherapy, band ligation and portosystemic shunts for variceal bleeding
(c) Transplantation is curative and indications for this would include recurrent cholangitis or progressive
hepatic dysfunction.
c)
Carolis disease (Pure form)
(1) Congenital ectasia or dilatation of the larger segmental intrahepatic bile ducts
(2) Dilated portions are in continuity with the rest of the biliary system and hence contain bile (communicating
type of cystic disease)
(3) The saccular dilatations of the ducts lead to stagnation of bile, predisposing to biliary sludge formation and
intraductal lithiasis, often complicated by superinfection
(4) Not hereditary
(5) May be associated with choledochal cysts
(6) Presenting symptoms: abdominal pain and hepatomegaly with steatorrhea
(7) Antibiotics +/- lobectomy of the affected lobe are treatment options.
d) Carolis syndrome (Combined form)
(1) Inherited as an AR trait
(2) Same as Carolis disease but is associated with periportal fibrosis and the kidney lesions of ARPKD
(corresponding to congenital hepatic fibrosis)
(3) Variations in anatomic location and in the clinical presentation have been reported
(4) Associated with periportal fibrosis (corresponds to CHF)
(5) Presentation may be a combination of the classic symptoms of Carolis disease (cholangitis, septicemia) and
CHF (cholangitis and portal hypertension)
(6) Complications include amyloidosis and cholangiocarcinoma (Biliary Ca increased incidence of 100 times)
(7) Lithiasis and bile stagnation with risk of infection exists
(8) Diagnosis by Ultrasound, CT, isotope scans and cholangiograms.
e)
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD)
f)
Isolated polycystic liver disease
g) Mesenchymal Hamartoma
h) Solitary (non-parasitic) cyst
4.
Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis:
a)
Presents in infancy or anytime during first year of life
b) It is an AR inherited disorder of childhood
c)
Leads to death from liver failure at ages ranging from infancy to adolescence
d) Disorders of bile acid transporter proteins leads to PFIC
e)
Differs from BA synthesis defects in that bile acid levels in serum are elevated and pruritis is a prominent clinical
manifestation
f)
Normal cholangiograms of intra and extra hepatic bile ducts
g) Three types with three different mutations in the hepatocellular transport system genes involved in bile formation
(1) PFIC 1 (Bylers Disease)
(a) Labs: normal GGT, normal cholesterol, high concentrations of serum primary bile acids
(b) Pruritus a prominent feature
(c) Histology shows canalicular cholestasis, minimal giant cell transformation, and slight lobular and
portal fibrosis with absence of a true ductular proliferation.
(2) PFIC 2 (BSEP deficiency)
(a) Also associated with severe pruritus
(b) Labs: normal GGT and high serum primary bile acid concentration, low primary bile acid
concentration
(c) Defect is in the canalicular membrane with ATP dependant bile acid transport into bile being
defective
(d) More severe than PFIC1, jaundice is permanent and rapid appearance of liver failure.
(3) PFIC 3(MDR3 deficiency)
(a) Associated with mild to moderate pruritus
(b) Labs: high GGT, moderate increase in serum primary bile acid concentration, low phospholipid
concentration
(c) Histology: ductular proliferation and inflammation and portal fibrosis, appearing like biliary cirrhosis
(d) Defect is in the canalicular membrane with ATP dependent translocation of phosphatidylcholine into
bile being defective
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NASPGHAN
h)
5.
6.
7.
(e) Usually present later in life, increased risk of portal hypertension and GI bleeding and end up with
liver failure later age.
Treatment
(1) UDCA: increases hepatocyte excretion of endogenous bile acids and limits their return to the liver by inhibiting
their intestinal reabsorption
(2) Partial external biliary diversion provides effective relief from pruritis and reversal of liver disease in PFIC 1 &
2
(3) OLT is an option if cirrhosis is present.
Progressive obliterative:
a)
Primary Sclerosing cholangitis fibrosis of the biliary tree
(1) Chronic hepatobiliary disorder that may affect patients of all ages
(2) Characterized by inflammation of the intra and extra hepatic ducts
(3) Leads to focal dilatation, narrowing or obliteration accompanied by local periductular fibrosis
(4) Progression to biliary cirrhosis and portal hypertension may occur
(5) Diagnosis
(a) Cholangiography best defines the structural abnormalities of the larger bile ducts
(b) Liver biopsy also helpful
(6) Three presentations:
(a) Neonatal onset
(b) Postneonatal onset with an associated disease (IBD, AIH, histiocytosis, immunodeficiency, etc)
(c) Postneonatal onset without any associated disease
(7) Subtypes:
(a) Isolated PSC
(b) PSC IBD complex:
(i) Liver disease may precede, coincide with or follow the diagnosis of IBD
(ii) Severity/ activity of IBD may not correlate with activity of PSC
(c) PSC - autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) complex/ overlap syndrome
(8) Symptoms: prolonged jaundice, progressive fatigue, malaise, anorexia, hepatosplenomegaly, weight loss and
pruritus. RUQ pain, fever and hyperbilirubinemia is often noted. May be completely asymptomatic.
(a) Children may present with poor growth and delayed puberty
(9) Labs: No specific lab findings for PSC. Mildly elevated ALT, bilirubin, PT, GGT and ALP, elevated ESR, IgG, ANA
or ASMA, ANCA and decreased albumin
(10) Complications: Cholangiocarcinoma, needs monitoring
(11) Management: supportive. Symptomatic relief with Ursodeoxycholic acid and fat-soluble vitamin supplements
in addition to monitoring for malnutrition and prevention of complications is indicated. Immunosuppressives such
as Prednisone +/- azathioprine have been used.
b) North American Indian cirrhosis
Bile acid synthesis defects (BASD)
a)
Pathogenesis
(1) Results from an insufficient production of normal primary bile acids, chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid
combined with accumulation of potentially toxic intermediary metabolites as a result of a block in the synthesis
(2) Cholestasis is exacerbated by a lack of primary bile acids that are essential for promoting bile flow
(3) Two categories depending on whether the enzyme catalyzes reaction in the steroid nucleus or in the side chain
(4) Deficiency of bile acids in bile, leads to defective absorption of lipids, which leads to deficiency of fat-soluble
vitamins and poor growth
(5) Bile acid transport elements may be secondarily affected in BASD.
b) Diagnosis: specific BASD diagnosis based on mass spectrometry, which detects atypical bile acids in urine and serum on
the basis of molecular weight
c)
Presentation: May present in neonatal period, early childhood or adolescence with jaundice, persistent cholestasis
d) Labs: conjugated hyperbilirubinemia, elevated ALT, normal GGT, low or normal serum bile acid levels and the presence
of atypical bile acids in serum and urine.
e)
Histology: progressive hepatocyte injury accompanied by periportal inflammation with progressive fibrosis, intralobular
cholestasis and regressive canalicular changes
f)
Treatment: primary bile acids may be beneficial in supportive therapy
Metabolic:
a)
1- antitrypsin deficiency
(1) Presentation
(a) May present in infancy with persistant jaundice, late childhood or early adolescence with
unexplained prolonged obstructive jaundice with or without pruritus.
(b) Resembles biliary atresia but shows paucity of intrahepatic bile ducts
(c) May include hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal distension, ascites or hemorrhage from esophageal
varices. May also present as chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, portal hypertension or hepatocellular carcinoma
of unknown origin
(2) Labs: elevated conjugated bilirubin, ALT, ALP, GGT, PT and cholesterol
(3) Diagnosis:
(a) Established by a serum 1-AT phenotype determination by isoelectric focusing or by agarose gel
electrophoresis at acid pH.
(b) Serum concentration of 1-AT may be helpful if used with phenotype to distinguish individuals who
are homozygous for the Z allele from the SZ compound heterozygotes, both of whom may develop liver
disease. Also important for genetic counseling
(4) Histology: PAS positive, diastase resistant globules in the endoplasmic reticulum of hepatocytes
(5) Treatment: avoidance of smoking and supportive treatment with prevention of complications, shunt surgery
and OLT.
(6) Prognosis: highly variable with some requiring liver transplantation and others being asymptomatic for years
b) Cystic fibrosis
(1) Approximately 25% will have hepatobiliary complications
(2) 5-10% of patients developing multilobular biliary cirrhosis by late childhood
(3) Cholestasis and retention of hepatotoxic bile salts occurs as a result of obstruction of bile ducts by inspissated
secretions and viscid mucous.
(4) Ursodeoxycholic acid is used to promote bile flow.
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NASPGHAN

c)
Galactosemia
Endocrine:
a)
Hypopituitarism
b) Adrenal disorders
9.
Obstructive:
a)
Cholelithiasis
(1) Negligible incidence of cholelithiasis in males, but in adolescent females there is a remarkable increase in
incidence between 11-13 yrs of age
(2) In pediatric patients 72% are pigmented stones, 17% are cholesterol and 11% have stones whose
composition is unknown
(a) Up to 5 yrs of age, pigment stones are more common and from 6 yrs onwards, cholesterol stones
are more common
(3) Causes: Hemolytic disease (30%), TPN, lack of ileocecal valve, short bowel syndrome, Wilsons disease,
Bylers syndrome, defects in bile acid synthesis, CF, pregnancy, BCP use
(4) Presentation: May be asymptomatic or may present with abdominal pain, mild increase in serum bilirubin,
aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase
(5) Diagnosis: ultrasound is the most sensitive and specific diagnostic tool, ERCP for evaluation/ removal of CBD
stones
(6) Treatment: Cholecystectomy is the treatment of choice, lithotripsy is an alternative
b) Malignant neoplasms
c)
GVHD
d) Lymphohistiocytic disorders
10. Other syndromes:
a)
Dubin Johnson syndrome
(1) Epidemiology : Autosomal recessive, more common than rotors syndrome, especially in males
(2) Presentation:
(a) Although hepatic anion storage is normal, there is a decrease in bile secretion into canaliculi
(b) Increase in conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin with normal LFTs and normal bile acids
(c) Intercurrent illness, pregnancy, BCP may precipitate presentation, results in increase of direct bili to
20 mg/dL
(d) May present with non-specific abdominal pain and hepatomegaly anytime from birth to adulthood
(3) Histology: may show a distinctive brown-black pigmentation that is grossly visible (secondary to melanin or
metabolism of epinephrine) in lysosomes
(4) Diagnosis:
(a) Oral cholecystography fails to visualize the gall bladder in Dubin Johnson syndrome
(b) There is normal or slightly increased excretion of urinary corpoporphyrins.
b) Rotors syndrome
(1) Epidemiology
(a) Autosomal recessive, less common than DJS
(b) Seen in early childhood (no sex difference)
(2) Pathogenesis:
(a) Due to deficient glutathione transferase activity and decreased storage
(b) Therefore both direct and indirect bilirubin refluxes back into circulation.
(3) Diagnosis:
(a) Hyperbilirubinemia (direct and indirect) with normal LFTs and bile acids
(b) Liver histology and oral cholecystography are normal
(c) Urinary corpoporphyrin III and I is 2.5-5 times higher than normal
(4) Prognosis: Asymptomatic except for jaundice. No treatment required.
8.
c)
Chromosomal disorders: (Trisomy 18, 21)
11. Drugs / Toxins:
a)
TPN cholestasis
b) Other drugs Estrogens/OCP, cyclosporine, haloperidol, erythromycin, azathioprine
C.
1.
Jaundice
2.
Pruritus
3.
Malnutrition
4.
Hepatosplenomegaly
5.
+/- Ascites
6.
+/- Abdominal pain/ distension.
D.
Pathogenesis
1.
Altered bile duct morphogenesis
2.
Infections, ischemia, or toxins in combination with genetic or immunologic susceptibility likely plays a role.
3.
Bile acid is toxic to the biliary epithelium and results in the symptom complex at presentation
E.
Diagnosis
1.
Serum
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Bilirubin (conjugated, unconjugated and delta)

ALT, AST, GGT, ALP, Alb
INR, PTT
TSH, Free T4
A1-AT phenotype
Cholesterol
Page 40
NASPGHAN
2.
3.
4.
g) Serum bile acid levels

h) Serum amino acids
i)
1-antitrypsin level and phenotype
Urine
a)
Urine reducing substances, Glucose
b) Succinyl acetone
c)
Organic acids
d) Bile acids
Radiology
a)
Vertebral X ray for butterfly vertebrae
b) Abdominal ultrasound vs CT scan
c)
Isotope scans/ HIDA
d) Cholangiography
Miscellaneous
a)
Sweat chloride or DNA testing for CF
b) Ophthalmology exam
c)
Echocardiogram
d) Liver biopsy
F.
Management
1.
Supportive
a)
Supportive treatment mostly for syndromic or non-syndromic causes until OLT is an option.
b) Fat soluble vitamin supplements
c)
For TPN/drugs, discontinue agents or minimize effect
d) For 1-AT deficiency, avoidance of smoking and supportive treatment with prevention of complications
2.
Medical
a)
Treat the cause of cholestasis if possible
b) For bile acid synthetic defects, replace cholic acid
Ursodeoxycholic acid
c)
d) Phenobarb, Rifampin or Cholestyramine for pruritus
e)
Manage/ prevent upper GI bleeds and portal hypertension sclerotherapy, band ligation, -blockers, octreotide
3.
Surgical
a)
Kasai procedure for biliary atresia
b) In case of obstruction, relieve the obstruction (ERCP, lithotripsy, surgery, etc)
c)
For severe pruritus partial external biliary diversion
d) Portosystemic shunt for intractable ascites/ portal HTN
e)
Liver transplant as indicated
G.
Authors
Pushpa Sathya. MD. FRCP(C), FAAP
H.
References:
Alvarez F, Bernard O, Brunelle F, et al. J. of Pediatrics 1981; 99: 370-375.
Page 41
NASPGHAN
XIII. Biochemical Tests of the Liver

A.
Introduction: No one test can sufficiently evaluate liver disease. The tests that are commonly used have limited sensitivity and specificity
and should be combined with a careful history and physical exam to evaluate for potential liver abnormality.
B.
Tests of Hepatic Cell Injury:

1.
Aspartate Aminotransferase: (AST, formerly serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, SGOT).
a)
Catalyzes the transfer of a amino group from aspartate to -ketoglutarate with the release of oxaloacetate and
glutamate.
b) Present as both cytosolic and mitochondrial isoenzymes.
c)
Present in liver, cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, pancreas, kidney, and red cells.
2.
Alanine Aminotransferase: (ALT, formerly serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase, SGPT).
a)
Catalyzes the transfer of a amino group from alanine to -ketoglutarate with the release of pyruvate and glutamate.
b) It is present only in the cytosol.
c)
It is present in high concentrations in the liver, and lower concentrations in muscle.
d) More specific for hepatocyte damage than AST.
e)
Can be markedly elevated in muscle disease.
3.
The AST/ALT Ratio:
a)
Serum AST and ALT levels are elevated in cases of liver inflammation and hepatocyte injury.
b) Modest elevations in levels (<500U/L) are found in many types of liver disease.
c)
Marked elevations are found in acute hepatocellular injury such as viral hepatitis, drug-induced hepatitis, and hepatic
ischemia.
d) The degree of enzyme elevation is not predictive of outcome in acute hepatitis
e)
The AST: ALT ratio is >2 in adults with alcoholic liver disease. This ratio rises in adults and children with chronic liver
disease and cirrhosis.
f)
The AST: ALT ratio is < or = 1 in acute and chronic (nonalcoholic) liver disease.
g) AST and ALT levels are useful in monitoring the progression of liver disease but are not specific for a particular
diagnosis.
4.
Lactic Dehydrogenase: (LDH)
a)
Enzyme is found in a wide variety of tissues including liver, red cells, cardiac muscle and kidney.
b) There are 5 isoenzymes.
c)
Elevation is seen with skeletal and cardiac muscle injury, hemolysis, stroke, and renal infarction. Therefore, it is less
sensitive and specific for the detection of liver disease than AST and ALT.
d) Massive, but transient elevations are seen with ischemic hepatitis.
C.
Tests of Cholestasis:
1.
Alkaline Phosphatase: (AP)
a)
Group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphate esters at an alkaline pH.
b) Found in liver (canalicular membrane), bone (osteoblasts), small intestine, kidney, placenta and tumors (Regan
isoenzyme).
c)
Liver and bone are the major sources of AP in the serum (bone isoenzyme).
d) Elevated hepatic isoenzyme results from increased enzyme synthesis and release rather than impaired biliary secretion.
e)
Does not distinguish intrahepatic from extrahepatic biliary obstruction.
f)
Serum activity of AP is decreased in Wilson Disease and in zinc deficiency, zinc is a cofactor for this enzyme
2.
Gamma Glutamyl Transpeptidase: (GGT)
a)
Microsomal enzyme found in the epithelium of small bile ductules and hepatocytes.
b) Catalyzes the transfer of -glutamyl groups between peptides or to an amino acid residue.
c)
Present in the kidney, pancreas, spleen, brain, heart, lung, and placenta.
d) Not significantly present in bone, thus is useful in confirming the hepatic origin of elevated AP.
e)
Serum levels are highest in the newborn and the premature infant ( 5-8 times the adult normal level) and decline by 6-9
months of life.
f)
It is elevated in cases of biliary obstruction, as well as paucity of intrahepatic bile ducts in (Alagilles syndrome).
g) Useful in differentiating the progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis (PFIC) syndromes- normal in PFIC-1 (Bylers)
and PFIC-2, and elevated in PFIC-3.
3.
5-Nucleotidase: (5-NT)
a)
Hydrolyzes the 5-adenosine monophosphate and similar nucleotides to inorganic phosphate.
b) Located in sinusoidal and canalicular membranes in the liver.
c)
Elevation is specific for liver disease in the non-pregnant patient, and can be used to confirm the hepatic origin of and
elevated AP.
4.
Bilirubin:
a)
Bilirubin is a yellow tetrapyrrole pigment derived from the degradation of heme.
b) Newly formed bilirubin (unconjugated) is bound to albumin and taken to the liver, where it is conjugated to one or two
moieties of glucuronic acid (bilirubin monoglucuronide and diglucuronide).
c)
A fourth form occurs in the serum with elevated levels of conjugated bilirubin when it becomes bound to albumin (
bilirubin or bil-alb).
d) Elevation of unconjugated bilirubin is indicative of hemolysis or Gilberts disease.
e)
Elevation of conjugated bilirubin (> 2.0 mg/dl or 15% of total) is indicative of hepatobiliary disease and is always
pathologic (indicates inherited or acquired defects in hepatic excretion).
f)
The presence of bilirubin in the urine is an indication of conjugated hyperbilirubinemia because unconjugated bilirubin is
not excreted in the urine.
D.
Tests of Hepatic Synthetic Function:

1.
Prothrombin Time: (PT)
a)
Measures the rate of conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
b) Reflects the activity of the extrinsic coagulation pathway (factors I, II, V, VII, and X).
c)
Except factors VIII and Von Willerbrand, all factors are synthesized in hepatocytes.
d) PT is a good indicator of liver synthetic function if vitamin K deficiency is excluded (factors II, VII, IX, and X are vitamin
K dependant).
e)
A prolonged PT, especially > 4 seconds, in chronic liver disease suggests a poor prognosis.
2.
Albumin and Other Serum Proteins:
Page 42
NASPGHAN
3.
E.
F.
a)
Albumin is synthesized in the rER of hepatocytes at the rate of 150mg/kg/day, and has a half-life of 20 days.
b) Decreases in serum albumin can be caused by decrease in synthesis with significant parenchymal liver disease.
c)
Serum albumin level is also affected by many other extrahepatic factors including nutritional and volume status,
catabolism, loss in urine or stool, vascular integrity and hormonal factors.
d) Because of the long half-life of this protein, a low level is considered secondary to chronic, not acute, liver injury.
e)
Serum 1 and 2 globulins are synthesized in the liver, unlike serum -globulins which are synthesized in lymphocytes.
f)
Unlike albumin, globulin levels are elevated in severe or active liver disease and the cause for this is uncertain.
Ammonia:
a)
Ammonia is produced mostly by the large intestine and cleared by the liver.
b) The liver normally clears about 80% of portal vein ammonia in a single pass.
c)
In chronic liver disease, a disturbed urea cycle function as well as portal systemic shunting allows a large load of
ammonia to bypass the liver and reach the central nervous system.
d) Fasting serum levels should be measured, a protein meal will elevate post-prandial levels in patients with mild liver
disease.
e)
Increasing levels of fasting serum ammonia may herald the development of hepatic encephalopathy.
Tests of Quantitative Liver Function:

1.
These tests of dynamic liver function have been developed to reflect liver function accurately at a given point in time.
a)
For these tests a substrate is administered and its disappearance from the serum/saliva, and the appearance of its
metabolites in plasma or breath is measured.
b) Compounds with a high extraction ratio (70-80% of drug removed in one pass through the liver) are used to measure
hepatic blood flow. These include:
(1) Sulfobromophthalein
(2) Indocyanine green (ICG)
(3) radiolabeled bile acids.
c)
Compounds with a low extraction ratio (20-30%) are used to measure functional hepatic mass or hepatic metabolic
capacity. These include:
(1) Antipyrine clearance
(2) Aminopyrine breath test (ABT)
(3) Caffeine clearance
(4) Galactose elimination capacity
(5) Monoethylglycinexylidide (MEGX)
Tests for Specific Liver Diseases:
1.
Serum Ferritin:
a)
Ferritin is a major iron storage protein mostly distributed in human tissues, with a small amount in the serum.
b) Not specific for liver disease and can be elevated secondary to inflammation or other iron overload conditions.
c)
Useful for the detection of idiopathic hemochromatosis where levels are elevated, higher in patients with liver failure (>
1000mcg/L) than those with pre-cirrhotic disease
2.
Ceruloplasmin:
a)
Major copper binging protein synthesized by the liver.
b) Its level is depressed markedly in patients who are homozygotes for Wilsons disease.
c)
Some patients with Wilsons disease may have normal to only slightly decreased levels, and in these cases a 24-hour
urine collection for copper excretion can be helpful in making a diagnosis.
3.
-Fetoprotein:
a)
This plasma protein is found during fetal life, and continues to be present is newborns, with levels declining to adult
normals by one year of age.
b) Elevation of serum levels of -fetoprotein are sensitive and specific for hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatoblastoma.
c)
It is a useful test to follow in high-risk groups such as patients with glycogen storage disease, chronic hepatitis B,
alcoholic cirrhosis, and hemochromatosis.
4.
1- Antitrypsin:
a)
This protein is the major component of the 1 serum globulins.
b) A1AT activity is determined genetically, and the different phenotypes can be detected by gel electrophoresis. This is
called the protease inhibitor system (Pi), and the phenotype PiZZ is the only one clearly associated with the development of
neonatal hepatitis and cirrhosis due to abnormal A1AT hepatocyte storage.
G.
Authors
Rula Harb, MD
H.
References:
Baker AL: Liver Chemistry Tests. In Kaplowitz N (ed): Liver and Biliary Diseases. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1992, pp 182-194.
Batres LA, Maller ES: Laboratory Assessment of Liver Function and Injury in Children. In Suchey FJ, Sokol RJ, Balistreri WF (eds): Liver
Disease in Children. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001, pp 155-169.
Davern TJ, Scharschmidt BF: Biochemical Liver Tests. In Feldman M, Friedman LS, Sleisenger MH (eds): Sleisenger and Fordtrans
Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management, Vol 2. Philadelphia, Saunders, 2002, pp 1227-1239.
Drouin E, Mitchell GA, Rasquin-Weber A: Other Inherited Cholestatic Disorders. In Walker WA, Durie PR, Hamilton JR, Walker-Smith JA,
Watkins JB (eds): Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. BC Decker, Hamilton, 2000, p 1212.
Setchell KD, OConnell NC: Disorders of Bile Acid Synthesis and Metabolism. In Walker WA, Durie PR, Hamilton JR, Walker-Smith JA,
Watkins JB (eds): Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. BC Decker, Hamilton, 2000, p
1138.The Five-Minute Pediatric Consult, pp 932, 934-935.
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NASPGHAN
XIV.
Parental Nutrition Guidelines

A.
Starting parenteral nutrition.

1.
Start PN if you anticipate minimal to no enteral feeds after 5-7 days of illness or due to underlying pathology.
2.
Patient must be hemodynamically and biochemically stable. PN cannot be used for fluid resuscitation.
3.
Ordering forms vary between institutions but traditionally you will need to indicate the % of dextrose and amino acids, and the
amount of intralipids. You will also need to specify a total volume to be provided daily, and the amount of electrolytes, trace elements
and multivitamins.
4.
A maximum osmolarity of 900 mOsm/L (10% Dextrose and 2% Aac with standard electrolytes) is allowed for peripheral PN, to
prevent phlebitis and sclerosis. Higher osmolarities may be infused centrally.
5.
Consider checking if your institution has a dietician or nutrition support team. They usually provide helpful suggestions when
starting PN.
6.
The minimal infusion rate for the prevention of hypoglycemia is 4 mg/kg/min. You may start at 5 mg/kg/min, and advance by 2
mg/kg/min every day, until levels of about 12 mg/kg/min are tolerated.
7.
In situations of hyperglycemia preventing the administration of sufficient calories, insulin may be added to PN.
8.
Amino acids are the major source of protein in PN. Some centers do not count them in calorie calculations. Use trophamine in
neonates and infants, and Rravasol in older children.
9.
The ratio of protein to non-protein calories is a useful measure of macronutrient balance. Metabolism is generally optimal when the
ration of non-protein energy to nitrogen is between 150:1 and 250:1. Burn patients and other children with high protein requirements
may be optimally fed with a ratio of 100:1. The ratio is calculated as follows: [Carbohydrate calories + fat calories]: [protein intake (g)
/ 6.25]
10. You may start lipids by giving 1 g/kg/d, and advance by 0.5-1 g/kg/d. Do not exceed 3 g/kg/d or 50% of caloric intake. Monitor
triglyceride levels when advancing intralipids.
B.
PN fluid management:
1.
PN fluid requirements may be calculated using the Holliday-Segar method (table 1).
2.
Adjust fluid requirements according to fluid losses, such as from diarrhea, emesis, NG output losses, ostomy losses, fever,
tachypnea.
3.
Do not use PN for resuscitation purposes. Maintain the rate of PN infusion as constant as possible.
4.
If you increase the volume of a PN solution, you must adjust all electrolytes, especially if they are expressed per liter of solution on
the PN form.
5.
Concentrated PN solutions are may result in high osmolarities and may exceed the limits of solubility of calcium and phosphorus
salts causing precipitation.
6.
Daily parenteral fluid requirements:
Table 1: Daily parenteral fluid requirements:
Body
Daily maintenance fluid
weight
0-10 kg
100ml/kg
10-20 kg
1000 ml + 50 ml/kg over 10 kg
>20 kg
1500 ml + 20 ml/kg over 20 kg
C.
PN electrolytes management:
1.
Adjust electrolyte concentrations based on estimated or measured electrolyte losses, such as in diarrhea, NG tube drainage, or
ostomy losses.
2.
Acute changes in serum electrolytes should not be corrected by changing PN rates. Use separate solutions for this, non-acute, less
severe electrolyte disturbances can be corrected with changes in PN composition. (Check at what time of the day the previous PN
solution was started in relation to the abnormal lab value, to make better judgements).
3.
Calcium phosphate solubility is dependent on calcium and phosphorus salt concentrations, pH, temperature, amino acid
concentration, infusion time, and magnesium availability.
4.
For high calcium and phosphorus requirements, increase Aac concentration or PN volume if possible. You may use Trophamine TM
or add L-cysteine (1000 mg/liter). Avoid solutions with borderline calcium phosphate compatibility, since variables such as temperature
and time may cause delayed precipitation.
5.
Daily parenteral electrolyte requirements:
Table 2: Daily parenteral electrolyte requirements:
Element
Daily amount
Sodium
2-4 mEq/kg
Potassium
2-3 mEq/kg
Calcium
0.5-2.5 mEq/kg
Magnesium
0.25-0.5 mEq/kg
Phosphorus
1-2 mM/kg
Chloride
2-3 mEq/kg
Page 44
NASPGHAN
6.
Suggested daily calories and macronutrient requirements:

Table 3: Suggested daily calories and macronutrient requirements:
Age
Calories
Carbohydrates
Protein
Fat
(g/kg/d)
(Cal/kg/d)
(g/kg/d)
(g/kg/d)
Premature
80-120
4-18
2.0-3.0
0.5-3.0
infants
Term infants
105
8-23
2.5-3.0
0.5-4.0
1-3 years
75-90
8-23
1.5-2.5
0.5-2.5
4-6 years
65-75
8-23
1.5-2.5
0.5-2.5
7-10 years
55-75
8-23
1.5-2.5
0.5-2.5
11-18 years
40-55
8-23
1.5-2.5
0.5-2.0
D.
PN micronutrient supplementation:
1.
Suggested daily trace elements:
Table 5: Suggested daily trace elements:
Element
Dose
Max
Comments
Zinc
100 g/kg/d (300 g/kg/d in premature

infants to 3 month of age)
5000 g
Increase dose with intestinal losses and

catabolic states
Copper
20 g/kg/d
300 g
Decrease dose with cholestasis
Manganese
2-10 g/kg/d
Chromium
0.2 g/kg/d
5.0
Selenium*
1-3 g/kg/d (max 30-40 g/d)
30
Carnitine*
1-2 mg/kg/d
Decrease dose with cholestasis

Increase dose with intestinal losses, decrease
dose with renal dysfunction
Decrease dose with renal dysfunction,
consider increasing dose with intestinal losses
Increase dose in primary carnitine deficiency
a)
* May be added after 1 month of NPO status and/or minimal enteral intake.
b) Pediatric multivitamins are essential in PN. Check with your PN pharmacist as to which formulation is available.
c)
Trace elements commonly added to PN solutions include zinc, copper, manganese and chromium (check levels
periodically).
d) Consider checking 25-OH vitamin D especially when a patient is being weaned from chronic PN.
E.
Medications and PN:

1.
Medications incompatible with parenteral nutrition solutions:
a)
Acetazolamide
b) Acyclovir
c)
Amphotericin
d) Amphotericin B lipid complex
Ampicillin
e)
Ampicillin/sulbactam
f)
g) Calcium salts
h) Cefazolin
i)
Ciprofloxacin
j)
Cisplatinum
Cyclosporine
k)
l)
Cytarabine
m) Diazepam
n) Doxorubicin
o)
Filgastim
p) Foscarnet
q) Furosemide
r)
Gancyclovir
s)
Imipenem
t)
Indomethacin
u) Mannitol
Methotrexate
v)
w) Metoclopramide
Metronidazole
x)
Midazolam
y)
z)
Nitoglycerin
aa) Nitroprusside
bb) Octreotide
cc) Phenytoin
dd) Promethazine
ee) Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
ff) Tromethamine
Page 45
NASPGHAN

2.
F.
Medications incompatible with lipids:

a)
Acetazolamide
b) Acyclovir
c)
Amikacin
d) Aminophylline
e)
Amphotericin
f)
Amphotericin B lipid complex
g) Ampicillin
h) Ampicillin/sulbactam
i)
Calcium salts
j)
Ciprofloxacin
Cyclosporine
k)
l)
Diazepam
m) Doxorubicin
n) Filgastim
o)
Foscarnet
p) Furosemide
q) Gancyclovir
r)
Heparin
s)
Imipenem
t)
Indomethacin
u) Iron dextran
v)
Magnesium salts
w) Metronidazole
Midazolam
x)
y)
Morphine
z)
Nitroglycerin
aa) Nitroprusside
bb) Phenytoin
cc) Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
dd) Tromethamine
Metabolic complications of PN:

1.
Hyperglycemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Limit dextrose infusion to ~10-15%
(2) Limit dextrose increments to 5% per day
(3) Monitor serum and urine glucose
b) Treatment:
(1) Decrease dextrose intake
(2) Add insulin to TPN or give IV insulin (if indicated).
2.
Hypoglycemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Avoid abrupt cessation of PN
b) Treatment:
(1) IV dextrose
3.
Hypercapnia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Avoid excessive caloric or dextrose infusion
b) Treatment:
(1) Decrease total caloric intake and/or increase calories as fat
4.
Azotemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Adequate hydration prior to PN initiation
(2) Avoid excessive amino acid infusion
(3) Provide adequate nutrition to minimize lean tissue catabolism
(4) Monitor BUN
b) Treatment:
(1) Free water administration in the PN bag or IV dextrose
(2) Increase free water in subsequent PN bags
(3) Decrease amino acid infusion
5.
Hypertriglyceridemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Avoid excessive lipid infusion
(2) Monitor serum triglycerides weekly
(3) Infuse lipids over 18-20 hours
b) Treatment:
(1) Decrease lipid infusion, may give lipids qod
(a) If sustained, give only 0.5-1.0 g/kg/d of lipids
6.
Hypokalemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Adequate potassium in PN
(2) Monitor serum potassium daily until stable, then biweekly
b) Treatment:
(1) If mild, increase potassium in PN
(2) If severe, IV potassium
7.
Hyperkalemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Avoid excessive potassium administration
(2) In patients with renal insufficiency, with appropriate restriction, monitor K daily.
Page 46
NASPGHAN

b)
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Treatment:
(1) Decrease potassium in PN
Hyponatremia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Adequate sodium in PN
(2) Avoid excessive fluid administration
(3) Monitor serum sodium daily until stable, then biweekly
b) Treatment:
(1) Fluid restriction
(2) If mild, increase sodium in PN
(3) If severe, slow IV sodium in a crystalloid solution
Hypernatremia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Provide adequate fluid
(2) Avoid excessive sodium administration
(3) Monitor intake/output, urine sodium, osmolarity
b) Treatment:
(1) If dehydrated, fluid replacement
(2) If appropriate, decrease sodium in PN
Metabolic acidosis:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Measure and replace intestinal losses
(2) Avoid excessive chloride in PN
b) Treatment:
(1) Treat underlying cause
(2) Increase acetate and decrease chloride in PN
Metabolic alkalosis:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Measure and replace NG output
b) Treatment:
(1) Treat underlying cause
(2) Increase chloride and decrease acetate in PN
Hypocalcemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Adequate calcium in PN
(2) Monitor serum calcium biweekly
(3) Monitor ionized calcium in hypoalbuminemic state
(4) Monitor PTH and vitamin D levels
b) Treatment:
(1) Correct magnesium deficiency
(2) Increase calcium in PN if ionized calcium is low
Hypercalcemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Monitor serum calcium until stable.
(2) Restrict as appropriate
b) Treatment:
(1) Decrease calcium in PN
(2) IV normal saline
(3) May need to remove vitamin D from PN
Hypomagnesemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Adequate magnesium in PN
(2) Monitor serum magnesium until stable.
b) Treatment:
(1) If mild, increase magnesium in PN
(2) If severe, IV magnesium
Hypermagnesemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) In patients with renal insufficiency, restrict as appropriate.
(2) Avoid excessive magnesium administration
b) Treatment:
(1) Decrease magnesium in PN
Hypophosphatemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Monitor serum phosphorus daily until stable.
b) Treatment:
(1) If mild, increase phosphorus in PN
(2) If severe, IV phosphorus
Hyperphosphatemia:
a)
Prevention:
(1) Monitor serum phosphorus daily until stable, then biweekly
(2) Monitor serum phosphorus in patients with renal insufficiency, restrict as appropriate
(3) Avoid excessive phosphorus administration
b) Treatment:
(1) Decrease phosphorus in PN
Page 47
NASPGHAN
G.
Useful conversion factors needed in PN ordering (table):

Conversion of grams to moles:
Na mg x 0.043 = mmol
K mg x 0.025 = mmol
Cl mg x 0.028 = mmol
Fe mg x 0.018 = mmol
Ca mg x 0.025 = mmol
Mg mg x 0.041 = mmol
Mn mg x 0.018 = mmol
Cu mg x 0.015 = mmol
Zn mg x 0.015 = mmol
Cr mg x 0.019 = mmol
Mo mg x 0.010 = mmol
H.
Caloric estimates of different PN solutions (Calories / cc) (table):

Table 7. Caloric estimates of different PN solutions (Calories / cc):
Dextrose
5%
10%
12.5%
15%
17.5%
20%
%AAs
1
0.21
0.38
0.47
0.5
0.64
0.72
1.5
0.23
0.40
0.49
0.57
0.66
0.74
2
0.25
0.42
0.51
0.59
0.68
0.76
2.5
0.27
0.44
0.53
0.61
0.70
0.78
3
0.29
0.46
0.55
0.63
0.72
0.80
3.5
0.31
0.48
0.57
0.65
0.74
0.82
4
0.33
0.50
0.59
0.67
0.76
0.84
4.5
0.35
0.52
0.61
0.69
0.78
0.86
5
0.37
0.54
0.63
0.71
0.80
0.88
22.5%
25%
27.0%
30%
0.81
0.83
0.85
0.87
0.89
0.91
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.89
0.91
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.99
1.01
1.03
1.05
0.98
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.20
1.22
I.
Authors
Mirna Chehade, MD
J.
References:
Fisher JE. Total Parenteral Nutrition. Little, Brown and Company, 1992
Grant A, Todd E. Enteral and Parenteral Nutrition, a Clinical Handbook. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1987
Grant JP. Handbook of Total Parenteral Nutrition. W.B. Saunders Company, 1992
Hendricks KM, Duggan C, Walker WA. Manual of Pediatric Nutrition. BC Decker Inc, 2000
Kerner JA, Jr. Manual of Pediatric Parenteral Nutrition. John Wiley & Sons, 1983
Rombeau JL, Rolandelli RH. Clinical Nutrition, Parenteral Nutrition. W.B. Saunders Company, 2001
The author would like to thank Kate Samela, MS, RD for useful comments.
Page 48
NASPGHAN
XV. Drug Formulary
Generic
Alendronate
Trade
Fosamax
Alternagel,
Amphogel,
Aluminum Hydoxide
Alu-Cap,
(OTC)
Alu-Tab,
Dialume
Aluminum /
Magnesium
Hydroxide
Amitriptyline
Amoxicillin
Maalox,
Mylanta
Elavil
Amoxil,
Trimox
Dosage
Adverse Effects
Drug
Interactions
Pill esophagitis
Transient Hypocalcemia and
hypophosphatemia
1. Bioavailability of
alendronate is
increased when
administered with
oral and IV
ranitidine
2. Increases
incidence of GI
adverse effects from
NSAIDs / salicylates
3. Reduced
absorption with
antacids, calcium,
iron, multivalent
cations and dairy
products.
Constipation
Hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia
(high doses)
Discoloration of feces (white speckles)
May result in
decreased
bioavailability of
medications if
administered
concurrently. To
minimize this
interaction,
administer the
antacid dose 2 hrs
before or 1 hour
after the medication
dose.
Use: hyperacidity; hyperphosphatemia

Precaution: in setting of renal failure or
prematurity aluminum toxicity may
occur.
Maalox
Aluminum= 45mg/mL
Diarrhea
Magnesium=40mg/mL
Constipation
Mylanta
Discoloration of feces (white speckles)
Aluminum=40mg/mL
Magnesium=40mg/mL
May result in
decreased
bioavailability of
medications if
administered
concurrently. To
minimize this
interaction,
administer the
antacid dose 2 hrs
before or 1 hour
after the medication
dose.
Precaution: in setting of renal failure or

prematurity, excess aluminum or
magesium absorption may occur.
Alternagel>Maalox>Mylanta>Amphojel
in neutralizing capacity.
1. Additive effects
with CNS
depressants
2. Increased risk of
arrythmias in
combination with
cisapride
neurotoxicity,
seizures, or
serotonin syndrome
in combination with
MAO inhibitors.
4. May potentiate
the effect of oral
anticoagulants
Tricyclic Antidepressant
For chronic pain, use lower doses, 2575 mg QD
Contraindicated in patients with cardiac
rhythm disorders.
Consider using this or nortriptyline or
paroxetine for IFN-alpha induced
depression.
Forms
Adults:10 mg PO
QD
Take with 8 ounces
of plain water 30
minutes before first
5 mg, 10 mg, 35 mg,
food, beverage, or
40 mg, 70 mg tabs
other medication. Do
not lie down for at
least 30 minutes
after taking
alendronate
Peptic ulcer:
Children: 320-960
mg/dose q 3-6 hrs or
1 and 3 hrs after
meals and at bedtime
Adults: 2-3 g/dose
q 3-6 hrs or 1 and 3
hrs after meals and
at bedtime
GI bleeding
prophylaxis:
Infants: 120-320
mg/dose PO q 1-2
hrs
Children: 320-960
mg/dose PO q 1-2
hrs
Adults: 2-4 g/dose
PO q hr
Peptic ulcer disease:
Children: 5-15
mL/dose every 3-6
hours
Adults: 15-45
mL/dose every 3-6
hours
GI bleeding
prophylaxis:
Infants: 2-5
mL/dose every 1-2
hours
Children: 5-15
mL/dose every 1-2
hours
Adults: 30-60
mL/dose every 1-2
hours
Use caution with
extra-strength preps
in children.
Depression
(max take up to 4
weeks to notice
effects):
6-12 years: 10-30
mg PO or 1-5
mg/kg/day divided
TID (start at 1
mg/kg/day and
titrate up to 5
mg/kg/day)
Adolescents:
Initial: 50 mg QD
divided QID adjust
PRN max 100 mg QD
Adults:
Initial: 50 mg daily
divided QD-TID
Maintenance: adjust
dose to 50-150 mg
daily divided QD-TID
(max dose: 300
mg/day)
Children: 40
mg/kg/day PO
divided q8h (80-90
mg/kg/day PO
divided q12 for
penicillin resistant S.
Liquid:
Alternagel120mg/mL
Suspension: Amphogel
64 mg/mL 300 mg,
600 mg tabs
Alu-Cap 400 mg caps
Alu-Tab 500 mg tabs
Dialume 500 mg caps
10, 25, 50, 75, 100,

150 mg tabs
Anticholinergic (blurred vision,

confusion, constipation, urinary
retention, hypotension, Parkinsonian
syndrome)
Drowsiness
Headache
Nausea / vomiting
increased appetite
Sexual dysfunction
Increased QT interval
More side effects than most other
TCAs: consider Nortryptiline instead
Rash
250 mg, 500 mq caps Nausea/Vomiting/Diarrhea
25 mg/mL, 50 mg/mL Seizures (high doses)
Interstitial nephritis
suspension
Hypersensitivity reactions
Page 49
Information
Use: bone demineralization caused by

chronic steroid use and symptomatic
Pagets bone disease.
Contraindication: esophagitis and
hypocalcemia
Overdose: severe GI symptoms,
hypocalcemia or hypophosphotemia.
Treat with milk or antacids to bind
alendronate. Not dialyzable. Ensure
adequate calcium and vitamin D intake
while receiving alendronate
1. Results in
increased
methotrexate levels
Contraindication: penicillin allergy
2. Decreased
effectiveness of oral
contraceptives
NASPGHAN
Ampicillin
Omnipen,
Principen
Ampicillin/sulbactam Unasyn
Azathioprine
Bethanechol
Biotin (OTC)
Bisacodyl (OTC)
pneumoniae otitis
media)
Adults:250-500
mg/dose PO q8h
Endocarditis
prophylaxis (low
risk):
Children: 50mg/kg
PO 1 hr before
procedure (Max dose
= 2 g)
Adults: 2 gm PO
1hr before procedure
Endocarditis
prophylaxis(high
risk):
Children 50 mg/kg
IV/IM
Adults: 2 gm IV/IM
30 min before
procedure with
gentamicin (1.5
mg/kg); repeat
ampicillin 6 hrs later
with the dose
(Max dose=2 g)
Dose expressed as
ampicillin
Children:100-200
mg amp/kg/day IV
divided q6h
Adults: 1-2 g
amp/kg IV q6-8h
3. probenecid may
increase amoxicillin
levels
Rash
250 mg, 500 mg caps Nausea/Vomiting/Diarrhea
Seizures
125 mg, 250 mg,
500 mg, 1 g, 2 g inj
50 mg amp/mL inj
Imuran
Children and
Adults: 1-2 mg/kg
PO/IV QD
Urecholine
Prokinetic:
Children: 0.1-0.2
mg/kg/dose PO TID- 5 mg, 10 mg, 25 mg,
QID
50 mg tabs
Adults:10-50 mg
PO BID-QID
Holocarboxylase
synthetase
deficiency/HCD or
Biotinidase
deficiency:
coenzyme R,
Children and
vitamin H
adults: 5-10 mg PO
QD
RDA not established;
requirement: 100200 ug/day
Children:
Oral administration:
3-12 yr: 5-10 mg PO
QD or
0.3 mg/kg/day
Rectal
Ducolax
administration:
< 2 years: 5 mg PR
QD
2-11 years: 5-10 mg
PR QD
> 12 yr and Adults:
5-15 mg PO/PR QD
RDA: Doses are

expressed in terms of
elemental calcium
Children:
0-6 months: 210 mg
Tums, Tums 6-12 months: 270
EX, Tums
mg
1-3 yr: 500 mg
500, Oscal,
Calcium Carbonate
Caltrate,
4-8 yr: 800 mg
Supplements (OTC)
9-18 yr: 1300 mg
Rolaids,
Calcium Carb Adults:
19-50 yr: 1000 mg
Susp
> 51 yr: 1200 mg
Pregnant and
Lactating:
<19 yr: 1300 mg
19-50 yr: 1000 mg
50 mg tabs
5 mg/mL inj
1. Results in
increased
methotrexate levels
2. Decreased
contraceptives.
3. Probenecid may
increase ampicillin
levels
Contraindication: penicillin allergy

Use Vancomycin with gentamicin if
penicillin allergic.
Adjust for renal impairment.
Sodium content: 3 mEq per gm of
ampicillin
Nausea/Vomiting
Seizures
Pseudomembranous colitis
1. Increases
methotrexate levels
2. Decreases
Contraindication- penicillin allergy
contraceptives.
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Bone marrow suppression
Hepatotoxicity
Stomatitis
Pancreatitis
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Abdominal pain
Diaphoresis
Urinary frequency
Bronchial constriction
Lacrimation
Miosis
1. Metabolism
blocked by
allopurinol. Reduce
Azathioprine is metabolized to
azathioprine dose
mercaptopurine.
25-33%.
Can monitor metabolite levels
2. Decreases
anticoagulant effect
of warfarin
1. Increases effects
Administer 30-60 minutes before meals
of cholinergic agents
Use with caution in patients with
2. Cholinergic effects
hyperthyroidism, asthma, and peptic
counteracted by
ulcer disease
atropine
5 mg capsules
Tablets: 300 ug, 2.5
mg, 3 mg, 5 mg, 10
mg
None known
None known
Symptoms/signs of HCD: rash,

alopecia, organic aciduria, metabolic
acidosis, vomiting, seizures.
5 mg tabs (enteric
coated)
5 mg, 10 mg supp
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Abdominal cramping
Antacids may
prematurely dissolve
enteric coating
leading to gastric
irritation.
Swallow tablet whole on empty

stomach.
Do not administer within 1 hour of milk
and dairy products (causes gastric
irritation)
Onset: oral 6-10 hrs; rectal 15-60 min
1. May potentiate
digoxin toxicity
2. May antagonize
effects of calcium
channel blockers
3. Decreases
bioavailability of iron
salts, quinolones,
tetracyclines,
salicylates, zinc and
alendronate
Absorption inhibited by high phosphate

load.
Administer with plenty of water to
prevent constipation.
Administer between meals to maximize
calcium absorption and minimize
phosphate binding
Elemental calcium is in
parentheses
Tums: 500 mg (200
mg)
Tums EX: 750 mg
(300 mg)
Tums 500: 1250 mg
(500 mg)
Oscal: 1250 mg (500 Constipation, hypercalcemia,
nephrolithiasis, milk-alkali syndrome
mg)
Caltrate: 1500 mg
(600 mg)
Rolaids: 500 mg (200
mg)
Rolaids 1000 mg (400
mg)
Calcium Carb Susp
1250 mg/5mL (500
Page 50
NASPGHAN

mg/5mL)
Carnitine
Cefazolin
Cephalexin
Cholestyramine
Cimetidine
Cisapride
Carnitine Deficiency:
Neonates: 10-20
mg/kg/day in TPN
Children: 50-100
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID-TID;
max 3 g / day
Carnitor,
carnitine-deficient
Vitacarn = L- dialysis patients: 10carnitine
20 mg/kg IV after
each dialysis
(maintenance dose
~5mg/kg/day after
3-4 weeks)
Adults
(CHF, hemodialysis):
0.5 g PO TID
Infection:
Neonates: 50-100
mg/kg/day IV/IM
divided 12h
Children: 50-100
mg/kg/day IV/IM
divided q8h (max 2
gm/dose; 6 gm/day)
Adults: 1-2 gm
IV/IM q6-8h (max 2
gm/dose; 12
Ancef, Kefzol
gm/day)
Endocarditis
Prophylaxis
(penicillin allergic):
Children: 25 mg/kg
IV/IM 30 minutes
prior to procedure (
max 1gm)
Adults: 1gm IV/IM
30 minutes prior to
procedure
Children: 25- 100
mg/kg/day PO
divided q6h (max 4
gm/day)
Adults: 250-500
mg PO q6h (max 4
gm/day)
Keflex,
Endocarditis
Keftab
prophylaxis (low
risk):
Children: 50 mg/kg
PO 1 hr prior to
procedure
Adults: 2 gm PO 1
hr prior to procedure
330
250
100
200
mg tabs
mg capsule
mg/ ml solution
mg/ml inj
500 mg, 1000 mg inj
Body odor (dose related)

diarrhea
nausea/vomiting
cramps
seizures
Depression
Dizziness
Paresthesia
Fever
Hypertension
Hypercalcemia
Muscle weakness
Valproic acid
Sodium Benzoate
D,L carnitine (sold in
health food stores as
vitamin BT)
competitively
inhibits L-carnitine
Little data supports the use of carnitine

supplementation in malnourished or
critically ill patients, although serum
levels are often low.
Reference range:
Free carnitine: >20 micromoles/L
Total carnitine: 30-60 micromoles/L
Acylcarnitine: free carnitine ratio:
=(total carnitine-free carnitine) /free
carnitine
Normal ratio: <0.4
Leukopenia
Thrombocytopenia
Seizures
Rash
Pseudomembranous colitis
1. Serum
concentration may
be prolonged by
Probenecid
2. Increases
nephrotoxicity of
aminoglycosides
Precaution: Hypersensitivity reactions

in 5-10% of penicillin allergic patients.
Sodium content: 2mEq per gm of
cefazolin.
Dose adjust for renal impairment
1. Levels may be
prolonged by
Probenecid
2. Increases
nephrotoxicity of
aminoglycosides
Precaution: Hypersensitivity reactions

in 5-10% of penicillin allergic patients.
Administer on an empty stomach
Adjust dose for renal impairment
250 mg, 500 mg caps Nausea/Vomiting/Diarrhea

25 mg/mL, 50 mg/mL Pseudomembranous colitis
susp
250 mg, 500 mg and 1 Transient neutropenia
gm tabs
Anemia
1. Decreases
absorption of other
medications. To
minimize this
4 gm anhydrous resin
interaction,
per scoop or packet (9 Nausea, vomiting, electrolyte
administer other
Questran
abnormalities, constipation, rash
gm total weight per
medications 2 hours
scoop)
before or 2-4 hours
after
cholestyramine.
2. Malabsorption of
fat-soluble vitamins
Inhibits the hepatic
metabolism of drugs
metabolized by the
Neonates: 5-10
cytochrome P450
mg/kg/day PO/IV/IM
Nausea
pathway including
divided q 8-12h
Vomiting,
phenytoin,
Infants:10-20
Confusion,
theophylline,
mg/kg/day PO/IV/IM
200 mg, 300 mg, 400 Dizziness
warfarin, tricyclic
divided q 6 hrs
mg, 800 mg tabs
Gynecomastia
antidepressants,
Children:20-40
Tagamet,
60 mg/mL elixer
Neutropenia
carbamazepine,
mg/kg/day PO/IV/IM
Tagamet-HB
150 mg/mL inj
cyclosporine,
Agranulocytosis
divided q 6h
Alcohol content of
Thrombocytopenia
tacrolimus,
Adults:300 mg
elixer= 2.8%
quinidine, and
Elevated LFTs,
PO/IV q 6h
certain
Hypotension
May increase to 600
Bradycardia, cardiac arrhythmias with benzodiazepines.
mg PO q6h for adults
Decrease the
rapid IV infusion
with hypersecretory
absorption of iron,
conditions
tetracycline,
ketoconazole and
fluconazole.
Children: 0.1-0.3
QT prolongation
QT prolongation has
10 mg, 20 mg tabs
mg/kg/dose PO TIDTachycardia
occurred when
1 mg/mL susp
Propulsid
QID (max 10
Nausea/Vomiting/Diarrhea/constipation cisapride is
Available via limitedmg/dose)
Abdominal cramping
administered with
access protocol only
Adults: 10-20 mg
Headache
azole antifungals,
Children (dose
expressed as
anhydrous resin):
240 mg/kg/day PO
divided TID
Adults: 3-4 gm PO
TID-QID (max 32
gm/day)
Page 51
May be mixed with water, juice, or

applesauce. Do not administer dry
powder
Administer with food.

Adjust for renal and severe liver
impairment
Drug interactions with cisapride have

resulted in ventricular tachycardia and
torsade de pointes.
Take cisapride 15 minutes before
meals.
NASPGHAN

PO QID
Cromolyn sodium
Cyclosporine
Cyproheptadine
Diphenoxylate/
atropine
Docusate (OTC)
Anxiety, nervousness, insomnia

Photosensitivity
Rash,
Elevated LFTs
hepatitis
(+) ANA
Children:
< 2 years: 20
mg/kg/day PO
divided QID (max 30
100 mg caps
mg/kg/day)
Gastrocrom 2-12 years: 100 mg 20 mg/mL oral
concentrate
PO QID (max 40
mg/kg/day)
Adults: 200 mg PO
QID (max 1.6
gm/day)
Liver transplant;
immunosuppression:
Children and
Adults:
Initial: 10 mg/kg/day
PO divided BID
Maintenance: 5-40
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID titrate to
desired serum trough
levels. IV dose= 2-4
mg/kg/day divided
Neoral 25 mg, 100 mg
BID
caps
IBD:
100 mg/mL
Children and
Neoral,
Adults: 4 mg/kg/day microemulsion soln
SangCya,
SangCya 100 mg/mL
has been studied.
Sandimmune Doses should be
microemulsion soln
individualized based Sandimmune 25 mg,
50 mg, 100 mq caps
on levels. Neoral
100 mg/mL soln
cannot be used
interchangeably with
Sandimmune as the
absorption is
different. A one:one
ratio has been
recommended
initially for
conversion. However,
lower doses of Neoral
may be required after
conversion to prevent
toxicity
Allergic conditions:
Children:
< 2 years: 0.25
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID-TID
2-6 years: 2 mg PO q
8-12h (max 12
mg/day)
7-14 years: 4 mg PO 4 mg tabs
Periactin
0.4 mg/mL syrup (5%
q8-12h (max 16
mg/day)
alcohol)
Adults: 4 mg PO
q8h
Appetite stimulant:
Children and
adults: 2 mg PO QID
increase every 2-3
weeks (max 8mg
QID)
Lomotil
(as diphenoxylate)
Children: 0.3-0.4
mg/kg/day divided
BID-QID -or< 2yrs: Not
recommended
2-5 yrs: 2 mg TID
5-8 yrs: 2 mg QID
8-12 yrs: 2 mg 5
doses/day
Adults: 5 mg TIDQID
Colace
Infants:
5 mg/kg/day divided 50 mg, 100 mg caps
QD-QID
4 mg/mL syrup
10 mg/mL liquid
Children:
<3 years: 10-40
diphenoxylate 2.5 mg
and atropine sulfate
0.025 mg per 5 mL
soln
diphenoxylate 2.5 mg
and atropine sulfate
0.025 mg tabs
clarithromycin,
erythromycin,
indinivar, nelfinavir,
ritonavir, and
saquinavir due to
inhibition of the
cytochrome P450
system
See package inserts black box for

complete list of drug and disease
interactions.
Decrease dose by 50% in patients with
liver impairment.
Monitor baseline EKG prior to initiating
therapy.
Avoid grapefruit juice
Nausea
Diarrhea
Headache
Dizziness
Arthralgia
Rash
Angioedema
No data reported
To prepare oral solution, open capsule

and dissolve in hot water, then add
equal amount of cold water. Do not
give with juice or food.
Nephrotoxicity
Hypertension
Headache
Hyperkalemia
Nausea/Vomiting/Diarrhea
Seizures
Hypercholesterolemia
Hirsutism
Elevated transaminases
Gingival hypertrophy
Tremors
Hypomagnesemia
Acne
Leukopenia
Thrombocytopenia
Anemia
Increased risk of 2nd lymphomas
1. Additive
nephrotoxicity with
NSAIDS,
amphotericin,
acyclovir,
aminoglycosides,
and other potentially
nephrotoxic
medications
2. Levels may be
decreased by
carbamazepine,
phenytoin,
primidone,
phenobarbital,
nafcillin, rifampin,
rifabutin, and
trimethoprim
3. Levels may be
increased by
methylprednisolone,
macrolides
(azithromycin is
OK), tacrolimus,
calcium channel
blockers (amlodipine
and isradipine are
OK), and azole
antifungals.
4. Increases toxicity
of digoxin
Therapeutic ranges (trough levels):

1. Post transplant:
Kidney: 100-200 mg/dL
BMT: 100-250 mg/dL
Liver: 100-400 mg/dL
2. Liver Disease, IBD:
150-250 mg/dL
High fat meals increase volume of
distribution of cyclosporine.
Grapefruit may increase cyclosporine
concentrations
Sedation
Seizures
Photosensitivity
Tachycardia
Depression
Appetite stimulation
Dry mouth
Urinary retention
Blurred vision
1. Additive sedative
effects with other
CNS depressants
and anticholinergics
Administer with food
2. Decreases
efficacy of SSRIs
and increases
adverse effects of
MAOIs
Tachycardia
Sedation
Pruritus
Nausea/Vomiting
Urinary retention
Blurred vision
Respiratory depression
Dependence with prolonged use
Abdominal cramping, diarrhea
Page 52
1. May cause
hypertension with
MAO inhibitors
2. Increases effects
of CNS depressants
and alcohol
3. Additive effects
with anticholinergic
agents
4. Effects are
antagonized by
naltrexone and
nalaxone
5. St. Johns Wort
increases side
effects
Concurrent
administration
increases hepatic
uptake of mineral
oil, possibly
Administer with food to avoid GI upset
Onset: 24-72 hrs.

Ensure adequate fluid intake for best
results.
May administer liquid (not syrup) with
milk or juice to mask taste.
NASPGHAN

mg/day divided QDQID
3-6 years: 20-60
6-12 years: 40-120
Adults: 50-400
mg/day divided QD QID
resulting in
intestinal, liver, or
spleen inflammation.
Erythromycin
EES and
others
Prokinetic:
Children:
1mg/kg/dose QID
Cholestatic Hepatitis (0.1% children,

0.25% adults)
estolate 125, 250 mg
Prolonged QT interval, arrhythmias
tabs;
Ototoxicity
ethysuccinate 250 mg
Nausea
tabs
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Esomeprazole
Nexium
Children: dosing
not established
Adults: 20-40 mg
PO QD
20 mg, 40 mg
capsules
Heachache
Diarrhea
Nausea
Abdominal pain
Pepcid,
Pepcid AC
Children: 1-2
mg/kg/day PO/IV
divided Q 8-12 h
Adults: 20-40
mg/day PO/IV
divided QD-BID
Maintenance: 20 mg
PO QD
Pepcid:
10 mg, 20 mg, 40 mg
tabs
0.4 mg/mL inj ??
40 mg/5 ml
suspension
Pepcid AC:
10 mg chewable tabs
Headache
Dizziness
Thrombocytopenia
Leukopenia
Constipation/Diarrhea
Elevated LFTs
Sublimaze
Sedation for minor

procedure
Children: 1-3
ug/kg/dose IV
0.05 mg/mL inj
repeated q30-60 min
Adults:0.5-1
ug/kg/dose IV
repeated q30-60 min
Famotidine
Fentanyl
Ferric Gluconate
Injectible
Ferric Dextran
Ferrous Sulfate
Ferrlecit
Dexferrum
Infed
Feosol, Ferin-sol
Children:
No published data
but this is the ESRD
protocol at Texas
Childrens Hospital:
12.5 mg elemental
<20 kg: 15.6 mg IV
Fe/ml
for 10 doses
(9 mg of benzyl
20-40 kg: 31.2 mg
alcohol per 5 ml)
IV for 10 doses
> 40 kg: 62.5 mg IV
for 10 doses
Adults: 125 mg IV
daily for 8-10 days.
Iron deficiency
Anemia
Children 5 - 15 kg:
(IM/IV)
Dose (mL) = 0.0476
x Wt x (desired Hb observed Hb) + (1
ml/ 5 kg Wt)
Max daily dose IM
< 5 kg child: 25 mg
5-10 kg: 50 mg
Max TOTAL dose 14
50 mg/ml
ml
Children >15 kg
and Adults
(IM/IV): Dose (mL) =
0.0476 x LBW x
(desired Hb observed Hb) + (1
ml/ 5 kg LBW)
Max daily dose IM
> 10 kg: 100 mg
(LBW=Lean Weight in
Kg)
Dose expressed as
Feosol: 325 mg (65
elemental iron
mg elem iron) tab
Children:
44 mg/mL (8.8 mg
Prophylaxis: 1-2 mg elem iron/mL) liq or
elem iron/kg/day
elixer
divided QD-BID
Fer-in-sol: 125 mg/mL
Moderate deficiency: (25 mg/mL elem iron)
CNS depression
Euphoria
Drowsiness
Nausea/Vomiting
Constipation
Urinary retention
Sedation
Erythema,
pruritus
Miosis
1. Contraindicated
with Cisapride,
Astenizole,
Terfenadine
2. Increases
Metabolized in liver; do not use in
significant liver impairment
theophylline and
digoxin levels
3. Potentiates
of warfarin
1. Clarithrymicin,
amoxicillin: increase Proton pump inhibitor, optical isomer of
esomeprazole levels. omeprazole.
Take at least one hour before eating.
2. Markedly
Capsule may be opened and granules
increases levels of
given whole in applesauce.
diazepam
See comments for omeprazole.
3. Food decreases
absorption
1. Bioavailability
slightly decreased by
antacids
2. Decreases
Take one hour before eating or drinking
when using for prophylaxis.
bioavailability of
ketoconazole and
itraconazole,
delavirdine
Adverse effects may

be potentiated by
CNS depressants,
alcohol, MAO
inhibitors, St Johns
wort phenothiazines,
and tricyclics
Caution: an opioid antagonist,

resuscitative and intubation equipment
must be available when administering
fentanyl.
Dose adjust for renal impairment.
Anaphylaxis very rare (immediate or

delayed)
Hypotension, hypertension
Hyperkalemia, hypoglycemia
Headache, fever, fatigue
Skin discoloration if given SC
Infusion rate should not exceed 12.5

mg/min
(test dose no longer required)
Do not give SC
Contraindications:
Hemachromatosis
Hemolytic anemia
Anaphylaxis (immediate or delayed)

Hypotension
Skin discoloration if given SC
Do test dose 1 hr prior to giving dose:

Infants: 0.25 ml
Children and adults: 0.5 ml
Max infusion rate 25 mg/min
Do not give SC
Contraindications:
Hemachromatosis
Hemolytic anemia
Nausea, diarrhea, constipation, dark

stools, discoloration of urine, liquid
preps may stain teeth
Page 53
1. Concurrent
administration
results in decreased
absorption of
tetracycline,
levothyroxine, and
certain quinolones.
Take with food

Hemoglobin values increase in 2-4
weeks
Do not crush sustained release
products.
NASPGHAN
Flumazenil
Furazolidone
Romazicon
Furoxone
3 mg elem
oral drops
iron/kg/day divided 90 mg/5mL syrup
QD-BID
contains 18 mg elem
Severe deficiency: 4- iron/5mL
6 mg elem
iron/kg/day divided
BID-TID
Adult: Prophylaxis:
60-100 mg elem iron
PO QD
Deficiency: 60-100
mg elem iron PO BID
Children: 0.01
mg/kg over 15
seconds(max 0.2
mg), then 0.005-0.01
mg/kg (max 0.2 mg)
every minute until a
max total cumulative 0.1 mg/mL inj
dose of 1 mg
Adults: 0.2 mg IV
over 15 sec.
Repeat up to 5 times
(Max dose=3
mg/hour)
Children:
> 1 month
5-8.8 mg/kg/day PO
divided Q6H
(Max dose=400
mg/day)
100 mg tab
Adults: 100 mg PO 3.3 mg/mL susp
QID
Do not use in infants
<1 month due to
possibility of
hemolytic anemia
Space drugs by two

hours.
2. Fe absorption
decreased by
cimetidine, other H2
blockers and
antacids
3 Vit C increases
iron absorption
Decreases duration
of thiopental
Arrhythmias, bradycardia, tachycardia,
anesthetic effects.
fatigue, hot flashes, nausea, vomiting,
Supplemental doses
pain at injection site, blurred vision
of thiopental may be
necessary.
Disulfiram reaction
Hypotension
Drowsiness, dizziness
Headache
Urine discoloration (brown tint)
Orthostatic hypotension
Dizziness
Vertigo
Urticaria
Hypokalemia
20 mg, 40 mg, 80 mg
Hyponatremia
tabs
Hypomagnesemia
10 mg/mL, 8 mg/ml
hypocalcemia
oral soln
Alkalosis
10 mg/mL inj
Hyperuricemia
Increased calcium excretion
Photosensitivity
Ototoxicity
Nephrocalcinosis
1. Hypertensive
effects of the
following
medications may be
potentiated:
sympathomimetic
amines, tricyclic
antidepressants
SSRIs, and MAO
inhibitors
2. Caution:
tyramine-containing
foods may cause
hypertension
For reversal of benzodiazepine induced

sedation. Does not antagonize
nonbenzodiazepine GABA agonists or
reverse the effects of opiates.
Caution: Do not administer with alcohol

and alcohol containing products due to
disulfiram reaction.
Contraindication:
G-6-PD deficiency due to possibility of
hemolytic anemia
1. Effects decreased
by NSAIDS and
Salicylates
2. Decreases
excretion of lithium
3. Increases
May cause ototoxicity particularly with
ototoxicity of
renal insufficiency and/or use of
aminoglycosides and aminoglycosides
ethacrynic acid
4. monitor drugs
effected by
potassium i.e.
digoxin
Lasix
Children: 1-2
mg/kg/dose
PO/IM/IV BID
Adults: 20-80 mg
PO/IM/IV QD - BID
(increase to max of
600 mg/day)
Garamycin
Endocarditis
Prophylaxis (high
risk)
Children: 1.5
Ototoxicity
mg/kg IM/IV 30-60
10 mg/mL, 40 mg/mL
Nephrotoxicity
min before procedure
inj
Neuromuscular blockade
with ampicillin or
vancomycin
Adults: 1.5 mg/kg
IM/IV (120 mg max.
dose)
Increased toxicity
with amphotericin B,
loop diuretics,
vancomycin,
cisplatin,
indomethacin,
cyclosporin, and
tacrolimus and other
nephrotoxic
medicines
Therapeutic levels for traditional

dosing:
Peak: 6-10 ug/mL
Trough: < 2 ug/mL
Glucagon
Glucagon
Children: 0.03-0.1
mg/kg/dose IV (max
dose = 1 mg)
Repeat in 20 min if
needed
1mg, 10 mg inj
Adults: 0.5-1
mg/dose IV
Repeat in 20 min if
needed
1. Increased
anticoagulant effects
of warfarin.
2. Insulin-releasing
effects are inhibited
by phenytoin.
3. Hyperglycemic
effects may be
inhibited by
Propranolol and
other beta blockers.
Antihypoglycemic Agent
Relaxes smooth muscle
May be used as a diagnostic aid during
endoscopy.
1 mg=1 unit
Hydrocortisone
enema
Cortenema
No data reported
Discontinue slowly by decreasing use to

QOD for 2-3 weeks, if used for more
than 3 weeks
Anaphylaxis
Severe, delayed hypersensitivity
reactions
Headache
Fatigue
Fever
Nausea
Diarrhea
Abdominal pain
No data reported
Use: Refractory severe or fistulizing

Crohns Disease
Some centers premedicate with
acetaminophen and diphenhydramine
30 minutes prior to infusion to
decrease side effects
Flu-like symptoms
Fatigue/malaise
depression
thyroid dysfunction
Reduces clearance of Consider cotreatment with ribavirin for

theophylline
chronic hepatitis C.
Additive
Premedicate with acetaminophen
myelosuppression
decrease flu-like symptoms.
Furosemide
Gentamicin
Infliximab
Remicade
Interferon alpha 2b Intron A
One application 1-2

100 mg/60 mL
times/day for 2-3
weeks
Children: 5
mg/kg/dose IV
infused over a
minimum of 2 hours;
(range of 1-10 mg/kg
100 mg/20 ml inj
IV)
Adults: 5 10
mg/kg IV infused
over a minimum of 2
hours
Children: 3 million
units/M2 TIW x 1
3 million units/ml
week, then 6 mu/M2
TIW thereafter
Hypoglycemia, urticaria, nausea,

vomiting, respiratory distress,
hypersensitivity reactions
Page 54
NASPGHAN
Iodoquinol
Lactulose
Yodoxin
Duphalac,
Kristalose
Adults:
Chronic Hepatitis B:
10 million units
IM/SC TIW
Chronic Hepatitis C:
3 million units IM/SC
TIW x 6-12 mo.
Intestinal Amebiasis:
Children: 30-40
mg/kg/day PO
divided TID x 20 days
210 mg, 650 mg tabs
(max dose=1.95
g/24 hrs)
Adults:650 mg PO
TID x 20 days (max 2
gm/day)
Hepatic
Encephalopathy:
Adjust dosage to
produce
2-3 soft stools per
day
Infants: 2.5-10
mL/day PO divided
TID-QID
Children: 40-90 mL
PO QD divided TID666 mg/mL syrup
QID
Adults: 30-45
mL/dose PO TID-QID
Constipation:
Children:1 mL/kg
(up to adult dose)
QD-BID titrate to
response
Adults:15-30 mL
PO QD (max 60
ml/day)
anorexia
with zidovudine
leukopenia
elevated aminotransferases
Neurotoxicity
Confusion
DeliriumTachycardia, arrhythmias, SVT
(<1%)
EKG recommended prior to and during

treatment for patients with preexisting
cardiac disease.
Skin eruptions
Headache
agitation
Ataxia
Thyroid enlargement
Optic neuritis/optic atrophy
myalgia
Take with food.

Protein bound iodine levels may be
increased during treatment and
interfere with the results of certain
thyroid function tests
Contraindication: hypersensitivity to
iodine, hepatic or renal impairment,
pre-existing optic neuropathy.
Cramping
Flatulence
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
1. Oral antibiotics
may interfere with
desired degradation
of lactulose by
eliminating key GI
Administer with juice, milk, or water
bacteria
2. Effectiveness may
be decreased by
antacids and
laxitives
Epivir-HBV 3TC
Hepatitis B infection:
Children: 3 mg/kg
PO QD, max 100 mg 100mg tabs
daily
5 mg/ml solution
Adults: 100 mg PO
QD
Lactic acidosis
Hepatomegaly with steatosis
Headache
Fatigue
Insomnia
psychomotor disorders
Nausea
vomiting
anorexia
Feeding problems
Pancreatitis (14%)
Musculoskeletal pain
Hyperglycemia
Neutropenia
Abdominal pain
Elevated LFTs
Paresthesias
Peripheral neuropathy
Lansoprazole
Prevacid
Children: 1-2
mg/kg PO divided
QD-BID
Adults:15-30 mg
15, 30 mg caps
PO QD-BID
Higher doses may be
required in ZollingerEllison syndrome
Fatigue
Dizziness
Rash
Abdominal Pain
Nausea
Increased serum transaminases
Tinnitus
Proteinuria
Angina
Hypertension
Hypotension
Loperamide
Children: 0.4-0.8
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID-QID
Imodium,
(max 2mg/dose)
Imodium AD
Adults: 2 mg/dose
PO (max Dose=16
mg/day)
Magnesium
hydroxide
Milk of
magnesia
Children:1-2
mL/kg/dose PO BID
Adults: 30-60 mL
PO QD; Take with
fluids
Megestrol
Megace
Children:10
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID
20, 40 mg tabs
Adults: 160-320
40 mg/ml suspension
mg PO QD (max 800
mg PO QD)
1. May cause
amenorrhea and
galactorrhea when
administered with
Bromocriptine
Meperidine
Demerol
Children: 1-2
mg/kg/dose
PO/IM/IV q3-4h as
1. Analgestic effects Caution: renal or hepatic impairment.

Normeperidine, an active metabolite
decreased by
may accumulate and result in seizures,
Phenytoin
Lamivudine
2 mg cap & tab

0.2 mg/mL soln
Sedation
Fatigue
Dizziness
Rash
Nausea/Vomiting
Constipation
Cramping
2.67 mEq/mL
Fluid/Electrolyte imbalance
Thrombophlebitis
Alopecia
Decreased glucose tolerance
Adrenocortical insufficiency when
withdrawn abrubtly
Edema
Breakthrough bleeding and
amenorrhea
50 mg, 100 mg tabs
Hypotension
10 mg/ml syrup
Bradycardia/tachycardia
50 mg/mL multi-dose Respiratory depression
Page 55
Bactrim increases
lamivudines AUC
1. Absorption may
be delayed and
decreased by 30%
by sucralfate
2. May decrease the
absorption of
Keto/Itraconazole
due to acid
suppression
3. Increases
theophylline
clearance by 10%
Additive CNS toxicity
with CNS
depressants,
phenothiazines,
tricyclic
antidepressants, and
alcohol
See drug
interactions for
aluminum
hydroxide.
Separate from other
meds. by 2 hours.
Synthetic nucleoside analog.

Increases rate of HbeAg loss, ALT
normalization, and HBV DNA decrease
in one pediatric trial, but frequent
relapse.
YMDD mutations of HBV may increase
during treatment
Capsules may be opened and granules

swallowed in applesauce.
Slightly longer half-life than
omeprazole.
Granules may be administered
cautiously through some feeding tubes.
See comments for omeprazole.
40% of dose is absorbed systemically.

Contraindication: patients with colitis to
avoid toxic megacolon.
Onset: 0.5-3 hrs.

Osmotic laxative
Indications: anorexia, FTT

Pharmacology: a progestagen with
some glucocorticoid effects
NASPGHAN

needed
Adults:50-150
mg/dose PO/IM/IV
q3-4h as needed
Decrease dose in
renal or hepatic
impairment.
inj
10 mg, 25 mg, 50 mg,
75 mg, 100 mg single
dose inj
Nausea/vomiting
Constipation
Pruritus
Urinary retention
Miosis
Drowsiness
CNS depression
Seizures
Purinethol
IBD:
Children and
50 mg tab
Adults: 1-1.5 mg/kg
PO QD
Bone marrow suppression
Hepatotoxicity
Stomatitis
Pancreatitis
Hyperuricemia
Mesalamine
Asacol,
Pentasa,
Rowasa
IBD:
Children: 25-50
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID-TID
Adults:2-4.8
gm/day PO divided
TID-QID
Capsules may be
opened for
administration.
Tablets must be
swallowed whole
Asacol:400 mg enteric
coated tab
Pentasa: 250 mg
controlled release cap
Rowasa: 500 mg supp
4 g/60 mL enema
Headache
Diarrhea
Abdominal pain
Cramps
Nephropathy
Proteinuria
Hepatitis
Methotrexate
IBD:
Children and
Methotrexate Adults:15-25 mg
PO/SC/IM Q week
(low dose therapy)
2.5 mg tab
25 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml
inj
Hepatotoxicity
Myelosuppression
Pulmonary toxicity
Colitis
Infection
Anorexia
Vomiting
6-Mercaptopurine
Methylcellulose
Methylprednisone
Metoclopramide
Metronidazole
Citrucel
Solu-Medrol
Reglan
Flagyl
Children (6-12
years): 1/2 adult
dose PO with 4 oz of
cold water 1-3
2 gm/heaping TBSP
times/day
Adults:1-2
Tablespoons PO with
8 oz of cold water 13 times/day
IBD:
Children: 1-2
mg/kg PO/IV/day
divided QD - BID
(max Dose 40-60
mg/day)
Prokinetic agent;:
Children: 0.1-0.2
mg/kg/dose
PO/IM/IV QID
Adults:10-15 mg
PO/IM/IV QID
Post-Op
Nausea/Vomiting:
0.1-0.2 mg/kg/dose
PO/IM/IV TID-QID
Chemotherapyinduced
Nausea/Vomiting:
1-2 mg/kg/dose
PO/IM/IV every 2-4
hours
Give intravenous
doses slowly (over
15-30 min)
Anaerobic Infection:
7.5 mg/kg/dose
IV/PO q 6h (max
dose= 4 g/24 hours)
Giardia: 5-10
mg/kg/dose PO TID
for 7-10 days
Clostridium Difficile:
20-30 mg/kg/day PO
Diarrhea, fluid/electrolyte imbalance
2. Analgesic effects tremors, or twitches.

increased by CNS
depressants
3. Effects greatly
potentiated by MAO
inhibitors
1. Bone marrow
suppression
potentiated by
allopurinol
2. Decreases
of warfarin
3. May potentiate
liver toxicity of
hepatotoxic drugs
1. Decreases
bioavailability of
Digoxin
2. Salicylate-class
drug interactions
3. Possible risk of
developing Reyes
Syndrome when
given with varicella
vaccine
4. May delay
clearance of
methotrexate
1. Clearance may be
delayed by
salicylates
2. May be displaced
from binding sites
by sulfonamides
3. Nephrotoxicity
increased by
NSAIDS and
penicillins
4. Elimination may
be decreased by
Probenecid
No data reported
Food decreases bio-availability. Do not

administer with meals.
Can monitor metabolite levels.
Caution: sulfasalazine hypersensitivity.

Capsules distribute dose primarily to
the distal small intestine and colon
Indication: Induction of remission in

refractory Crohn's disease.
Consider liver biopsy after 1.5 gm
cumulative dose
Caution: peptic ulcer disease, renal or
hepatic insufficiency, preexisting bone
marrow suppression
Onset 12-24 hrs

Does not ferment, therefore may
produce less flatulence than psyllium
1. Clearance
Hyperglycemia
increased by
Hypertension
Barbiturates,
2 mg, 4 mg, 8 mg, 16 Nausea/Vomiting
phenytoin and
mg, 24 mg, 32 mg
Increased appetite
rifampin
1.25 times more potent than
tabs
Immunosuppression
2. Effectiveness and
prednisone
40 mg, 125 mg, 500 Peptic ulcers
toxicity may be
mg, 1000 mg, 2000
Transient leukocytosis
increased by oral
mg inj
Long-term treatment:
contraceptives,
Risk of osteoporosis, cataracts, growth
ketoconazole, and
suppression
erythromycin
Drowsiness
Agitation
5 mg,10 mg tab
Extrapyramidal reactions
1 mg/mL syrup (sugar Irritability
free)
Lower seizure threshold
5 mg/mL inj
Fatigue
Gynecomastia
Urinary frequency
375 mg caps
750 mg extended
release
250 mg, 500 mg tabs
5 mg/mL inj
10 mg/mL susp
Recipe for
preparation:
250 mg tabs x 8
1. Decreases
absorption of
Digoxin and
cimetidine
2. Increases enteral
absorption of
Cyclosporine
3. anticholinergic
effects Effects
decreased by
Levodopa
1. Increases
Nausea
Dizziness
of warfarin
Taste disturbances
2. Increases serum
Headache
concentrations of
Tongue coating
lithium
Disulfiram reaction
3. Metabolism may
Peripheral neuropathy (with prolonged
be increased and
use)
effectiveness
Page 56
Renal elimination Dosage adjustment

may be needed in renal impairment.
Premedicate with diphenhydramine if
needed to prevent extrapyramidal
reactions, however, such
anticholinergics may antagonize
metoclopramide effects.
Administer 30 minutes before meals
Caution: do not administer with alcohol

or alcohol-containing products due to
disulfiram reaction
Food delays and decreases peak
concentrations. Take with food only if
GI upset occurs.
Dose adjust for renal impairment and
severe hepatic impairment.
NASPGHAN

divided TID for 10-14 Levigate in 50 mL
days
glycerin. Add Cherry
Syrup for a Total
Volume of 200 mL
(NO Alcohol)
Conscious sedation:
Children and
Adults: 0.05
mg/kg/dose IV 30
minutes prior to
procedure. 0.4-0.5
mg/kg/dose PO (Max
dose=10 mg PO)
Midazolam
Versed
Mineral oil
Children:1-3
mL/kg/day PO
Kondremul, divided QD-BID
Fleet mineral initially, titrated to
oil
produce soft stools
Adults: 5-45
mL/day
Misoprostol
Cytotec
Mycophenolate
Cellcept
Naloxone
Narcan
Octreotide
Sandostatin
Olsalazine
Dipentum
decreased by
barbiturates
1 mg/mL, 5 mg/mL inj
Nausea
1 mg/ml oral syrup
Vomiting
May use IV prep for
Hiccups
oral administration.
Amnesia
NSAID ulcer
prevention:
Adults: 200 ug PO
QID
If not tolerated; may
decrease to 100 ug
PO QID or 200 ug PO 100 ug, 200 ug tabs
BID WITH FOOD
Gastric or duodenal
ulcers:
Adults: 100-200 ug
PO QID or 400 ug PO
BID
Fluid/Electrolyte imbalance
Lipid pneumonitis (with aspiration)
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Flatulence
Abdominal pain
Vaginal bleeding
Menstrual irregularities
Headache
Constipation
flatulence
Nausea/Diarrhea
Constipation
Bone Marrow Suppression
Hypertension
Transplant:
Headache
Children: 600
Insomnia
mg/m2/dose PO BID 250 mg caps, 500 mg
Hepatitis
or 30 mg/kg/day
tabs
Pancreatitis
divided Q12hrs
200 mg/ml susp
Neutropenia,
Adults: 1-2 g PO
anemia,
BID
thrombocytopenia
Back pain,
Hyperglycemia
hypomagnesemia
Children: 5-10
ug/kg/dose IV Q2-3
0.02 mg/mL, 0.4
Hypotension, hypertension, nausea,
min x 1-3 doses
mg/mL, 1 mg/mL inj vomiting
Adults:0.4-2
mg/dose IV Q2-3 min
up to 10 mg
GI Bleeding:
Children: 1 ug/kg
IV bolus, then 1
Bradycardia
ug/kg/hour
Arrhythmias
continuous infusion
Diarrhea
Secretory Diarrhea:
Hypoglycemia
Children: 1
0.05 mg/mL,
Hyperglycemia
0.1 mg/mL, 0.2
Gallbladder abnormalities
ug/kg/dose IV/SC
BID-TID Advance as mg/mL, 0.5 mg/mL, 1 Flushing,
mg/mL inj
tolerated. Dose
edema,
poorly established.
chest pain
(max dose 500 ug
Nausea
Q8hr)
vomiting
Adults: 50-1500
constipation
ug/day IV/SC divided
TID
Adults: 0.5-1.5g PO
divided BID
Children usually
250 mg caps
dosed proportionally
lower
Nausea
Diarrhea
Abdominal cramping
Headache
Can exacerbate colitis through local
idiosyncratic effect.
Page 57
1. Additive effects
with CNS
depressants
2. Effects increased
by cimetidine,
diltiazem, verapamil,
omeprazole,
clarithromycin,
erythromycin,
May use higher doses with appropriate
protease inhibitors,
monitoring.
and azole
Antidote-flumazenil
antigungals
Grapefruit-increases serum
3. Hepatic
concentration of midazolam
metabolism
increased and
effectiveness
decreased by
rifampin, phenytoin,
and carbamazepine.
4. Theophylline may
antagonize the
effects of midazolam
1. May decrease
absorption of fatOnset: 6-8 hrs
soluble vitamins
Caution: in infants, neurologically
2. Surfactant
impaired, and in setting of
laxatives (i.e.
docusate) facilitate gastroesophageal reflux due to risk of
aspiration.
absorption thus
increasing toxicity of
mineral oil.
1. Increased
incidence of diarrhea
when administered
with Magnesiumcontaining products
2. Absorption may
be decreased by
antacids
Contraindication: In pregnancy or in
women of child-bearing age unless
negative pregnancy test has been
obtained
1. Absorption
decreased by
antacids and
cholestyramine
2. May increase
serum
concentrations of
acyclovir and
ganciclovir due to
competition for
tubular secretion
3. Levels increased
by acyclovir and
ganciclovir
Use: Purine synthesis inhibitor that is

alternative immunosupressive agent for
liver transplantation.
Hold or reduce dose if patient
experience neutropenia (ANC < 1300)
Temporarily
attenuates antiDuration of action:
hypertensive effects 1-4 hours
of Clonidine
Increases levels of
cyclosporine
Caution: in renal impairment

May decrease vit B12 levels and
decrease absorption of dietary fats
1. Possible risk of
developing Reyes
Syndrome when
given with Varicella
vaccine
2. May potentiate
bone marrow
Contraindication:
salicylate hypersensitivity
Take with food
Does not distribute 5-ASA to small
bowel
NASPGHAN
Omeprazole
Prilosec
Ondansetron
Zofran
Pancreatic enzyme
supplements
Pancrease,
Ultrase,
Creon,
Viokase,
Zymase,
Kuzyme
Paroxetine
Paxil
Children: 0.5-1.5
mg/kg PO divided
QD-BID
see additional
information for
expanded dosing
range
Adults: 10-20 mg
PO QD-BID
Higher doses may be
required in ZollingerEllison syndrome
10 mg, 20 mg caps
2 mg/mL susp
Recipe for
preparation:
20 mg capsule x 1
Open capsule and mix
with 10 mL of sodium
bicarbonate Inj
(1 mEq/mL).
Stable for 14 days at
room temp
Chemotherapyrelated nausea:
Children
4-11years: (30
minutes before
chemo):4 mg PO Q4h
4 and 8 mg, 24 mg
x 3 doses, then
repeat Q8 h
tabs
2 mg/ml inj.
OR:
0.15 mg/kg IV Q4-8 4 mg/5ml soln
hours x 3 doses
Zofran ODT (orally
12 years adult:
disintegrating tablets):
4 mg and 8 mg
(30 minutes before
chemo): 8 mg PO
Q4h x 3 doses then
repeat Q8 h
OR: 32 mg IV x 1
OR: 0.15 mg/kg IV
Q4h x 3
Infants: 2000-4000
units lipase per 120
ml of formula or
breast milk (450-900
units lipase per gram
of fat )
Children:
Initial Dose
1- 4 yrs: 1000 units
lipase/kg/meal
> 4 yrs: 500 units
lipase/kg/meal
(1/2 dose with
snacks)
Adults: 4000-16000
units lipase/meals
May increase dose if
signs of
malabsorption. If
dose > 2500 units
lipase/kg/meal,
check 72h fecal fat,
change brands or add
a H2 blocker or PPI
Children:
Initial dose: 2.5-5
mg PO/day
Maintenance: If >12
yo, may slowly
10 mg, 20 mg, 30 mg,
increase dose to 10
40 mg tabs
mg/day if no
2 mg/ml suspension
untoward side effects
Adults: 20 mg/day.
Increase as needed
weekly by 10 mg/day
( max: 50 mg/day)
Headache
Vertigo
insomnia
Nausea
Diarrhea
Rash
Constipation
Discoloration of feces
Agranulocytosis, thrombocytopenia
Elevated LFTs
suppression of 6mercaptopurine
1. Enhances and
prolongs effects of
Benzodiazepines
toxicity from
Carbamazepine
3. Decreases
absorption of Azole
antifungals
(ketoconazole and
itraconazole); iron
and ampicillin
4. May increase
serum levels of
digoxin, phenytoin,
and warfarin
5. decrease
elimination of
methotrexate
Capsules may be opened and added to

applesauce for PO administration.
Animal studies raised concern of gastric
cancers with long term use. This risk
was not supported by several longterm studies in humans.
Range of effective doses in the
literature 0.7-3.5 mg/kg/day (Hassall,
2000)
Constipation
Blurred vision
Rare cardiovascular effects and
dystonic reactions.
None reported
In severe hepatic dysfunction, max

dose 8 mg/day
Pharmacology: a 5 HT receptor
antagonist. Extensive hepatic
metabolism; renal excretion.
Use slightly lower doses for
postoperative associated nausea
(0.1 mg/kg/dose)
Colonic strictures (fibrosing

colonopathy) with high doses > 6000
units/kg/meal lipase in children < 12
years.
1. Decreased
absorption of iron
2. Effectiveness
reduced by antacids
(CaCarb and MgOH)
3. Absorption and
effectiveness
increased by H2
blockers and PPI
Capsules may be opened and mixed

with applesauce or other non alkaline
food for younger children. Do not crush
microcapsules or store in food.
Consider using Viokase powder if
patient on feeding tube
Anticholinergic, antihistaminic, and

alpha-adrenergic effects.
GI distress
headache,
dizziness
sexual dysfunction, fatigue
insomnia
disinhibition (30%)
Anemia
leukopenia
skeletal weakness
tremors
paresthesias
1. Can displace
Warfarin, valproate,
and phenytoin,
increasing levels
abrubtly.
2. Inhibit
cytochrome P450,
increasing blood
Some success in treating chronic
levels of tricyclic
recurrent abdominal pain / IBS in
antidepressants,
adults. Some evidence of success in
benzodiazepines,
omeprazole, and
treating alpha-IFN-induced depression
(NEJM, 3/01).
cyclophosphamide
3. Danger of
Paroxetine has shorter half-life than
Serotonin syndrome fluoxetine (Prozac) so may be better
if used with MAO
choice for young patients.
inhibitors (allow a 14 May take 1-4 weeks to notice
day wash out period antidepressant effects.
is switching between Use with caution in patients with liver
agents)
or renal impairment
4. Cycloheptadine
decreases effects of
paroxetine
5. Paroxetine
decreases digoxin
levels by 15%
6. Avoid St.Johns
wort
Page 58
NASPGHAN

Wilsons Disease:
Children:
<6 months: 250 mg
PO QD
6 mos 12 years:
250 mg PO BID-TID
Adults & children
>12 years: 250 mg
PO QID
Penicillamine
Cuprimin,
Depen
Phenobarbital
Choleretic: 5
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID
Phenobarbital For HIDA Scan:5
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID for 5
days
Polyethylene glycol
electrolyte solution
Bowel prep for

colonoscopy or
constipation:
Children:75-100
mL/kg PO
As prep, infuse 25-50
Golytely,
ml/kg/hr until rectal
Colyte,
effluent is clear
Nulytely,
(<10 kg: 50 mL/kg
Miralax (for over 4 hrs then
constipation ) reassess)
Adults: 4-6 L PO
May use smaller
doses for
maintenance
treatment of
constipation
Polyethylene Glycol
Miralax
3350 powder
Prednisolone
Prednisone
Ranitidine
Rifampin
Pediapred,
Prelone
Liquid Pred
Zantac
Rifadin
Aplastic anemia
Neutropenia
Glomerulonephritis
Lupus-like reaction
125 mg, 250 mg caps,
Rash
250 mg titratabs
flu-like symptoms
hemolytic anemia
peripheral neuropathy
Optic neuritis
20 mg/mL elixir
8 mg, 15 mg, 16 mg,
30 mg, 32 mg, 60 mg,
65 mg, 90 mg, 100
mg tabs
65 mg/mL inj
Alcohol content of
elixir varies
Nausea
Vomiting
Abdominal cramps
Abdominal distention
Oral medications
should not be given
within 1 hour of
starting
polyethylene glycol
electrolyte solution
Also give pyridoxine 25 mg/day to

avoid B12 deficiency.
Do not give with milk or food.
Also decreases serum levels of beta

blockers, protease inhibitors, warfarin,
ethosuximide, oral contraceptives, and
other drugs metabolized by the
cytochrome c3A4 system.
The addition of flavoring agents is not

recommended. If flavoring agent is
required, use one without bright color
(i.e.use lemonade flavor)
Nausea
Abdominal bloating
No specific drug
Cramping
Two to 4 days may be required to
interaction have
Flatulence
produce a bowel movement
been demonstrated.
dehydration and hypokalemia reported
in children
Adults: 17 GM
(about 1 heaping
teaspoonful) of
powder per day in 8
ounces of water.
IBD:
Children and
Adults: 1-2
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID
Max dose = 40-60
mg/day. Dose
depends on condition
being treated and
response of patient
IBD:
Children and
Adults: 1-2
mg/kg/dayPO divided
BID Max dose = 4060 mg/day. Dose
depends on condition
being treated and
response of patient
Premature and
newborn: 2
mg/kg/day PO
divided Q12h; 1.5-2
mg/kg/day IV divided
Q12h
Children: 2-6
mg/kg/day PO
divided Q 8-12h; 3-4
mg/kg/day IV divided
Q 6-8h (max: 50
mg/dose)
Adults:150 mg PO
BID 50 mg IV Q6-8H
Pruritis of
cholestasis:
Children:10-20
mg/kg/day PO/IV
divided BID
Adults:150 mg PO
Sedation
Rash
Hypotension
Dyskinesia
Megaloblastic anemia
Elevated LFTs
1. Absorption
decreased by iron
salts, zinc and
antacids
2. decreases serum
digoxin levels
3. Cross-sensitivity
reaction if patients
allergic to penicillin
1. Additive CNS and
respiratory
depression from
benzodiazepines
2. Decreases
concentrations of
cyclosporine,
corticosteroids,
metronidazole,
cimetidine,
tacrolimus,
phenytoin, tricyclic
antidepressants, and
others *
3. Levels increased
by valproic acid,
felbamate,
methylphenidate,
felbamate,
propoxyphene, and
ritonavir
Immunosuppression
Hypertension
Pediapred 1 mg/mL
Peptic ulcers
elixir
Bone resorption
Prelone 3 mg/mL elixir
Increased intracranial pressure
Cataracts
1. Increases risk of
peptic ulcer disease
from Salicylates and
Take with food
NSAIDs
2. Effectiveness
May decrease vaccine effectiveness
decreased by
Phenytoin and
rifampin
Immunosuppression
Hypertension
Peptic ulcers
Bone resorption
Increased intracranial pressure
Cataracts
1. Increases risk of
peptic ulcer disease
from salicylates and
NSAIDs
Take with food
May decrease vaccine effectiveness
2. Effectiveness
decreased by
phenytoin and
rifampin
15 mg/mL elixir
75 mg, 50 mg tabs
25 mg/mL inj
Elixir Alcohol Content
= 7.5%
Constipation, headache, dizziness,

fatigue, irritability, diarrhea, lethargy,
thrombocytopenia, elevation of
transaminases
1. Absorption may
be decreased by
antacids. Space
administration by
two hrs.
2. Decreases
bioavailability of
ketoconazole and
intraconazole
150 mg, 300 mg caps

600 mg inj
10 mg/mL susp can be
made, but is not
commercially
available.
Nausea/Vomiting
Heartburn
Headache
Ataxia
Hepatitis
Blood dyscrasias
1. Induces hepatic
microsomal enzymes
and thereby reduces
Food decreases absorption
levels of some
hepatically
metabolized drugs
1 mg/mL elixir
1 mg, 2.5 mg, 5 mg,
10 mg, 20 mg, 50 mg
tabs
Page 59
Doses of up to 10 mg/kg have been

used in dose-ranging trials with a
concomitant increase in efficacy and no
apparent adverse effects.
Continuous IV infusion at same daily
dose is preferred to IV boluses for
active bleeding.
NASPGHAN

BID-TID
Selenium
Senna
Selenium
Senokot
Sodium phosphate/
Fleet Enema
bisphonate enema
Spironolactone
Sucralfate
Sulfasalazine
Children and
Adults: 1-2 ug/kg PO
QD; 2 ug/kg IV QD x
1 dose followed by 1
ug/kg/day
maintenence
Children:
0-1 yr: 1.25-2.5 mL
PO HS (max:
5ml/day)
1-5 yr: 2.5-5 mL PO
HS (max: 10 ml/day)
5-15 yr: 5-10 mL PO
HS (max: 20ml/day)
Adults: 2 tabs PO
HS (max 4 tablets
BID) -OR- 2-3 tsp PO
HS (max 6 tsp/day) OR- Granules: 1 tsp
PO HS (max 4
tsp/day)
Avoid in infants
Children:One
pediatric enema PR
Adults: One adult
enema PR
Increased BUN
Discoloration of secretions, urine and
feces
Drowsiness, fatigue confusion
Rash
Myalgia
arthralgia
No data reported
Add to parenteral nutrition if on for

long term use (> 3 months).
Deficiency may result in myocarditis.
Component of glutathione peroxidase
43.6 mg/mL syrup

187 mg, 217 mg, 600 Abdominal pain
Discoloration of urine
mg tabs
Electrolyte and fluid imbalance
652 mg supp
326 mg/tsp granules
No data reported
Senokot is chocolate flavored liquid and

contains 7% alcohol.
Generic senna liquid products vary in
flavor and alcohol content.
Prolong-use may lead to dependence
Pediatric: 67 mL
Adult: 133 mL
Hypocalcemic tetany
(in infants or with excessive doses)
No data reported
May create gross and histologic

changes mimicking colitis if used prior
to colonoscopy.
25 mg, 50 mg,100 mg
tabs
Make 5 mg/mL susp.
with tablets levigated
with a small amount of
water and qs to final
volume with cherry
syrup
Hyperkalemia, hyponatremia,
myperchloremic, metabolic acidosis
Rash
Gynecomastia, amenorrhea
Nausea
Vomiting
40 ug/mL inj
Various oral preps
available
Aldactone
Children: 1-4
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID
Adults: 25-100
mg/day PO divided
QD - BID (Max
dose=200 mg/day)
Carafate
Children: 40-80
mg/kg/day PO
1 g tab
divided QID
100 mg/mL susp
Adults: 1 g PO QID
Azulfidine
Children: 50-70
mg/kg/day PO q 4-6
hr
Adults: 3-4 g/day
PO divided TID
Prograf
Transplant: 0.15-0.3
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID
IBD study:0.2
mg/kg/day PO
divided BID (IV 0.1
mg/kg/day)
continuous infusion:
rarely used as is very
toxic IV.
Use the lower end of
dosing range for
larger patients. Dose
Tacrolimus
Lethargy,
discoloration of hair, vomiting
abdominal pain,
garlic odor breath
tremors
perspiration
including warfarin,
digoxin, azole
antifungals,
phenytoin, and
corticosteroids,
calcium channel
blockers,
theophylline,
warfarin,
cyclosporine,
tacrolimus
2. Reduces
contraceptives.
Constipation, dry mouth
Incidence higher with high doses (>4

gm/day) and if pt has slow acetylation
of sulfapyridine:
Nausea
500 mg tab
Headache
500 mg extended
Diarrhea
release tab
Alopecia
Suspension may be
Colitis
made at 100 mg/mL
Photosensitivity
Recipe: Crush 80
Male infertitility (doserelated)
sulfasalazine 500 mg
Pancreatitis
tabs, qs to 400 mL
Folate deficiency
with cherry syrup.
Rash
Shake well.
Blood dyscrasias
Elevated LFTs
Tinnitus, nephrotoxicity
Serum-like sickness
1 mg, 5 mg caps
Immunosuppression
Suspension may be
Neurotoxicity (tremor), seizures
made at 0.5 mg/mL
Nephrotoxicity
Recipe:
Headache
Empty contents of 12 Hypertension
tacrolimus 5 mg caps Hyperglycemia
into mortar. Add 20
Hypomagnesiemia
mL of Ora-Plus and
Hyperkalemia
mix well. Pour into
Nausea
amber bottle. Add
Vomiting
another 40 mL OraDiarrhea
Plus and 60 mL Simple constipation
syrup to bottle for 120 Anemia
Page 60
1. Additive
hyperkalemic effect
with other
medications that
increase potassium
levels
2. May decrease
of warfarin
1. May decrease
absorption of other
medications;
separate
administration from
meds and food by 12 hours.
2.. May result in
renal failure due to
aluminum toxicity
when given with
aluminumcontaining antacids
Contraindication: acute renal failure

Onset of Action: 3-5 days
Requires an acidic environment to form

protective barrier in GI tract.
Therefore, medications that decrease
acidity of GI tract (e.g. ranitidine) may
decrease effectiveness of sucralfate.
May potentiate the

effects of
methotrexate and
sulfonylureas
Decrease effects of
iron, folic acid,
digoxin and PABA or
PABA metabolites of
drugs
Contraindicated in sulfa allergy.

Patients should receive folate
supplements.
Monitoring of CBC and LFTs
recommended
May cause orange-yellow discoloration
of urine and skin
1. Additive
nephrotoxicity with
cyclosporine,
aminoglycosides,
NSAIDs and
amphotericin
2. Levels decreased
by carbamazepine,
phenytoin,
phenobarbital,
rifampin, and
rifabutin
3. Levels increased
Trough Levels:
10-15 Initial (1st yr)
5-10 Maintenance
(Post transplant or IBD)
Avoid Grapefruit juice
NASPGHAN

should be adjusted
mL
based on drug levels.
Ursodeoxycholic
acid
Vancomycin
Vasopressin
Vitamin A
by metoclopramide
macrolides
(azithromycin is
OK), cisapride,
cimetidine, calcium
channel blockers
(amlodipine and
isradipine are OK),
and azole
antifungals
Diarrhea/constipation
Nausea
Vomiting
Headache
Rash
Arthralgias
Absorption may be
reduced by antacids
and cholestyramine.
Space medications
by 2 hours if
possible
Recipe: Empty contents of 12 Ursodiol

mg caps into mortar. Add 5 mL glycerin
to wet powder and titrate to fine paste.
Add 15 mL of simple syrup, mix and
transfer to bottle. Rinse mortar with 20
mL of simple syrup twice and add to
bottle for final concentration of 60
mg/mL.
125 mg, 250 mg caps

oral soln (powder): 50
mg/ml (1gm); 83.3
Ototoxicity (high peak)
mg/ml (10 gm)
Nephrotoxicity (high trough)
500 mg, 1000 mg inj Red man syndrome (rapid infustion)
Dilute injection to 5
mg/mL
Additive
nephrotoxicity with
aminoglycosides and
other nephrotoxic
medications
Infuse over 1 hour.

Draw levels 1 hour after the end of a 1
hour infusion.
Therapeutic Range:
Peak: 25-40 ug/mL
Trough: 5-10 ug/mL
Extend interval in patients with renal
impairment
20 Units/mL inj
Hypertension, hyponatremia, oliguria
Antiduretic effect
decreased by
lithium, epinephrine, Octreotide preferred for GI bleeding
demeclocycline,
heparin, and alcohol
Papilledema
Dry skin
Sore tongue
Hyperostoses
1. Decreases
seroconversion of
measles vaccine in
Sign of deficiency: Xeropthalmia
younger infants
Therapeutic Levels:
2. Increased
20-80 ug/dL
incidence of
pseudotumor cerebri
with Minocycline
Children: 10 Actigall: 300 mg caps

30mg/kg/day PO
Urso: 250 mg tabs
Actigall, Urso divided BID
Suspension may be
Adults : 300 mg PO made at 60 mg/mL
BID
(see info section)
Vancocin
Pitressin
Aquasol A
Vitamin ADEK
ADEK
Vitamin D 1,25-OH
(Calcitriol)
Rocaltrol
Vitamin D 25-OH
(Calcifediol)
Calderol
Vitamin D2
(ergocalciferol)
Drisdol
Vitamin E (D-alpha
tocopherol)
LiquiE,
Aquasol E
Vitamin K1
(phytonadione)
thrombocytopenia
leukocytosis
Elevated AST, ALT
and LDH
Increased risk of 2nd lymphomas
Mephyton
C. Difficile:
(Metronidazole is
drug of choice)
20-40 mg/kg/day PO
divided QID x 7-10
days
Endocarditis
Prophylaxis
(PCN allergic
patients):
Children: 20 mg/kg
(Max 1 g) IV over 1
hour (with
gentamicin)
Adults: 1 gm
GI Bleeding:
Children:0.2-0.5
Unit/1.76m2/min IV
Adults: 0.2-0.5
Unit/min IV
Optional loading dose
of 20 units in adults
Cholestasis:
5,000-15,000 IU PO
QD
Cystic Fibrosis:
5,000 IU PO QD
RDA:
500-1000 IU PO QD
Cystic Fibrosis:
0-1 yr: 1 mL PO QD
1-2 yr: 2 mL PO QD
2-12 yr: 1 tablet PO
QD
> 12 yr: 2 tablets PO
QD
Children: 0.0150.040 ug/kg PO QD
Adults: 0.25-2
ug/day PO QD
3-5 ug/kg PO QD
Cholestasis:
5000-8000 IU PO QD
Cystic Fibrosis:
400 IU PO QD
RDA:
400 IU PO QD
Cholestasis:
LiquiE: 15-25 IU/kg
PO QD
Aquasol E: 50-400 IU
PO PO
Cystic Fibrosis:
Aquasol E: 25-400 IU
PO QD
Cholestasis:
2.5-5 mg
PO/IM/SC/IV QD or
QOD
5,000 IU= 0.1 ml= 3

drops
25,000 IU, 50,000 IU
caps
50,000 IU/mL inj
May increase or
decrease
of warfarin
Tablets, drops
Contents:
Vitamin A: 4000 IU/tab, 1500 IU/mL
Vitamin D: 400 IU/tab, 400 IU/mL
Vitamin E: 150 IU/tab, 40 IU/mL
Vitamin K: 150 ug/tab, 100 ug/mL
and other water soluble vitamins
Calcitriol:
0.25 ug, 0.5 ug caps
1 ug/mL inj
May antagonize
Hypercalcemia, polyuria, nepholithiasis,
effects of calcium
nausea, vomiting, constipation
channel blockers
Signs of deficiency: rickets,

osteoporosis
Calcifediol = Vit D3:

20 mcg, 50 mcg caps
May antagonize
effects of calcium
channel blockers
Signs of deficiency:
rickets, osteoporosis
Therapeutic Levels:
25-OH Vit D = 9-75 ng/mL
(D2=ergocalciferol)
8000 IU=1 mL= 40
drops
40 units = 1 mcg
May antagonize
effects of calcium
channel blockers
Signs of deficiency: rickets,

osteoporosis
LiquiE: 1 mL=25 IU
Muscle Weakness
Aquasol E: 1 ml=50 IU
Nausea
LiquiE better absorbed
Diarrhea
than Aquasol E
Cystic Fibrosis:
2-5 mg/week PO if < 5 mg tabs
1yr. Increase to BIW 10 mg/mL inj
if on antibiotics.
Treat patients > 1yr
if on antibiotics or if
liver disease present.
Vit K deficiency: 1-2
mg IM/SC/IV
Flushing
Hypotension
GI upset
Pain at injection site
Precautions:
Anaphylactoid ReactionsRare severe hypersensitivity reactions
have occurred after IV use.
Severe hemolytic anemia and
hyperbilirubinemia has been reported
rarely in neonates following large doses
(10-20 mg) of phytonadione.
Page 61
1. Increases
of Warfarin
2. May antagonize
Vitamin K
Signs of deficiency: ataxia, weakness,

hemolysis
Therapeutic Levels: 5-20 mg/L
Measure ratio Vit E : total lipid
Deficient if <0.6 mg/gm
May decrease or
eliminate
of warfarin
Sign of deficiency: coagulapathy

Precaution: may cause anaphylaxis if
infused intravenously .
Administer IV as a last resort. If given
IV, give slowly over 30 minutes. Avoid
IV in patients with prior history of
vitamin K use.
Monitor PT and PTT
NASPGHAN
Zinc sulfate (23%

zinc)
Zinc sulfate
Liver Failure: 1
mg/year of age up to
10 mg
(Dose expressed as
mg of elemental zinc)
Supplement in TPN
(IV):
Infants:
Prematures: 400
ug/kg/day
<3 months: 300
ug/kg/day
>3 months and
children <5 yr: 100
ug/kg/day (max: 5
mg/day)
Children >5 yrs: 25 mg/day
Deficiency:
Children:1
mg/kg/day elemental
zinc PO divided BIDTID
Adults: 25-50 mg
elemental zinc/dose
PO TID
110 mg (25 mg elem

zinc),
220 mg (50 mg elem
zinc) capsule
66 mg (15 mg elem
zinc),
110 mg (25 mg elem
zinc),
200 mg (45 mg elem
zinc) tablet
10 mg/mL solution
Nausea
Vomiting
Neutropenia
leukopenia
With excessive doses:
Hypotension
hypothermia
Tachycardia
Jaundice
pulmonary edema
Blurred vision
Page 62
1. Decreases
absorption of
tetracycline and
quinolones
2. Absorption
decreased by iron.
Serum reference range: 70-130 ug/dl

Add to parenteral nutrition solution if
long term use (> 3 months)
Consider zinc level and supplement in
patients with chronic diarrhea
Signs of deficiency:
Poor growth, decreased taste,
hypogonadism, perioral skin changes.
Do not administer undiluted by direct
injection into a peripheral vein, may
cause phlebitis

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NASPGHAN

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition

Mirna Chehade M.D.

Mohamad Miqdady M.D.

Denesh Chitkara M.D.

J. Antonio Quiros M.D.

Carolyn Daigneau RN CPNP

Leonel Rodriguez M.D.

Jose J. Derdoy M.D.

James Rick M.D. (Capt. USAF)

Rima Fawaz M.D.

Maria-Stella Serrano M.D.

Ana Ma. Guilhon de Araujo SantAnna M.D.

Steven Steiner M.D.

Rula Harb M.D.

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Dental: erosions and caries

Motion sickness and

Probable Labyrinthine suppression and H1

Chemotherapy and Cyclic Vomiting

D2 receptor antagonist at CTZ

Cyclic vomiting syndrome,

D2 receptor antagonist at CTZ

Mild chemotherapy vomiting,

Antimuscarinic effect in labyrinth or CNS

D2 receptor block at enteric nervous

Potent Antiemetic Activity

Chemotherapy, motility disorders,

Normal dose: D2 receptor blockade at CTZ

Often for acute gastroenteritis and

Motility disorders, GERD.

Enteric acetylcholine release

5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists:

5-HT3 receptor blockade mainly in enteric

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Clinical manifestations and complications of impaired deglutition:

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Algorithm for Evaluation and Management of Dysphagia in Children

Medical and Feeding History

UGI series Upper

Eso. Manometry UGI

Speech and swallow

Management of Cricopharyngeal/ Esophageal Motility Disorders

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

III. Functional Constipation & Encopresis

Delay in passing first meconium?

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Stimulants: Act by stimulating the colon to contract.

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Stopping the Laxative:

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

(a) Enteropathogenic E. coli when the course is prolonged

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook

VI. Chronic Diarrhea

Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Handbook