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Types of Measurements - 2007 - 30
Types of Measurements - 2007 - 30
361-1-3151
MEASUREMENT THEORY
FUNDAMENTALS
361-1-3151
Eugene Paperno
/http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~paperno
Measurement
Object
Influence
Measurement
System
(noisy)
Influence
Matching
xx +
Matching
Disturbance
yy +
1
Observer
Influence
CONTENTS
1. Basic principles of measurements
1.1. Definition of measurement
1.2. Definition of instrumentation
1.3. Why measuring?
1.4. Types of measurements
1.5. Scaling of measurement results
2. Measurement of physical quantities
2.1. Acquisition of information: active and passive information
2.2. Units, systems of units, standards
2.2.1. Units
2.2.1. Systems of units
2.2.1. Standards
3. Measurement methods
3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods
3.2. Interchange method and substitution method
3.3. Compensation method and bridge method
3.4. Analogy method
3.5. Repetition method
4. Measurement errors
4.1. Systematic errors
4.2. Random errors
4.2.1. Uncertainty and inaccuracy
4.2.2. Crest factor
4.3.
5. Sources of errors
5.1. Impedance matching
5.4.1.
5.4.2.
5.4.3.
5.4.4.
5.2.
Non-energetic matching
Energetic matching
Non-reflective matching
To match or not to match?
Noise types
5.2.1. Thermal noise
5.2.2. Shot noise
5.2.3. 1/f noise
5.3.
Noise characteristics
5.3.1. Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR
5.3.2. Noise factor, F, and noise figure, NF
5.3.3. Calculating SNR and input noise voltage from NF
5.3.4. VnIn noise model
5.4.
Noise matching
5.4.1. Optimum source resistance
5.4.2. Methods for the increasing of SNR
5.4.3. SNR of cascaded noisy amplifiers
5.5.
5.6.
6.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity threshold
Resolution
Inaccuracy, accuracy, and precision
Lectures:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Types of measurement
Units, system of units, standards
Measurement methods
Measurement errors
Impedance matching
Types of noise
Noise characteristics
Noise matching
Fundamentals of low-noise design: noise models
Low-noise design: examples
Low-noise design: examples
Disturbances: interference noise
Measurement system characteristics
GRADING POLICY
10% homework assignments
90% exam
Recommended literature
[1] K. B. Klaassen, Electronic measurement and instrumentation, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
[2] H. O. Ott, Noise reduction techniques in electronic systems, second edition, John Wiley & Sons,
1988.
[3] P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The art of electronics, Second Edition, Cambridge University
Press, 1989.
[4] R. B. Northrop, Introduction to instrumentation and measurements, second edition, CRC
Press,2005.
[5] D. A. Jones and K. Martin, Analog integrated circuit design, John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
[6] A. B. Carlson, Communication systems: an introduction to signals and noise in
electrical communication, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
[7] W. M. Leach, Jr., Fundamentals of low-noise analog circuit design, Proc. IEEE,
vol. 82, pp. 15141538, 1994.
[8] Y. Netzer, The design of low-noise amplifiers, Proc. IEEE, vol. 69, pp. 728741, 1981.
[9] C. D. Motchenbacher and J. A. Connelly, Low-noise electronic system design,
John Wiley & Sons, 1993.
[10] L. Cohen, The history of noise: on the 100th anniversary of its birth, IEEE Signal
Processing Magazine, vol. 20, 2005.
[11] National Instruments, Inc., www.ni.com
[12] IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurements.
LECTURE 1. Contents
10
Definition of measurement
Definition of instrumentation
Why measuring?
Types of measurements
Scaling of measurement results
11
Reference: [1]
12
REAL WORLD
IMAGE
empirical states
.phenomena, etc
abstract numbers
.symbols, labels, etc
13
Reference: [1]
14
Empirical space
Transformation
si
, States
phenomena
Source set S
, Abstract
well-defined
symbols
ii
Image set I
15
Reference: [1]
16
Empirical space
Image space
Transformation
:State (phenomenon)
Abstract symbol, B
B= f (R, V )
R
Measurement model
Instrumentation
d[B cos( t) A]
v
dt
17
Reference: [1]
18
Reference: [1]
19
REAL WORLD
IMAGE
empirical states
.phenomena, etc
abstract numbers
.symbols, labels, etc
SCIENCE
Measurement
Applied
Pure
(processing, interpretation)
measurement results
Control/change
Verification (measurement)
Control/change
Hypotheses
laws
theories
20
21
Abs. zero
22
23
24
1. Nominal scale
Examples: numbering of football players, detection and
alarm systems, etc.
Any one-to-one transformation can* be used to
change the scale.
*Stevens did not say that transformations that are not 'permissible'
are prohibited. http://mu.dmt.ibaraki.ac.jp/yanai/neu/faq/measurement.html#exmpls
OK
25
2. Ordinal scale
Examples: IQ test, competition results, etc.
OK
26
3. Interval scale
Examples: time scales, temperature scales )C, F(, etc.,
where the origin or zero is not absolute )floating(.
Any increasing linear transformation can be used to
change the scale.
+
D
OK
B
A
D
C
B
A
2X+1
A
B
C
D
A
NB: x)-1( does not
change the
interval but
does change
the order: A>C.
.National Instruments, Inc
27
4. Ratio scale
Examples: temperature )K(, distance, mass, current, voltage
scales, etc., where the origin or zero is absolute.
The only transformation that can be used to change the
is the multiplication by any positive real number.
scale
OK
0
x2
28
5. Absolute scale
Examples:measurement of any physical quantities by
comparison against an absolute unit )reference(.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10-
10-
)Same interval(
)Same ratio(
)Same ratio,
different order(
29
1.6. Conclusion
The concept of scale type is an important one, and
Stevenss terminology is often suitable.
We must keep in mind, however, that scale types are not
fundamental attributes of the data, but rather, derive from
both how the data were measured and what we conclude
from the data.
To restrict our investigation only to hypotheses and calculations
permitted by an a priori assignment of scale type would be
far more irresponsible.
Responsible data analysis must be open to anomaly if it is
to support scientific advancement.
Velleman, P. F., and L. Wilkinson )1993(. Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio typologies are
.misleading. The American Statistician, 47)1(:6572
30
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