Classical Lamination Theory (CLT)

More general than laminated beam theory

Includes extensional, flexural and torsional
deformations
Includes coupling effects
bending / twisting
bending / extension
twisting / extension
Does not include interlaminar stresses each
ply assumed to be in plane stress

Classical Lamination Theory (CLT)

Elements of theory:
1. Deformation hypothesis*
2. Strain displacement relationships*
3. Equilibrium equations*
4. Stress strain relationships**
*Same as classical theory of homogeneous,
isotropic plates
**Lamina stress strain relationships from
Chapter 2

Classical Lamination Theory Each

Lamina in Plane Stress (x, y, xy)
b

a
z

y
xy
x
element of kth lamina

Coordinate system and stress resultants

for laminated plate

Laminate Geometry and Ply

Numbering System

Assumptions:
1. Laminae perfectly bonded together.
2. Plate thickness, t is much smaller than
lengths along edges, a and b.
3. Displacements u, v, w are small compared
with plate thickness, t.
4. In plane strains x, y, xy are small.
5. Transverse shear strains xz and yz are
negligible.

6. Tangential displacements u and v are

linear functions of z, the distance from the
middle surface.
7. Transverse normal strain, z , is negligible.
8. Each ply obeys Hookes law.
9. Plate thickness, t, is constant.
10. Transverse shear stresses xz and yz vanish
on plate surfaces
z t .
2

Assumptions 5 and 6 Kirchoff deformation

hypothesis normals to the middle surface
remain straight and normal during deformation.

displacements are,
u u x, y zF1 x, y

v v x, y zF2 x, y

(7.24)

w w x, y w x, y

(These equations are the basis of CLT)

Higher Order Lamination Theory

for transverse shear deformations involves
nonlinear functions of z:

u u x, y z x x, y z x x, y z x x, y
2

v v x, y z y x, y z y x, y z y x, y
2

w w x, y z z x, y z 2 z x, y
Not used here

(7.25)

2-D Strain-displacement relationships (from An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids,

Crandall, Dahl and Lardner, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1978)

Strain-displacement equations for transverse shear strains

xz

yz

Therefore

u w
w

F1 x, y
0
z x
x
v w
w

F2 x, y
0
z y
y
w
F1 x, y
x
w
F2 x, y
y

(7.26)

(7.27)

and the in plane strains are

u
x
x z x
x
v
y
y z y
y

xy

u v

xy z xy
y x

(7.28)

Physical Interpretation:
Deformed
uo

Undeformed
x

w
z

Displacement at a distance z from middle surface

(i.e., like point P)

u uo z tan uo z
w
u uo z
x
w
where

= slope
x

Strain displacement relation

u uo
w
x

z 2
x x
x

x x z x
Similar Eqns. for y, xy

(small )

(7.28)

1
2w
x
2
x
x

Where the middle surface strains are,

u
v
u v
x
; y
; xy

x
y
y x

(7.29)

And the curvatures of the middle surface are

w
w
x 2 ; y 2 ;
x
y
2
w
xy 2
xx
x , x = bending curvatures
xy = twisting curvatures
2

(7.30)

Lamina stress strain relations for the kth lamina

in laminate:
Q11 Q12 Q16 x
x

y Q12 Q 22 Q 26 y

Q
Q
Q
26
66
xy
xy
16
k

Q11

Q12

Q16 x z x

Q 26 y z y
Q 66 xy z xy

Q12 Q 22
(7.31)
Q
16 Q 26
k
Recall that laminated beam theory only gives
uniaxial stress, x, but CLT gives x, y, and xy

Equilibrium equations:
Ex: force per unit length, Nx
t 2

Nx

t 2

dz
k 1

zk

x k

dz

z k 1

(7.32)

Moment per unit length, Mx

t 2

Mx

t 2

zdz
k 1

zk

x k

z k 1

zdz

(7.33)

Where t = laminate thickness

( x) = stress in kth lamina
k
zk = distance to outer surface of kth lamina
zk-1 = distance to inner surface of kth lamina

Substituting lamina stress strain relations:

N

Nx

zk

k 1 z k 1

Mx

z x Q12 y z y Q16 xy z xy dz

and

zk

k 1 z k 1

or

11

11

(7.34)

z x Q12 y z y Q16 xy z xy zdz

N x A11 x A12 y A16 xy

B11 x B12 y B16 xy
and M x B11 x B12 y B16 xy
D11 x D12 y D16 xy

(7.35)
(7.36)

(7.37)

Similarly, the other resultants Ny, Nxy, My, Mxy can

be written in terms of the Aij, Bij, and Dij
N
where t 2

Q dz Q z

Aij

t 2

ij k

ij k

k 1

z k 1

(7.38)

(7.39)

= extensional stiffnesses

t 2

1
Bij Q ij k zdz Q ij
2 k 1
t 2

2
k

2
k 1

= coupling stiffnesses
t 2

1
Dij Q ij k z dz Q ij
3 k 1
t 2
2

= bending stiffnesses

3
k

3
k 1

(7.40)

Complete laminate force deformation equations

A11
A
12
A16

A12
A22
A26

A16
A26
A66

B11
B12
B16

B12
B22
B26

B16
B26
B66

Mx
My

M xy

B11
B12

B16

B12
B22
B26

B16
B26
B66

D11
D12
D16

D12
D22
D26

D16
D26

D66

Nx
N
y

N xy

or in partitioned form as
N
A B

M
B
D

x

y
xy

x
y

xy

(7.41)

(7.42)

Two Types of Coupling in Laminates

Ex: Expanding expression for Nx

N x A11 x A12 y A16 xy B11 x B12 y B16 xy

A16 xy term due to coupling

B11 x B12 y terms

cause coupling at the

N
laminate level even though
A16
Q16 k z k z k 1 lamina coupling terms such
k 1
as Q16 and Q 26 may not be
and Q16 is due to shear coupling present. Bij terms present
in off-axis lamina ( Q16 0
due to nonsymmetrical
arrangement of plies about
for 0o or 90o lamina)
middle surface.
at lamina level since

Decomposition of Coupling Effects

N x A11 x A12 y A16 xy B11 x B12 y B16 xy
Stretching of
middle surface

Bending along
x and y
directions

Shearing of
middle surface

Twisting
of xy
plane
Note: if B11 = B12 = B16 = 0, no bending or
twisting and if A16 = 0, pure stretching of
middle surface

Decomposition of Coupling Effects

M x B11 x B12 y B16 xy D11 x D12 y D16 xy
Bending along
Stretching of
middle surface Shearing of x and y axes
Twisting
middle surface
of xy
plane

Note: if B11 = B12 = B16 = 0, no stretching or

shearing and if D16 = 0, pure bending
Conclusion: Major simplifications possible if
Bij = 0

Terms associated with special ply orientations:

Angle ply laminates have lamina orientations of either + or
+
0 90

may be symmetric, antisymmetric or

asymmetric.
Cross ply laminates have
lamina
orientations
of
either
0
90
or 90
0 may be symmetric or asymmetric but not
antisymmetric.
A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0 always
Balanced cross ply laminates Equal number of equal thickness plies at 0and 90
Not necessarily symmetric.

Symmetric Laminates
Geometric and material property symmetry
with respect to the middle surface.
See Fig. 7.10 and 7.11
1 N
Bij Q16 k z k2 z k21
2 k 1

0
in plane loads will not generate bending

and twisting curvatures, and bending and

twisting moments will not produce middle
surface extension.

Samples of Symmetric Laminates

Symmetric angle-ply
all Bij = 0
A16,
A26, D16, D26
decrease with
increasing N
Balanced Symmetric cross-ply
all Bij = 0
A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0
Symmetric cross-ply
(not balanced)
all Bij = 0
A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0

0
90
90
0
0
90
0

Examples of symmetric laminates. Ply orientations and

material properties are symmetric about middle surface.
+45
-45
+45
-45
+45
+45
-45
+45
-45
+45

z
(a) Symmetric angle ply

90
0
90
90
0
0
90
90
0
90

z
(b) Symmetric cross ply

Exploded View of [+45/-45/-45/+45]

Symmetric Laminate

Antisymmetric Laminates
Ply orientations are antisymmetric with respect
to middle surface, but plies of identical material
and thickness are located at equal (+) and (-)
distances from middle surface.
See Fig. (7.12) and (7.13)
A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0
For antisymmetric angle ply laminates,
B11 = B12 = B22 = B66 = 0

Examples of antisymmetric angle ply laminates.

Although ply orientations are antisymmetric about
middle surface, material properties are symmetric.
-45
+45
+45
-45
-45
+45
+45
-45
-45
+45

+30
-30
+30
-30
+30
-30

Exploded View of [-45/+45/-45/+45]

Antisymmetric Laminate

Quasi isotropic Laminates

Consists of 3 or more identical orthotropic
laminae oriented at the same angle relative to the
adjacent laminae. For N total laminae, the angle
between the adjacent laminae must be /N.
Examples:
3 ply: [60/0/-60]
4 ply: [90/45/0/-45]

Exploded View of [+60/0/-60]

Quasi Isotropic Laminate

 Quasi isotropic laminate is isotropic only

with respect to extensional stiffness, Aij, not
the bending stiffness, Dij, or the coupling
stiffness Bij.
Quasi isotropic laminate concept is useful
for predicting the properties of randomly
oriented fiber composites which are planar
isotropic.
Quasi isotropic laminate represents a good
compromise for those who may be
uncomfortable with directional properties in
other types of laminates.

Recall stress strain relationships for isotropic

material in plane stress:

x c11

y c12
0
xy

c12
0
c22
0
0 c11 c12
E
where
c11
c22
2
1
vE
c12
c21
2
1
c11 c12
E

G
2
21

x

y
2 xy

Extensional force deformation relationships for quasi

isotropic laminates:

Nx
A11

N y A12
N

xy
0

A12
A22
0

x

y
( A11 A12 ) 2 xy
0
0

(7.43)

So, same form as stress strain relationships for

isotropic material.
Use of invariants: A11 A22 U 1t

A12 U 4t
U1 U 4
A66
t
2

Where t = laminate thickness

(7.44)

Engineering constants for in plane properties

of quasi isotropic laminate.
Recall Equation (6.31):

~ U1 U 4 U1 U 4
E
U1
~ U1 U 4
G
2

U4
~

U1

(6.31)

Example: Quasi isotropic graphite/epoxy laminate

E1 = 181 GPa
E2 = 10.3 GPa
G12 = 7.17 GPa
12 = 0.28
Q11 = 181.8 GPa
Q22 = 10.34 GPa
Q12 = 2.897 GPa
Q66 = 7.17
GPa
U1 = 76.37 GPa
U22.61
U4
~ U
1
4 U 1GPa
U
=
E 4
69.67GPa
U1
U4
~ U1 U 4
~

0.296
G
26.88GPa
U1
2

Same as aluminum, but weight is 40% less.

Large Tetrahedral Space Truss Structures are

Quasi - isotropic
Top View

Side View
60
60

Truss elements (not necessarily composite)

Isogrid Structures are Quasi - isotropic

Laminated
or woven
skin
Unidirectional composite ribs

Some Historical Aspects of

Isogrid Structures

R. Buckminster Fuller and one of his geodesic

dome grid structures (from Buckminster Fuller Institute)

Tacoma Dome with wooden geodesic structure

by Buckminster Fuller, Tacoma, Washington

Spaceship Earth geodesic structure at

Epcot Center, Disney World, Florida

Fullerene carbon nanostructures, including

buckyballs and buckytubes

WW II Vickers Wellington Bomber with

metallic isogrid fuselage structure
(Source: Brooklands Museum photos)

Vickers Wellington Bomber

(Source: The Virtual Aviation Museum)

(Source: Barnes Wallis: An Introduction to the

Work of a Genius, by Ian Bayley)

Some Geometric Configurations for Grids

Isogrid rib geometry

Square grid rib geometry

MLS Primary Reflector

Use of composite isogrids in spacecraft reflector

(Courtesy of Composite Optics Inc.)

Composite isogrid structure used in missile shroud

(Wegner and Higgins, AFRL, 2002)

Co-Cured Rib/Skin Structure

Advanced Composite Isogrid Structure in Launch Vehicle Fairing

(Source: Boeing Company)

Composite Grid Structures

Current Applications (Low volume)
Launch vehicle structures
Space telescope optics
Solar array panels
Turbofan containment cases
Spacecraft reflectors
Potential Applications (High volume)

Door and floor panels for automotive vehicles

Civil infrastructure
Light weight mobile shelters
Marine structures

Thermoplastically Stamped
Composite Isogrids
Laboratory sized isogrid panels (305 mm x 264 mm) made
from co-mingled E-glass/polypropylene (Twintex by
Vetrotex)
Used a grooved mold thermoplastic stamping process
(Goldsworthy and Hiel, 1999)
Co-mingled unidirectional roving used for ribs
Co-mingled woven fabric used for skins

Manufacturing of Specimens

Isogrid
Orthogrid
E-glass/polypropylene Twintex composite grid-stiffened
panel and steel molds

TMP Composite Vacuum Press used

for molding grid samples at 415F

Co-mingled fiber/thermoplastic matrix yarn

Thermoplastic fibers which

form matrix after melting

Reinforcing fibers

Twintex E-glass/polypropylene
composite isogrid

Twintex E-glass/polypropylene
composite orthogrid

Analytical Models for Isogrids

Micromechanics models used to estimate elastic constants
of unidirectional composite ribs in grid
Exact 2-D finite element models of grids
Equivalent stiffness models (ESM) equivalent laminate
stiffnesses for grid used in equivalent laminated plate,
which is modeled using a much simpler 2-D finite element
plate model

264 mm

304 mm

Exact 2-D Finite Element Model of Isogrid

Equivalent Stiffness Models for Grids

(Chen and Tsai, 1996)
Family of parallel ribs

Procedure:
Calculate equivalent
extensional and flexural
stiffnesses of a family
of parallel ribs, then use
superposition to find
global stiffnesses of
grid structure

Mxy

Nx

Mx

Mx

Nx

Mxy

Equivalent Stiffness Matrices for Isogrid

A isogrid

D isogrid

3
3E x A

4d
0

GJ

Ex I

3
3E x I
1

4d
0

1
3
0

0
0
1

Isogrid structure

Finite element plate model

with equivalent stiffnesses
Equivalent plate
stiffnesses Aij, Dij

2-D Equivalent Stiffness

Model of Isogrid

Apply loads and

boundary conditions